Published in Resilience in Relation to Hope and Empathy among the Spouses of Psychiatric

Patients, International Journal of Psychosocial Research, 2 (1), 10-15 (ISSN 2320-6381)

RESILIENCE IN RELATION TO HOPE AND EMPATHY AMONG THE

SPOUSES OF PSYCHIATRIC PATIENTS
Dr. Santhosh.K.R., Ph.D.
Director,
Amma Psychological Research Centre for Differently Abled Children,
Kavuvattom, Cherpulassery, Palakkad, Kerala, India 679503,
Mob: 09400680860, email:santhoshisme@gmail.com
Anil Kumar.V.M.,
Discipline of Psychology
School of Social Sciences,
Indira Gandhi National Open University
Regional Centre, Ernakulam
Kerala, India
Abstract: The study analyzed the relationship of resilience to hope and empathy among the
spouses (sample = 28 males and 28 females) of psychiatric patients. Resilience among the
spouses was measured using Bharathiar University Resilience Scale, hope was measured
using Domain Specific Hope Scale (Sympson, 1999), and empathy was measured using
Emotional Empathy Questionnaire (Mehrabian & Epstein, 1971).

Correlation analysis

indicated a significant positive relationship between resilience and hope among the spouses.
Stepwise regression analysis indicated work domain in the domain specific hope scale as a
significant predictor of resilience and academics, romantic and family life domains
significantly mediated these two factors.

Finally, implications and recommendations are

discussed
Keywords: resilience, hope, empathy, spouses of psychiatric patients

Published in Resilience in Relation to Hope and Empathy among the Spouses of Psychiatric

Patients, International Journal of Psychosocial Research, 2 (1), 10-15 (ISSN 2320-6381)

RESILIENCE IN RELATION TO HOPE AND EMPATHY AMONG THE

SPOUSES OF PSYCHIATRIC PATIENTS
Resilience is a construct connoting the maintenance of positive adaptation by
individuals despite experiences of significant adversity (Luthar, Cicchetti, & Becker, 2000).
It is an inference about a persons life that requires two fundamental judgments (1) that a
person is doing okay and (2) that there is now, or has been, significant risk or adversity to
overcome (Masten & Coatsworth, 1998). Resilience typically arises from the operation of
common human adaptation systems rather than from rare or extraordinary processes
(Santhosh, 2013).

These systems stem from a long history of biological, and cultural,

evolution that has equipped humans with powerful tools for adaptive functioning.
There are multiple and sometimes unexpected pathways to resilience (Bonanno,
2004). Hope is one of the major factors that enable the individuals suffering from ambiguous
loss to be resilient. Hand (2004) identified that people who had experienced a low to
moderate level of negative life events were highly hopeful, suggesting hope as an important
factor of resilience. Hope allows the individual to live with ambiguity and thereby nurture
resilience in oneself and the environment (Boss, 2006). Hope consists of ones perceptions of
his or her abilities to create clear goals, to develop plans for reaching those goals (pathways
thinking), and to find and maintain the energy and motivation necessary for following
through with goal pursuits (agency thinking). Goals can be anything; individuals desire to
experience, to create, to get, to do, or to become something. They may be major, lifelong
goals or more minor, short-term goals (Lopez et al., 2004).
Hope theory posits that emotions follow from ones thoughts regarding goal pursuits.
More specifically, emotions are by-products of goal-directed thought positive emotions
2

Published in Resilience in Relation to Hope and Empathy among the Spouses of Psychiatric

Patients, International Journal of Psychosocial Research, 2 (1), 10-15 (ISSN 2320-6381)

reflecting perceived success in the pursuit of goals, and negative emotions reflecting
perceived failures (Snyder, 1994). Research shows that high-hope individuals have more
positive and less negative thoughts and see themselves in a more favorable light than those
with low-hope (Snyder et al., 1996). In addition, high-hope people have higher self-esteem,
and report having more energy and confidence, and being more challenged by their goals
than those with lower hope (Snyder et al., 1996).
Hope involves conceptualizing goals, and having the confidence and ability to move
toward these goals, as well as motivation gained by overcoming past barriers (Snyder, 1994).
Several studies claim to have examined the relationship between hope and resilience, but
these studies have never used a resilience measure. Luthans, Avolio, Walumbwa, and Li
(2006) assumed that hope must be a protective factor and interviewed people who they
subjectively determined to be hopeful and resilient. Other researchers attempted to measure
this relationship without measuring resilience at all or by measuring it as if it were the same
as general well-being or lack of psychopathology (e.g., Mendoza, 1999; Roger, 2006). Hope,
thus, was commonly believed to be a protective factor but had not been measured
appropriately as such, and has not been investigated as a moderator of resilience (Collins,
2009).
Further, resilience can be strengthened in all people through participation in growthfostering relationships in which empathy has one of the major roles (Hartling, 2008).
Hoffman (2000) defined empathy as an affective response more appropriate to anothers
situation than ones own. Empathy comprises not only emotional aspects but also cognitive
elements, such as perspective taking and causal attribution.

According to Brooks and

Goldstein (2004) adults can develop a resilient mindset by rewriting negative scripts, or
changing behavior that one repeats over and over despite its negative outcome, developing
empathy; communicating effectively; accepting oneself and others; and developing self-

Published in Resilience in Relation to Hope and Empathy among the Spouses of Psychiatric

Patients, International Journal of Psychosocial Research, 2 (1), 10-15 (ISSN 2320-6381)

discipline. In an exploratory study by Leontopoulou (2010) with a sample of 232 male and
female students of 5th and 6th class of Primary School in Northern Greese, a hierarchical
regression analysis indicated that altruism was reliably predicted by empathy and by
resilience (Leontopoulou, 2010).
Neuropsychologists see empathy as the integration of body-based information and
emotional signals and cognitive thought and beliefs about anothers experience, making
sense, making meaning, creating understanding, and then checking out the accuracy of that
understanding through a verbal feedback loop (Kift, 2011). It was the need for empathy that
made human ancestors understand quickly what other members of the tribe needed to
communicate about potential danger to the tribe, and the need to nurture a growing child and
developing brain through such a long period of dependence and maturation, that drove the
evolutionary development of the higher human brain, making the human species more
resilient.
Positive Psychology factors such as resilience, hope and empathy, provide an
alternative to the more commonly studied deficit-based model of psychological functioning.
Lack of research in this area, integrating these three concepts, remains a huge gap in literature
(Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Collins, 2009). The present study is an inquiry about
the importance of these factors among the spouses of Psychiatric patients. In the literature on
the marital relationship of psychiatric patients it often has been reported that there a
considerable degree of psychological distress even in healthy spouses (Van den Brouke &
Vandereycken, 1994).
Study of the quality of the mental health services in two Swedish county councils by
Ostman & Hansson (2000), (sample: 79 spouses, 118 parents, and 31 grown-up children)
revealed that relatives of severely mentally ill persons have a considerable amount of burden,
of both an external, and, a psychological, internal nature. Subjective burden was generally

Published in Resilience in Relation to Hope and Empathy among the Spouses of Psychiatric

Patients, International Journal of Psychosocial Research, 2 (1), 10-15 (ISSN 2320-6381)

more pronounced than objective external burden. In the review by Steele, Maruyama, &
Galynker (2010) psychiatric symptoms, such as depression, anxiety and other mental health
problems are prevalent among the care-givers.
Noh & Avison (1988) examined variations in experience of burden among men and
women married to formerly hospitalized psychiatric patients. They found that substantial
proportion of individuals (living with previously hospitalized spouse) burdensome and
psychosocial factors played key role in the levels of burden. Sharma (2009) assessed the
level of burden of care amongst the patient of dysthymia and unipolar depression in a sample
of 80 patients and their spouses.

Result showed that the severity of the psychiatric

disturbance positively correlated with the with level of burden of care in the spouses.
Research on the families of psychiatric patients has had a long and rich history.
Variety of factors has been found to affect the post treatment adjustment of discharged
patients (Avison and Speechley, 1987). Chronic problems with low hope of recovery are,
indeed, a dilemma for the close relatives those who lives in association with the patients.
Long term exposure to such patients, specifically with psychiatric problems, is reported to be
an impasse to the spouses (Camwath & Johnson, 1987). Even if there are recoveries in
between, the spouses may not be ready to accept these patients with a positive image
(Harrow, Fox, & Detre, 1969). This can influence the recovery of the patients negatively.
However, there are instances of overcoming of challenges by the spouses (Camwath
& Johnson, 1987). But fewer researches have examined the factors behind this survival and
maintenance of wellness among the spouses. According to Steele, Maruyama, & Galynker
(2010) future research focusing on the coping styles is required to frame the interventions
tailored towards the care giver well being. In light of this back ground, the present study
aims to find out if hope and empathy are the two major protective factors that could help

Published in Resilience in Relation to Hope and Empathy among the Spouses of Psychiatric

Patients, International Journal of Psychosocial Research, 2 (1), 10-15 (ISSN 2320-6381)

these spouses to be resilient. An affirmative finding may help to frame interventions to this
population focusing on their hope and empathy.
OBJECTIVES

To identify if resilience has a significant relationship with hope in the spouses of

psychiatric patients

To identify if resilience has a significant relationship with empathy in the spouses of

psychiatric patients

HYPOTHESES
H1: Resilience in the spouses of the psychiatric patients has a significant relationship with
hope and empathy in them.
1.1: Resilience in the spouses of the psychiatric patients has a significant relationship
with the hope in them
1.2: Resilience in the spouses of the psychiatric patients has a significant relationship
with the emotional empathy in them
SAMPLE
The sample for the present investigation consists of 56 (28 males and 28 females)
spouses of the psychiatric patients taking care their partners incessantly for many years. The
sample is taken from Palakkad District in the state of Kerala, India. The method used was
convenient sampling.
MEASURES
BU Resilience Scale (Annalakshmi, 2009) was used to measure the resilience of the
participants. The scale, consisted of 30 Likert type items, purports to measure resilience with
reference to seven domains including duration for getting back to normalcy, reaction to
negative events, response to risk factors (specifically, disadvantaged environment) in life,
perception of effect of past negative events, defining problems, hope/confidence in coping

Published in Resilience in Relation to Hope and Empathy among the Spouses of Psychiatric

Patients, International Journal of Psychosocial Research, 2 (1), 10-15 (ISSN 2320-6381)

with future and openness to experience and flexibility. The scale has adequate reliability
(reliability coefficient of Spearman Brown, 0.84; Guttman, 0.84; and Cronbach alpha, 0.86)
as found on a sample of 577 post-graduate students. The scale was validated against Friborgs
Resilience Scale for Adults (r = 0.401) and Bells Adjustment Inventory (r = -0.392).
Emotional Empathy Questionnaire (Mehrabian & Epstein, 1971) was used to measure
empathy in the participants. The scale consisted of items with inter-correlated subscales
which measure related aspects of emotional empathy. The subscales are susceptibility to
emotional contagion, appreciation of the feelings of unfamiliar and distant others, extreme
emotional responsiveness, tendency to be moved by others positive emotional experiences,
tendency to be moved by others negative emotional experiences, sympathetic tendency and
willingness to be in contact with others who have problems. The split half reliability for the
entire measure is 0.84. The scale has correlation of 0.06 with the Crowne and Marlowe
(1960) social desirability scale.
The Domain Specific Hope Scale (Sympson, 1999) was used to measure hope in the
participants. The scale consists of 50 items in the domains; social relationship, academics,
romantic, family life, work and leisure activities. The scale has been found to have sufficient
internal consistency reliability, with an overall alpha of 0.93, and alphas ranging from 0.86 to
0.93 for the domain subscales. Concurrent validity was established between the Domain
Specific Hope Scale and a wide variety of measures of similar constructs. For example, the
Family subscale of the Domain Specific Hope Scale correlated positively with scales of
perceived social support from family (r =0.64) and friends (r = 0.46). Similar findings were
established for each of the other domains measured on this scale. Likewise, discriminant
validity was established between the various domains of the Domain Specific Hope Scale and
measures of loneliness and other conceptually opposite constructs. Finally, Domain Specific

Published in Resilience in Relation to Hope and Empathy among the Spouses of Psychiatric

Patients, International Journal of Psychosocial Research, 2 (1), 10-15 (ISSN 2320-6381)

Total Hope scores were negatively correlated (r=0.45) with scores on the Beck Depression
Inventory (Sympson, 1999).
RESULTS
To find out if resilience in the spouses of the psychiatric patients has a significant
relationship with the hope and empathy, correlation analysis is done. Summary of the results
of the analysis is given in table 1
Table 1: Correlation analysis among hope, emotional empathy and resilience among the
spouses of the psychiatric patients
Variables
Hope
Emotional Empathy
Resilience
Hope
1
Emotional Empathy
0.23
Resilience
0.44**
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

1
0.21

Results indicate that resilience has a significant moderate relationship (r = 0.44, P <
0.01) with hope (table 1). At the same time, resilience did not show a significant relationship
(r = 0.21, P < 0.01) with emotional empathy. As an in depth process, each domains of hope
scale (social relationship, academics, romantic, family life, work and leisure activities) were
taken specifically and their relationship with resilience were analyzed. Summary of the
results is given in table 2.
Table 2: Correlation analysis between resilience in the spouses and specific domains in the
hope scale
Variables

Social
Academics Romantic
Relationship

Social
Relationship
Academics
Romantic
Family Life
Work
Liesure
Activities
Resilience

Family
Life

Work

Leisure
Resilience
Activities

1
.31*
.42**
.45**
.47**

1
-.11
.15
.41**

1
.33*
.13

1
.44**

.32*

.55**

.03

.33*

.31*

.28*

.43**

.05

.16

.50**

.35**

*P < 0.05; **P < 0.01

Published in Resilience in Relation to Hope and Empathy among the Spouses of Psychiatric

Patients, International Journal of Psychosocial Research, 2 (1), 10-15 (ISSN 2320-6381)

Results (table 2) indicate that only certain domains of hope are related to resilience.
Resilience has a significant low correlation (r = 0.28, P < 0.05) with social relationship, a
significant moderate correlation (r = 0.43, p < 0.01) with academics, a significant moderate
correlation (r = 0.50, p < 0.01) with work and a significant moderate correlation (r = 0.35, P <
0.01) with leisure activities.
For a further in depth evaluation between the interaction effects of related domains
with resilience, stepwise multiple regression is administered. Thus an enquiry is done to the
relationship of resilience with the domains of hope scale that are correlated (social
relationship domain, academics domain, work domain and leisure activities domain) with
resilience. Table 3 summarizes the results
Table 3: Stepwise multiple regression which indicates the predictors of resilience among the
specific domains of hope scale
D.V.
Predictors
Beta
t
Step F
R2
R2
4.52*
0.08
0.06
Step 1
Social Relationship
0.28
2.13*
4.86*
0.16
0.12
Step 2
N.S.
Social Relationship
0.19
1.39
Leisure Activities
0.30
2.21*
4.84**
0.22
0.17
Step 3
N.S.
Social Relationship
0.14
1.05
Resilience
Liesure Activities
0.14
0.95N.S.
Academics
0.31
2.05*
5.87**
0.32
0.26
Step 4
N.S.
Social Relationship
0.01
0.02
Liesure Activities
0.13
0.91N.S.
Academics
0.20
1.38N.S.
Work
0.37
2.69*
*P < 0.05; **P < 0.01

Step wise regression suggests work as a direct predictor of resilience.

Social

relationships, leisure activities and academics have mediation effects. In step 1 (Step F =
4.52, P < 0.05; R2 = 0.08; R2 = 0.06), the social relationship domain is entered. Social
relationship indicated a significant relationship ( = 0.28, t = 2.13, P < 0.05) with resilience.
9

Published in Resilience in Relation to Hope and Empathy among the Spouses of Psychiatric

Patients, International Journal of Psychosocial Research, 2 (1), 10-15 (ISSN 2320-6381)

In step 2 (Step F = 4.86, P < 0.05; R2 = 0.16; R2 = 0.12), when leisure activities entered, the
significance ( = 0.19; t = 1.39, not significant) of social relationship diminished. Leisure
activities indicated a significant relationship ( = 0.30, t = 2.21, P < 0.05) with resilience. In
step 3 (Step F = 4.84, P < 0.01; R2 = 0.22; R2 = 0.17), when academics entered, leisure
activities lost its significance ( = 0.14; t = 0.95, not significant). Academics indicated a
significant relationship ( = 0.31; t = 2.05, P < 0.05) with resilience. In step 4 (Step F = 5.87,
P < 0.01; R2 = 0.32; R2 = 0.26), when work entered, academics lost its significance ( =
0.20; t = 1.38, not significant). Work indicated a significant relationship ( = 0.37; t = 2.69, P
< 0.05) with resilience. Thus, the domain work of the domain specific hope scale was
identified to have a direct relationship with resilience. The domains, social relationships,
leisure activities and academics mediated this relationship. Work is the domain that could
influence resilience in the spouses of psychiatric patients positively.
DISCUSSION
The study inquired if hope and empathy are the protective factors that could
contribute to the resilience in the spouses of psychiatric patients. Resilience did not indicate
a significant relationship with empathy in the spouses. Hope, at the same time, designated to
be a factor that could predict the presence of resilience. Among the domains of hope, work
showed a direct predictable relationship with resilience.
Agreement regarding the relationship between resilience and empathy seems to be
strayed in the current literature. Similar to the results of the present study, lee (2009) has
asserted that empathy could not predict resilience. But it contrasts to the verdicts of Kift
(2011), who noted that empathy can promote resilience neurologically and psychologically.
Hartling (2008), has also suggested that resilience can be strengthened in all people through
participation in growth-fostering relationships in which empathy has one of the major roles.

10

Published in Resilience in Relation to Hope and Empathy among the Spouses of Psychiatric

Patients, International Journal of Psychosocial Research, 2 (1), 10-15 (ISSN 2320-6381)

In the present study, as all the subjects have experienced hardships of service for a long
period, empathy might have lost its relevance.
Hope, on the other hand, pointed toward the presence of a significant relationship
with resilience. Among the specific domains in the hope scale, academics, romantic, family
life and work are found to have significant correlation with resilience. Results stands with
the findings of Snyder et al (1996) that high-hope individuals have more positive thoughts
and see themselves in a more favorable light. Hopeful, goal-directed thinking improves
resilience in the individual (Howard, Leuger, Maling & Martinovich., 1993). Considering
this, resilience can be defined as the capacity of the individuals to exceed hope even when
faced with hardship or adversity (Reed-Victor, 2008)
Hope moderates the relationship between life experiences and resilience (Collins,
2009). Several studies claim to have examined the relationship between hope and resilience
(Luthans, Avolio, Walumbwa, and Li, 2006; Mendoza, 1999; Roger, 2006) assuming hope as
a protective factor. In the process of instilling hope, supportive environment has a great role
(Horton & Wallander, 2001). Even perceptions of hope have a deep rooted relationship with
resilience (Horton & Wallander, 2001). Hope allows the individual to live with ambiguity
and thereby nurture resilience in oneself and the environment (Boss, 2006).
More interesting results were derived when a step-wise multiple-regression is done
with the correlated domains.

Results of step wise multiple regression designated work

domain as a significant predictor of resilience among the spouses of psychiatric patients.

Academics, romantic and family life domains significantly mediated the relationship between
work domain and resilience. Results contributed to the findings of Othman and Nasurdin
(2011) that resilience has positive relationship with work engagement.

11

Published in Resilience in Relation to Hope and Empathy among the Spouses of Psychiatric

Patients, International Journal of Psychosocial Research, 2 (1), 10-15 (ISSN 2320-6381)

IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Findings imply necessary steps to be taken while designing the interventions to
enhance resilience in the category of people who have close relatives with psychiatric
disturbances. If resilience is enhanced, burdens they have will get diminished. They will be
able to overcome the burdens and challenges they face if their resilience is boosted. There is
a notion that caretakers of the chronic patients need no other work. This notion has to be
changed. Social set up has to be made sophisticated that all the individuals may be engaged
in one or other type of work. As it had been seen in the present study, this could contribute to
academics, romantic and family life domains, and thereby to the hope of the individual.
When hope gets enhanced, resilience also will get enhanced.
LIMITATIONS
The study suffers from numerous limitations. One of the major limitations lies in the
sampling technique adopted. As it is difficult to find out the spouses of psychiatric patients,
as well as interfere in their life, convenient sampling method is used. The same constraints,
along with the limited time to conduct the research, made the investigator to limit the sample
size. A replication of the work with increased sample size and with sufficient sampling
technique is recommended

12

Published in Resilience in Relation to Hope and Empathy among the Spouses of Psychiatric

Patients, International Journal of Psychosocial Research, 2 (1), 10-15 (ISSN 2320-6381)

REFERENCES
Annalakshmi, N. (2009). Bharathiar University Resilience Scale, Research Methods in
Business and Management. Ed., Harish Purohit and Ajay Wagh. Sri Publishers, New
Delhi
Avison, W., R., & Speechley, K., N., (1987). The discharged psychiatric patient: A review of
social, social psychological, and psychiatric correlates of outcome. American Journal of
Psychiatry 144: 10-18
Bonanno, G. A. (2004). Loss, Trauma, and Human Resilience: Have We Underestimated the
Human Capacity to Thrive After Extremely Aversive Events? American Psychologist , 59
(1), 20-28.
Boss, P. (2006). Loss, Trauma and Resilience: Therapeautic Work with Ambigugous Loss.
W.W.Norton.
Brooks, R., & Goldstein, S. (2004). The Power of Resilience: Achieving Balance, Confidence
and Personal Strength in your life. McGraw-Hill Professional.
Carnwath, T. C., & Johnson, D. A. (1987). Psychiatric morbidity among spouses of patients
with stroke. British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Edition) , 294, 409.
Collins, A. B. (2009). Life Experiences and Resilience in College Students: A relationship
influenced

by

hope

and

mindfulness.

Retrieved

January

12,

2013,

from

http://repository.tamu.edu/bitstream/handle/1969.1/...TAMU.../Colllins.pdf?...
Hand, M. P. (2004). Psychological resilience: The influence of positive and negative life
events upon optimism, hope, and perceived locus of control. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 64, 7-B. (UMI No. 3099937)

13

Published in Resilience in Relation to Hope and Empathy among the Spouses of Psychiatric

Patients, International Journal of Psychosocial Research, 2 (1), 10-15 (ISSN 2320-6381)

Harrow, M., Fox, D. A., & Detre, T. (1969). Self-concept of the married psychiatric patient
and his mate's perception of him. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33 (2),
235-239.
Hartling, L. M. (2008). Strengthening Resilience in a Risky World: It's all about
Relationships. Women & Therapy, 31 (2/3/4), 51-70.
Hoffman, M. L. (2000). Empathy and moral development: Implications for caring and
justice. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press
Horton, T. V., & Wallander, J. L. (2001). Hope and Social Support as Resilience Factors
Against Psychological Distress of Mothers Who Care for Children with Chronic Physical
Conditions. Rehabilitation Psychology, 46 (4), 382-399.
Howard KI, Leuger RJ, Maling MS, Martinovich Z (1993). A phase model of psychotherapy
outcome: causal mediation of change. Journal of Consultant Clinical Psychology,
61:678685
Kift, L. B. (2011). The Neuroscience of Resilience: Empathy. The Tool Box at
LisaKiftTherapy.com,

Retrieved

December

23,

2012,

from

http://lisakifttherapy.com/mental-health/the-neuroscience-of-resilience-empathy/.
Lee, D. W. (2009). Harnessing the positive and the negative : resilience and its relationship
to self-esteem, optimism, empathy and defensive pessimism. Retrieved January 12, 2013,
from http://repository.ntu.edu.sg/handle/10356/16650.
Leontopoulou, S. (2010). An Exploratory Study of Altruism in Greek Children: Relations
with Empathy, Resilience and Classroom Climate. Psychology, 1 (5), 377-385.

14

Published in Resilience in Relation to Hope and Empathy among the Spouses of Psychiatric

Patients, International Journal of Psychosocial Research, 2 (1), 10-15 (ISSN 2320-6381)

Lopez SJ, Snyder CR, Magyar-Moe JL, Edwards LM, Pedrotti JT, Janowski K, Turner JL,
Pressgrove C (2004). Strategies for accentuating hope. In: Linley PA, Joseph S, eds.
Positive Psychology in Practice. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons; 2004:388404
Luthans, F., Avolio, B. J., Walumbwa, F. O., & Li, W. (2006). The psychological capital of
Chinese workers: Exploring the relationship with performance. Management and
Organizational Review, 1, 249-271.
Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The Construct of Resilience: A Critical
Evaluation and Guidelines for Future Work. Child Development, 71 (3), 543-562.
Masten, A. S., & Coatsworth, J. D. (1998). The development of competence in favorable and
unfavorable environments: Lessons from successful children. American Psychologist, 53,
205-220.
Mehrabian, A., & Epstein, N. (1972). A measure of emotional empathy. Journal of
Personality, 40, 525-543
Mendoza, J. C. (1999). Resiliency factors in high school students at risk for academic failure.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 60, 1-A. (UMI No. 9917728)
Noh, S & Avison, W.R., (1996). Asian immigrants and the stress process: A study of Koreans
in Canada. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 37:192-206
Ostaman, M., & Hansson, L. (2000). The burden of relative of psychiatric patients:
Comparisons between parents, spouses and grown up children of voluntarily and
compulsorily admitted psychiatric patients. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 54 (1), 31-36.

15

Published in Resilience in Relation to Hope and Empathy among the Spouses of Psychiatric

Patients, International Journal of Psychosocial Research, 2 (1), 10-15 (ISSN 2320-6381)

Othman, N., & Nasurdin, A. M. (2011). Work Engagement of Malaysian Nurses: Exploring
the Impact of Hope and Resilience. World Academy of Science, Engineering and
Technology, 60 , 1702-1706.
Reed-Victor, E. (2008). Resilience: Strengthening Relationships, Fostering Hope. Virginia:
Project

Hope.

Retrieved

December

21,

2012,

from

http://education.wm.edu/centers/hope/publications/infobriefs/documents/resili.pdf
Roger, P. R. (2006). Parents hope, optimism, and positive illusions and the resilience of their
children adopted from Russia. Dissertation Abstracts International, 67, 2-B. (UMI No.
3208582)
Santhosh, K. R. (2013). Resilence in blue collared employees in metal factories. EXCEL
International Journal of Multidisciplinary Management Studies, 3 (6), 48-55
Seligman MEP, Csikszentmihalyi M (2000). Positive psychology: an introduction. American
Psychology, 55:514
Snyder CR (1994). The Psychology of Hope: You Can Get There From Here, New York:
Free Press
Snyder CR, Sympson SC, Ybasco FC, Borders TF, Babyak MA, Higgins RL (1996).
Development and validation of the state hope scale. Journal of Personlaity and Social
Psychology, 70:321335.
Steele A, Maruyama N, Galynker I (2010). Psychiatric symptoms in caregivers of patients
with bipolar disorder: a review, Journal of Affective Disorders, 121(1-2):10-21
Sympson, S. (1999). Validation of the Domain Specific Hope Scale: Exploring hope in life
domains. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas, Lawrence. Cited in

16

Published in Resilience in Relation to Hope and Empathy among the Spouses of Psychiatric

Patients, International Journal of Psychosocial Research, 2 (1), 10-15 (ISSN 2320-6381)

Lopez, S.J., Ciarlelli, R., Coffman, L., Stone, M., & Wyatt, L. (2000). Diagnosing for
Strengths: On Measuring Hope Building Blocks. In C.R. Snyder (Eds.). Handbook of
Hope Theory, Measures and Applications (pp.57-85) San Diego: Academic Press.
Van den Brouke, S., & Vandereycken, W. (1994). Ill health in spouses of psychiatric patients:
cause or consequence? Journal of Psychosocial Nursing Mental Health Service, 32 (10),
43-45.

17