Road Drainage Design Manual

Chapter 7: Worked Examples

7
Chapter 7

Worked
Examples

July 2002

Road Drainage Design Manual

Chapter 7: Worked Examples

Manual Contents

Chapter 1
Overview

Chapter 2
Site Assessment

Chapter 3
Hydrology and Design Criteria

Chapter 4
Design

Chapter 5
Erosion and Sediment Control

Chapter 6
Maintenance and Remediation

Chapter 7
Worked Examples

Chapter 8
References

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Chapter 7: Worked Examples

Table of Contents
Introduction

7-1

7.1

Open Channel Flow

7-1

7.2

Hydrology - Calculation of the Design Flood Discharge

7-3

7.3

Procedure for the Selection of Culvert Size

7-5

7.4

Gully Inlets on Grade

7-7

7.5

Aquaplaning

7-9

7.6

Extended Outlet Protection for Culverts

7-9

7.7

Energy Dissipators for Supercritical Flow

7-12

7.8

Scour Hole Dimensions

7-16

7.9

Tidal Range at Site

7-17

7.10

Floodway Calculations

7-19

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Chapter 7: Worked Examples

iv

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Road Drainage Design Manual

Chapter 7: Worked Examples

Chapter 7

Worked Examples
Introduction
Worked examples of some of the more commonly
used design calculations are given in this chapter.
It has been considered more appropriate to give
other worked examples immediately following
the description of design principles in other
chapters. For example, substantial calculations are
shown in the Appendix to the Underground
Drainage Systems Chapter.
Worked examples in this Chapter are:

debris/water gradients and changes in cross

sections should have been surveyed for a distance
of at least 500 metres both upstream and
downstream of the job site.
For smaller culvert structures to calculate tailwater levels or for small open channels, shorter
distances upstream and downstream down to an
absolute minimum of 100 metres should similarly
be surveyed.
For the larger catchments, field inspections in
accordance with the Departments Form 2759,
Field Report - Bridge Waterways should have
been carried out including interviews with local
residents about observed or reported floods at or
near the site.

7.1

Open Channel flow

7.2

Hydrology - Calculation of the Design

Flood Discharge

7.3

Procedure for the Selection of Culvert Size

7.4

Gully Inlets on Grade

7.5

Aquaplaning

7.6

Extended Outlet Protection for Culverts

Worked Example

7.7

Energy Dissipators for Supercritical Flow

7.8

Scour Hole Dimensions

For the conditions listed below and illustrated in

the diagram determine the depth of flow for a
discharge of 42.5 m/s.

7.9

Tidal Range at Site

7.10 Floodway Calculations

For all jobs either a site investigation should have

taken place or adequate photographs are available
to define the roughness of the bed and banks of
the open channel and areas of any overflow.

The direction of flow in the main channel is at a

skew of 10 to the normal to the road centreline.
Allow for the same skew in any overflow.

7.1 Open Channel Flow

Preliminary
Check that a reasonable effort has been made to
ensure that the channel cross section and slope has
been adequately defined, as indicated by the
following.
For a bridge size catchment (nominally greater
than 5 km in area with a major channel), bed and
July 2002

Figure 7.1

(a)

The average slope over a section of the

stream for 200 m both upstream and
downstream of the cross section is 0.001
m/m.

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Road Drainage Design Manual

(b)

The stream is fairly uniform in cross section

and alignment over this 400 m section and is
lined mainly with thick grass about 200 mm
high.

(c)

The flood debris levels from a recent flood

are known to be at the top of the banks.

Chapter 7: Worked Examples

cover as in the main channel, the roughness

coefficient will be higher up to a certain limit.
Also for shallower flow, the hydraulic radius will
be smaller and so will be the velocity, for the same
hydraulic gradient.
Divide the flow path into three sections as shown
in Figure 7.3 to allow for the above differences.

Step 1

Figure 7.2

Select an appropriate value of vegetal retardance

for the stream from Table 4.5 (viz. C), determine
a value of n for the stream flow to debris level
from Figure F19C. Then, assuming a trapezoidal
channel shape as illustrated, calculate the flow to
debris level (height 22.0 m) using Mannings
formula (for more irregular shaped sections, a
planimeter is necessary to determine crosssectional areas).
Depth of flow (debris level - bed level) = 2 m
A = 20 m
R =

20

15.8
= 1.27

(area / wetted perimeter, ABCD)

R 0.667S0.5
n
= 1.24 m/s

For rating curves (discharge versus height), the

area and wetted perimeter need to be calculated
for various flood heights for discharge calculations. In this example, it is required to find the
flood level corresponding to a total discharge of
42.5 m/s.
For a water to water boundary such as that
between each overflow and the main channel, half
the depth of the water at such boundaries may be
added to each wetted perimeter as illustrated
below.

(Mannings formula)

Left Overflow

(Section 4.3.6)

A = 6 x 0.5
= 3 m

Q = A.cos100.V
= 20 x 0.985 x l.24
Q = 24.4 m/s
Step 2
For the higher design discharge of 42.5 m/s,
water will overtop the banks. As the flood plains
will flow at a shallower depth, for the same grass
7-2

Step 3

Assume a flood height 22.5 m, giving a depth of

flow of 0.5 m in each overflow.

n = 0.03
V =

Figure 7.3

Wetted perimeter (WP) = 0.5 + 6 + 0.5/2

= 6.75 m
R = 3/6.75
= 0.444 m
n = 0.075 (Figure F19C)
S = 0.001 m/m
V = 0.25 m/s (from Mannings formula)
Q = 0.74 m/s (A.cos100.V)
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Road Drainage Design Manual

Given:

Main Channel
A

Chapter 7: Worked Examples

= 27.5 m

WP = 0.25 + 5.39 +5 + 5.39 + 0.25

= 16.28 m

It is required to calculate the 50 year ARI flood

discharge for a crossing on a road between two
relatively large towns in western Queensland

= 1.69

= 0.03

= 0.001 m/m

Catchment area (M) = 118.2 km

= 1.50 m/s (Mannings formula)

Length of catchment (L) = 26.2 km

A.cos100.V

= 40.63 m/s

From 1:100 000 contour maps:

= 27.5 x 0.985 x 1.50

Right Overflow
Q = 0.74 m/s as per left overflow
Total Discharge
Total Discharge = Qleft overflow + Qmain channel +
Qright overflow
= 0.74 + 40.63 + 0.74
= 42.11 m/s
Therefore, the design flood of 42.5 m/s is at
height 22.5 m, approx.

Weighted average slope (H) = 74 m in 26200m

= 0.28 %
The slope is fairly uniform.
From field inspection:
Maximum reported flood, Ht 294.7 m (February,
1992 - from local resident) Mannings roughness
coefficients at site:
n = 0.06 (left overflow)
n = 0.055 (main channel)
n = 0.065 (right overflow)

7.2 Hydrology - Calculation

of the Design Flood
Discharge
This example gives calculations for the estimation
of the 50 year ARI rainfall runoff from a
catchment. The runoff is conventionally taken as
the 50 year ARI design flood discharge as it is
only in very rare cases that the average recurrence
intervals (ARI) of the runoff and discharge vary
for the larger floods in Queensland.
The flood height corresponding to the design flood
discharge is easily found as the height on the rating
curve giving this discharge. A rating curve is a plot
of discharge versus flood height obtained by open
channel calculations shown in Section 4.3.6.

The stream cross-section is shown approximately

to scale in Figure 7.4. The flow direction is square
to the road centreline (zero skew).

Figure 7.4

Step 1
Assume a flood level as approximating the
expected design flood level.
This initial level is usually either

The Modified Friend Formula for time of

concentration is used as the catchment is larger
than 5 square kilometres.

the maximum reported/recorded flood level;

The Rational method is used for the design

discharge, but other procedures for a catchment
this size are not shown.

berm or intermediate bank level, if there is a

large cross-section for a small catchment.

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at or just over the main stream bank; or

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Note: Further calculations will give a design flood

discharge and a design flood level corresponding
to this discharge. However, if this design flood
level is more than about 0.5 m different to the
originally assumed flood level, go back to Step 1,
assume another flood level and repeat the process
described below until the difference is smaller.

In this example select the maximum recorded

flood level, Ht 294.70 m. The average hydraulic
radius at this level is Rs.
Step 2
Find the average hydraulic radius at the site,
Rs for a flood at Ht 294.70 m.
From open channel calculations, for the 3
sections, with S = 0.0017 m/m in all sections:

Chapter 7: Worked Examples

where
Tc = time of concentration (h)
ch = Chezys No. = R0.167 / n
R = adopted average hydraulic radius
= 0.75Rs where the fall of the stream from the
top of the catchment to the site is fairly
uniform
= 0.65 Rs where there are significant lengths
of contrasting steep and flat sections of the
stream slope
n = average coefficient of roughness of the
main channel and overflows over the whole
stream length. It may be the same or 0.005
to 0.01 higher than n at the site.
L, M and H are as defined in Given above.

A1= 67.6 m; WP1 = 113.5 m; R1 = 0.60m;

n1 = 0.065; V1 = 0.48 m/s; q1 = 32.6 m/s

Adopt R= 0.75Rs = 0.75 x 1.78 = 1.34m

A2 = 53.3 m; WP2 = 21.4 m; R2 = 2.49 m;

n2 = 0.055; V2 = 1.36 m/s; q2 = 72.6 m/s

1.340.167
0.06
ch = 17.49
ch =

A3 = 28.2 m; WP3 = 73.1 m; R3 = 0.39 m;

n3 = 0.065; V3 = 0.33 m/s; q3 = 9.4 m/s

Tc =

Qtot = 32.6 + 72.6 + 9.4

Qtot = 114.6 m/s

Tc =13.1 hours

Rs =

q1R1 + q 2 R 2 + q 3R 3
Q tot

Rs =

32.6x 0.60 + 72.6x 2.49 + 9.4 x 0.39

114.6

Rs = 1.78 m
Step 3
Calculate the time of concentration using the
Modified Friend Formula.
It should be noted that as the time of concentration
is for zero (start of rainfall) to maximum flow in a
creek, an adjustment to the hydraulic radius at the
site and possible adjustments to the roughness
coefficient are made.
Tc =

7-4

8.5x 26.2
17.49 x118.2 0.1 x 0.280.4

Step 4
Calculate the average rainfall intensity for the
time of concentration for the design storm.
i.e. for this example, the average rainfall intensity
for a storm of 13.1 hours duration and an ARI of
50 years is required.
The RAIN2 Program from the Hydraulics Section
of Main Roads and available in most Districts is
used. Other programs are available which also use
parameters from Australian Rainfall and Runoff
(IEAust, 1987).
The RAIN2 Program which is interactive requests
the following input data. The actual Map number
and value of parameter from ARR is also shown.

8.5L
chM 0.1H 0.4
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Chapter 7: Worked Examples

2i1 (2 year, 1 hr log-normal rainfall intensity) =

37.5 mm/h - Map 1.4

C=

2i12 (2 year, 12 hr log-normal rainfall intensity) =

5.7 mm/h - Map 2.4

C=0.50

2i72 (2 year, 72 hr log-normal rainfall intensity) =

1.4 mm/h - Map 3.4

Therefore

50il (50 year, 1 hr log-normal rainfall intensity) =

69 mm/h - Map 4.4
50i12 (50 year, 12 hr log-normal rainfall intensity)
= 10.8 mm/h - Map 5.4

0 + 0 + 10 + 40
100

Q = 0.28 x 0.50 x 10.61 x 118.2

Q=175.6m/s

SKEWNESS FACTOR (G) = 0.21 (Map 7.c)

This corresponds to a calculated flood level, Ht

295.04 m at the site. As the initial assumed flood
Ht 294.70 m is less than 0.5 m different, there is
no need to repeat the calculation procedure with a
higher initial flood level.

GEOGRAPHICAL FACTOR F2 = 4.28 (Map 8)

Adopt Q50 = 175.6 m/s at flood Ht 295.04 m.

50i72 (50 year 72 hr log-normal rainfall intensity)

= 3 mm/h - Map 6.4

GEOGRAPHICAL FACTOR F50 = 16.6 (Map 9)

From the program, average rainfall intensity =
10.61 mm/hr for a 13.1 hr storm of 50 year ARI.

7.3 Procedure for the

Selection of Culvert Size

Step 5

(Refer to Section 4.2.2.)

Calculate the 50 Year ARI design flood

discharge.

Step 1

The Rational Method (See Section 3.5.2) states:

List the design data:

(a)

Design discharge Q50 = 19.3 m/s

(b)

where

Allowable outlet velocity (with standard

outlet protection).

Q = discharge (m/s)

Va = 1.8 m/s

Q = 0.28 C.I.A

0.28 is a conversion factor to ensure units are

consistent for A in km
C = runoff coefficient (dimensionless)

(c)

Flood level in natural channel F.L. = 31.8 m

(d)

Invert level of channel at outlet IL0 = 30.0 m

(e)

Slope of culvert in metres per metre.

S0 = 0.01 m/m

I = average rainfall intensity (mm/h)

A = area of catchment (km)
From Table 3.5, the runoff coefficient is first
calculated for the catchment which has the
following characteristics:
(i)

Rainfall intensity = 10.61 mm/h

(ii)

Rolling, with slopes 1.5 - 4%

(iii) Well defined system of small watercourses

(f)

Allowable headwater depth in metres.

HWa = 2.0 m

(g)

Mean velocity = 0.55 m/s. Maximum

velocity = 0.61 m/s.
From Mannings formula, maximum
velocity is in the main channel and the mean
velocity is over the total section including
the overflow.

(iv) Open forest or grassed land

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Road Drainage Design Manual

Note: These velocities are used in

conjunction with field observations of scour
in the natural channel. If low velocities
produce scour, then either the allowable
design velocity in (b) should be reduced or
consideration be given to additional outlet
protection. However if high velocities occur
in the natural channel with little or no scour,
the allowable design velocity in (b) may be
increased.
(h)

Chapter 7: Worked Examples

(b)

Assume OUTLET CONTROL

Since the tailwater level is above the culvert
soffit at the outlet, the HW can be calculated
from the equation:
HW = H + ho - LSo
ho = TW = 1.8 m
LSo = 12 x 0.01 = 0.12
From the nomograph in Figure F8E and
using ke = 0.4 from Table 4.2, for area of
box = 2.4 x 1.5 = 3.60 m,

Length = 12.0 in.

H = 0.26 m

Figure 4.7 is recommended as suitable to record

calculations and to facilitate checking.

Therefore,
HW = 0.26 + 1.8 - 0.12 = 1.94 m

Step 2
Determine the first trial culvert size:
(a)

From the equation A = Q/V area of

waterway: A = 19.3/1.8 m = 10.72 m

(b)

Select a culvert size where the soffit would

be above or just below the tailwater to
utilise the full waterway opening, if
practical.
Depth of Tailwater = Flood level - Invert
level of natural channel = 31.8 - 30.0 = 1.8
Assuming a height of 1.5 m and selecting a
standard size R.C. slab deck culvert:
Try 3/2400 x 1500 mm culvert (Area 10.80 m)

(c)

As the HW for outlet control is higher than

that for inlet control, outlet control is the
governing factor; and being less than the
allowable height of 2.0 m is acceptable.

Step 4
Try a culvert of another type or shape, if a
comparison of alternative design costs is to be
made and determine size and headwater by the
above procedure.
Step 5
Compute the velocity through the 3/2400 x 1500
RCBC.

Find the headwater depth for the trial culvert

Since outlet control governs, and the tailwater is

above the soffit of the culvert, the full waterway
area is used.

(a)

Outlet velocity = Q/Ao = 19.3/10.8 = 1.79 m/s

Step 3

Assume INLET CONTROL

Determine the discharge (Q) per cell
i.e.Q = 19.3 / 3 = 6.43 m/s
Find the ratio of discharge to width Q/B =
2.68 m/s per metre), then using the
nomograph in Figure 4.8A determine the
HW/D ratio.

Step 6
Make selection and record all relevant data on
Figure F7 or similar form.

HW/D = 0.91
HW= 0.91 x 1.5= 1.37 m
This headwater is satisfactory as it is less
than the allowable given in the design data,
item (f) of Step 1.
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Road Drainage Design Manual

7.4 Gully Inlets on Grade

Design charts from Sections 4.4.3 and 4.4.4 are
used in this example.

Chapter 7: Worked Examples

The following procedure was adopted to

determine the allowable depth of water at the kerb
for pedestrian safety.
Assume a depth of water at the kerb, dg.
Calculate the dimension BC (= 100.5 mm) and
then the area ABCD.
Calculate the discharge in ABCD from Figure
F34 and Note 3.
Calculate the velocity in ABCD from velocity =
discharge / area to give Vave.

Figure 7.5

For the conditions listed below and illustrated in

Figure 7.5 determine the number, types and
spacings of the gully inlets required.
(a)

1000 metres of 1.8% grade to be drained

(b)

rainfall intensity = 200 mm/h

(c)

Mannings n, channel = 0.012; shoulder =

0.014

(d)

allowable spread of water to be checked for

pedestrian safety

(e)

channel terminates at a bridge abutment,

hence zero bypass

(f)

use grate or combination inlets.

Step 1
Determine the allowable spread. This is to be the
smaller of
Allowable width of spread of water on the road
= 4.9 m (from Figure F32A), or
Width arising from the allowable depth of
water at the kerb for pedestrian safety. It will be
found, by trial and error, from Figure F34, that
the allowable depth of water at the kerb = 138
mm, giving a spread width of 2960 mm as
illustrated in Figure 7.6.

Calculate the product dgVave.

Repeat the procedure as required until dgVave <
0.4 m/s.
It will be found that the maximum allowable
depth of water at the kerb is 138 mm, giving
dgVave = 0.39 m/s. The resultant allowable spread
is 2960 mm.

Figure 7.6

Step 2
Calculate the flow corresponding to the maximum
spread.
Using Figure F34 and Note 4, the flow for a 1.8%
grade and a spread of 2.960 m will be found to be
0.35 m/s ( = 350 litres/sec).

Adopt maximum allowable spread = 2.960 m.

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Chapter 7: Worked Examples

Step 3

Placing the second inlet where the flow has

built up to the allowable spread, then:

Calculate the inlet capacities, allowing for

blockage.

flow from roadway

= flow at allowable spread - bypass from
inlet 1

Assume initially concrete gullies, roadway type,

kerb in line (Dwg No 1312). Then from the BCC
Type A Gully Inlet Capacity Charts, removing the
blockage factor, the full capacities for an approach
flow of 350 litres/sec (using the road crossfall
1:30 as the nearest to the actual 1: 25) are:

= 0.35 - 0.168
= 0.182 m/s
Using Figure F31
For Q = 0.182m/s
and W = 11.1 (given)

With S lintel, captured flow = 188 litres/sec

the length of contributing road

With M lintel, captured flow = 216 litres/sec

L2 = 300 m

With L lintel, captured flow = 228 litres/sec

Place a concrete gully with the L lintel with

inlet capacity = 0.182 m/s as the previous
one. Also as in inlet 1, the bypass flow will
be 0.168 m/s.

From Table 4.11, allowing for blockage, the

percentage of theoretical capacity allowed is 80%.
Therefore, the design capacities are:
S lintel, design capture flow = 0.8 x 188 = 150
litres/sec
M lintel, design capture flow = 0.8 x 216 = 173
litres/sec
L lintel, design capture flow = 0.8 x 228 = 182
litres/sec
Step 4
Locate the inlets.
(a)

First, place an inlet at the point where the

allowable spread occurs.
Using Figure F31
For Q = 0.35 m/s (from Step 2)

(c)

The third inlet in the sag (end of grade) will

take a total flow
= flow from 75 m roadway + bypass from
inlet 2
= 0.043 + 0.168
= 0.211 m/s
Select a gully inlet to capture 0.211 m/s at
the sag. From the BCC Capacity Charts, the
Type A concrete gully with an S lintel, with
depth of water 95 mm at the undepressed lip
of channel will capture this flow. The depth
of water at the kerb face will be 132.5 mm
which is acceptable < 138 mm allowed from
Step 1.

List the final selections as shown in Figure 7.7.

and W = 11.1 m(given)

the length of contributing road L = 625 m
Selecting the concrete gully with the L
lintel, from Step 3,
Inlet capacity = 0.182 m/s and
Bypass = gutter flow - inlet capacity
= 0.35 - 0.182 = 0.168 m/s
(b)

7-8

The second inlet will have to take the bypass

from the first inlet plus flow from the
section of roadway between the first and
second inlets.

Figure 7.7

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Chapter 7: Worked Examples

7.5 Aquaplaning

D = 4.94 mm

The following example shows a check for

aquaplaning in the transition area between reverse
superelevations, one of the main areas of potential
aquaplaning because of the small to zero
crossfalls.

This is unacceptable as it is > 4 mm.

Step 3

Reference should be made to Section 4.4.4.2 of

the Manual.

Increase the changes in crossfall by the maximum

rate of rotation given in the Road Planning and
Design Manual. This changes the longest length
of drainage path and its slope to give:

Given

Length of drainage path = 53 m

Check for aquaplaning.

Slope of drainage path = 2.08%

Contours at 0.1 m intervals have been drawn

using a computer program.

Crossfall = 0% to 3%

Step 1

Other parameters remain the same, therefore,

D=

0.103x 0.60.11 x 530.43 x 500.59

0 .6
2.080.42

Find the longer drainage path lengths for

checking. List other parameters, calculated or
specified as follows for the longest drainage path.

D = 3.37 mm

Design speed = 100 km/h

This is <4 mm and is acceptable.

Rainfall intensity (I) = 50 mm/h

Water film depth (D) to be 2.5 mm desirable maximum
4 mm maximum
Pavement texture depth (T) = 0.6 mm (dense
graded asphalt)
Drainage path length (L) = 104 m
Pavement crossfall 0% - 3%
Longitudinal grade = 1.79%
Slope of drainage path (S) = 1.87%
Step 2
Calculate the water film depth (D) for the longest
drainage path.
D=

0.103T 0.11L0.43I 0.59

T
S0.42

Therefore,
0.103x 0.60.11 x1040.43 x 500.59
D=
0.6
1.870.42
July 2002

Step 4
Check other drainage paths.

7.6 Extended Outlet

Protection for Culverts
The following procedure calculates the distance
standard culvert outlet protection has to be
extended when design velocities higher than
normally acceptable are used.
For velocities in excess of 5 m/s, the use of energy
dissipators as in Section 4.5.2 should be
considered. Also, the design of a stabilised scour
hole downstream may be an option.
Figure F59 illustrates the theory for the calculations for extended outlet protection.
Flow effectively diverges from a culvert outlet at
an angle such that
tan =

1
3F

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Road Drainage Design Manual

where F, the Froude Number =

Chapter 7: Worked Examples

v
(gd )0.5

v = velocity of flow at the outlet of the culvert

barrel (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s/s)

d = tailwater depth at the outlet of the culvert

barrel (m)
It is required to extend the outlet protection so that
at the end of the protection, the velocity of flow
does not cause erosion.

calculated velocity at the end of the extended

outlet is still 1.2 m/s (half of 2.4) to avoid
scouring downstream of the protection.
Adopt a design velocity of 4.0 m/s at the outlet of
the culvert barrel and a velocity of 1.2 m/s at the
end of the extended outlet protection.
Step 2
List the design data:
(a)

1/1200 x 900 RCBC

(b)

Outlet velocity = 4.0 m/s at depth of 800

mm.

(c)

Extended outlet protection required with

theoretical velocity at the end of the
protection not to exceed 1.2 m/s.

(d)

The dimensions of the outlet protection,

ABCDEF in Figure 7.9 are to be defined.

Preliminary
The performance of existing culverts in similar
natural surface conditions should first be assessed.
Normally this would be an assessment of scouring
caused by existing culverts in the immediate
locality of the new design and the design velocity
for those culverts.
If records of the original design velocity are not
found, assume that the existing culverts were
designed for 1.8 - 2.4 m/s flowing full, which used
to be the standard practice.
At all times the design velocity mentioned in this
example, is located at the outlet of the culvert.
Step 1
Adopt a design velocity for the new culvert.
In this example, afflux upstream is not a problem
and culverts are expensive so that fewer culverts
designed for a higher than average velocity need
to be considered.
Because of divergence of flow leaving a culvert
barrel, at the end of standard culvert protection,
the actual velocity will be about half the design
velocity for most existing culverts. The number of
cells in a culvert will give a variation to this
velocity.
Therefore, if a design velocity of 4.0 m/s is used
instead of say the 2.4 m/s for existing culverts
with satisfactory performance in similar natural
surface conditions at the outlet, the allowable
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Chapter 7: Worked Examples

Figure 7.8

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Chapter 7: Worked Examples

Therefore,
AC =

BC
0

tan 13.1

1 .4
0.233

AC = 6.0 m

Figure 7.9

Therefore, the outlet protection (gabions or

equivalent) is to extend 6.0 m from the outlet of
the barrel. The side boundaries are to be an
extension of the wingwalls or from the calculated
flare angle if it falls outside the extension of the
wingwalls.

Step 3
Find the width BE at the end of the protection
where the velocity will not cause erosion.
Assume that the depth (d) of the water remains
constant as it flows downstream from the culvert
barrel, increasing its width at a uniform rate.
Then, as
Discharge = area x velocity
= width x depth x velocity
and is constant, then
WidthBE x d x VBE = WidthAF x d x VAF
Therefore,
Width BE VAF
=
Width AF VBE

7.7 Energy Dissipators for

Supercritical Flow
A concrete channel 1.5 m wide has a design flow
of 6.86 m/s at a depth of 0.5 m and velocity 9.15
m/s. The channel has a slope of 6% (0.06 m/m)
and discharges into a wide, relatively flat existing
channel.
To minimise any scouring at the downstream
channel, it is necessary to dissipate the energy
from the flows from the concrete channel, by
creating a hydraulic jump by either
A.

A horizontal apron with unchanged channel

width;

B.

A simple drop structure with widened

channel and lowered bed; or

C.

A stilling basin with concrete blocks and

end sills.

Substituting,
BE =

1.2 VAF 1.2x 4

=
VBE
1 .2

BE= 4m
As CD = 1.2 m, then BC = DE = 1.4 m
Step 4
Find the distance AC to which the outlet
protection has to be extended.

Option C is considered to be impractical for this

job in a relatively remote part of Queensland, and
calculations are not shown in this example.
However, indicative lengths of some standard
USBR Basins from the Bureau of Reclamation
(1964) are given.

For water exiting the culvert at 4 m/s at a depth of

800 mm, from Figure 7.8, = 13.10.
tan =

7-12

BC
AC

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Road Drainage Design Manual

A.

Chapter 7: Worked Examples

Hydraulic Jump on a Horizontal Apron

with Unchanged Channel Width

Figure 7.10

Figure 7.10 shows the required hydraulic jump

with water depth, D1 becoming D2 after the jump.
It is the simplest of all energy dissipators, but it
also has the longest length of of apron, L1 to be
protected. The sides also have to be protected.

Figure 7.11

Step 3
Find the length of horizontal apron required to
induce the hydraulic jump.

In this example,
V1 = 9.15 m/s

From Figure 7.12 (Bureau of Reclamation, 1964)

D1 = 0.5 m
It is required to find L1.
Step 1
First, calculate the Froude No.,
Froude No.,
F=

V
(gD)

0.5

9.15
(9.8x 0.5)0.5

Therefore, F = 4.13

Figure 7.12

L1
= 5.76
D2

Step 2

Therefore, L1 = 15.44 m

Find the sequent depth, D2.

For this design, a horizontal apron, 15.44 m long

and protected against scouring is required.
Because of turbulence, the sides of the channel
along the apron length have also to be protected to
a height of D2 plus freeboard.

From Figure 7.11 (Bureau of Reclamation, 1964)

D2 1
= ( 1 + 8F2 1)
D1 2

Therefore,
D2 = 5.36 D1 = 5.36 x 0.5
D2 = 2.68 m

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Road Drainage Design Manual

B.

Hydraulic Jump in a Simple Drop Basin

By both widening the channel and dropping the

bed level, the length of apron required to induce
the hydraulic jump may be considerably
shortened. The design shown below has the
maximum effective widening consistent with the
natural flare of the water entering the drop
structure.
With reference to Figure 7.13 (US Dept of
Transport, 1983):
Known:
y0 = 0.5 m
V0 = 9.15 m/s
W0 = 1.5 m

Chapter 7: Worked Examples

Step 1
Locate the basin where the flow downstream of
the basin is sub-critical or where a simple transition as in Example 7.6 will lead to non scouring
(usually sub-critical) flow. i.e. locate the basin at
or near the end of the 6% slope. (Sub-critical flow
occurs when the Froude No. is < 1).
Step 2
Assume an initial basin shape for testing. Assume
a length, L = 8.0 m (about half the length of the
horizontal basin required from example A.
Assume a drop of 1.5 m at the front of the basin
(equal to a drop of 3y0 to the floor of the basin).

S0 = 0.06

Assume a height DATUM = 100.00 m.

Z0 = 5.0 m say (height above a datum line of

100.0 m say

Calculate Z0, Z1, Z2 etc.

Z3 = 4.52 m say (start of wide open channel

downstream)

Therefore, Z1 = Z2 = 3.5 m

Tw = 0.8 m say (calculated in open channel at

outlet to the drop basin) @ Ht = 105.32 m
ST = Ss = 0.5 say (0.33 or 0.5 suitable for this
design)
Z1 =Z2 = 3.5 m say (due to an assumed drop of
approx. 3y0 at the end of the basin)

LT = 3.0 m (due to the 1.5 m drop)

Step 3
Calculate the Froude No. at the start of the basin.
F0 =

V0
( gd)

0.5

9.14
(9.8x 0.5)0.5

LT = 3.0 m (due to the 1.5 m drop)

L = 8.0 m say (about half of horizontal
apron in example A)
ST = Ss = 0.5 say (0.33 or 0.5 suitable for this
design)
Required to calculate:
W1 = WB = basin width
y1 = depth of water at the bottom of the drop
y2 = sequent depth after hydraulic jump is formed

F0 = 4.13
Step 4
Calculate the maximum effective width, W1 in the
basin. This is due to the natural flaring of the
water as it leaves the upstream channel.
2 L T ST2 + 1
W1 = WB = W0 +
3F0

Acceptable Design:
The design will be acceptable when the water
surface level at the end of the basin (top of y2) is
below the tailwater level at this point. The
tailwater is required to be higher to induce the
hydraulic jump.

W1 = 1.5 +

2 x 3 0.52 + 1
3x 4.13

W1 = 2.04 m

The design procedure is:

7-14

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Road Drainage Design Manual

Chapter 7: Worked Examples

Figure 7.13

Step 5

Step 7

Find the water depth, y1, at the start of the

horizontal apron.

Find the sequent depth, y2 after the hydraulic

jump has formed, and the water surface height.

For this basin,

The hydraulic jump equation is

2] 0.5

Q = y1WB [2g (Z0 - Z1+ y0 - y1) + V0

y2 =

C1y1 ( 1 + 8F12 1)
2

The discharge Q = 6.86 m/s, and y1 is found by

trial and error, starting from values about 0.6y0,
until the correct discharge is obtained.

where C1 = 1.0 for the hydraulic jump

After various trials, say y1 = 0.31 m,

y2 =

Q = 0.31 x 2.04 [2 x 9.8(5 - 3.5 + 0.5 - 0.31) +

9.152] 0.5 = 6.84 m/s
Adopt y1 = 0.31 m

= 100 + 3.5 + 2.58

Find the velocity V1 corresponding to y1 and the

Froude No. at the start of the horizontal apron.
V1 = Q1/A1 = 6.86 / 2.04 x 0.31 = 10.85 m/s
Therefore,
V1
( gd)

y2 = 2.58 m
The water surface height at the end of the basin is,
therefore, 100 + Z2 + y2

Step 6

V1 =

1x 0.31( 1 + 8x 6.22 2 1)
2

0.5

= 106.08 m
This is above the tailwater, TW height of
105.32m. Therefore the design is unacceptable as
the hydraulic jump will not form.

10.85
(9.8x 0.31)0.5

F1 = 6.22
July 2002

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Road Drainage Design Manual

Step 8
Repeat Steps 1 to 7 until an acceptable depth is
obtained at y2. It is obvious the floor of the basin
has to be lowered to achieve this.
Final trial giving acceptable results gave:

Lower basin floor 2.25 m from edge of channel,

giving:
Z0 = 5.0 m, Z1 = Z2 = 2.75 m
LT = 4.5 m
W0 = 1.5 m (unchanged)
W1 = WB = 2.52 m (calc.)
y1 = 0.258 m (calc.)
F1 = 7.24 (calc.)
y2 = 2.52 m (calc.)
Height of water surface of y2 @ 105.27 m

Chapter 7: Worked Examples

If not, the basin may need to be moved further up

the slope and recalculated with a deeper drop at
the start.
Notes:
The floor of the drop basin should be concrete
protected and the vertical sides also.
A trapezoidal channel for convenience of
construction may require changes to the design
procedure.
Approximate basin lengths of standard USBR
Basins from graphs (Bureau of Reclamation,
1964) are:
L = 9.8 m for Type II Basins with chute blocks
and dentated end sill.
L = 6.2 m for Type III Basins with chute blocks,
baffle piers and solid end sill.

Tailwater height @ 105.32 > 105.27

Therefore, the design is acceptable.

7.8 Scour Hole Dimensions

Step 9

The following example calculates scour hole

dimensions at existing culverts, or at new culverts
where outlet protection is limited and not
designed for the higher than average velocities
through the culverts.

Check the length of the basin and the outlet levels,

to ensure the initial total length assumed of 8.0 m
is approximately correct.
The length of the horizontal apron,
LB =

4 .5 y 2
F10.76

4.5x 2.52
7.24 0.76

LB = 2.52 m
From geometry,
Z3 - Z2 = 104.52 - 102.75 m = 1.77m
Therefore, Ls = 1.77 x 2 = 3.52 m
Total length

= LT + LB + Ls
= 4.5 + 2.52 + 3.52
= 10. 54 m

This is longer than the assumed length.

Check that the tailwater water just past the end of
the basin is still higher than the water level at the
end of the basin.

When scour holes have reached the calculated

dimensions, only minimal protection is required
as shown in Appendix 7.8.A to stop further
erosion.
The method is taken from the Ministry of Works
and Development, NZ (1978) based on testing on
sand beds. In practice for other than sand at the
outlet, one-half to one-third of the calculated
dimensions were observed in field inspections,
hence adopted dimensions reflect this
proportion.
Given:
A 1/1500 x 900 RCBC has been designed to flow
full with an outlet velocity = 5.0 m/s and outlet
protection extending only 1350 mm downstream.
The natural surface material downstream is sandy
clay.

If so, adopt the design.

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Road Drainage Design Manual

Chapter 7: Worked Examples

Calculate the expected scour hole dimensions.

Step 1
Write down the following equation from
Section 4.5.1.6 and calculate the values Ye, Q,
and Q/Ye2.5.
Dimension = ( Ye ) (

Q
Ye2.5

) ( t )

Length, Ls = 4.34 (0.82)1.0(11.09)0.71(30)0.125

= 35.9m
Adopt Ls = 18.0 m (approx 0.5 Ls calculated
for sand)
Volume,Vs = 0.79 (0.82)3.0(11.09)2.0(30)0.375
= 191.8 m
Adopt Vs = 95.9 m (approx. 0.5 Vs calculated
for sand)

where

The wetted area A can be obtained from:

A
Ye = ( )1 / 2
2

(1)

Inlet control - generally normal depth

(Figures 11.4A) but can be full depth in very
high tail water or flow under pressure

(2)

Outlet control - tail water depth or critical

depth (whichever is greater) when outlet is
not submerged; or D if outlet is submerged.

A = wetted area of culvert at outlet (m)

Q = discharge (m/s)
t = period of peak discharge (minutes). Use 30
minutes if time not known.
, , , are coefficients and indices listed in
Table 4.21.
Ye = (

A 0.5 1.5x 0.9 0.5

) =(
)
2
2

Ye = 0.82

For the concrete channel, discussed in Section 7.7

(i.e. 1.5 m wide with a flow depth 0.5 m and flow
rate of 6.86 m/s) the results would be:
Adopting dimensions 50% of those calculated,

Q = AV = 1.5 x 0.9 x 5

Depth, hs = 1.4 m; Width, Ws = 6.2 m;

Q = 6.75 m/s

Length, Ls = 19.1 m and Volume, Vs = 179 m.

Q
Ye2.5
Q
Ye2.5

6.75
0.82 2.5

= 11.09

Step 2
Calculate the dimensions and volume of the
scour hole.
Depth, hs = 0.95 (0.82)1.0 (11.09)0.375 (30)0.10
= 2.70 m
Adopt hs = 1.40 m (approx. 0.5 hs calculated
for sand)
Width, Ws = 0.67 (0.82)1.0(11.09)0.915(30)0.15
= 9.89m
Adopt Ws = 4.5 m (approx. 0.5 Ws calculated
for sand)
July 2002

7.9 Tidal Range at Site

At a job site some kilometres from the mouth of a
tidal stream, it may be necessary to calculate tidal
ranges at the site for construction reasons or to
estimate clearance for boats under an existing
bridge.
Tidal ranges and heights will become increasingly
different to those at the mouth of a creek, the
further the distance upstream. The time to fill and
empty tidal compartments, sand bars at the mouth
or mounds of sand or bed material from erosion
and deposition processes in the creek channel
obstructing flows are just some of the reasons
why tide levels will be different.
The example given here is an approximate
calculation and the more cycles of successive high
and low tides measured at the job site, the more
accurate the assessment.
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Road Drainage Design Manual

Chapter 7: Worked Examples

Particularly where the tidal range is small, special

care should be taken to check that tide levels at
the job site have not been affected by rainfall
runoff in the catchment.

At Mackay Outer Harbour, HAT = 6.41 m

Given:

At job site, height HAT is above the 2/11/98

morning high tide = 0.87 x Tide Ratio = 0.87 x
0.50 m = 0.44 m

It is required to calculate tidal ranges at a job site

10 km from the mouth of a creek entering the
Coral Sea just north of Mackay. In particular, the
HAT (Highest Astronomical Tide) height is
required at the job site.
Successive high - low - high heights have been
measured and a typical tidal range is that on the 2
November, 1998. The nearest tide gauge
(Queensland Transport) is that at Mackay Outer
Harbour and the nearest high and low tide levels
on that day are shown for comparison below.

Height above 2/11/98 morning high tide =

= 6.41 - 5.54 = 0.87m

Therefore, calculated HAT at job site = 2.522 +

0.44 m = 2.96 m
Adopt calculated HAT height 2.96 m.
Note: It is again emphasised that the more
measurements of low to high or high to low tides
at the job site, the more accurate the calculation
the tide ratio and predicted tide levels become.
Step 3

Time
Job Site
9.00

Tide Heights (m)

Mackay Outer Harbour

2.052

9.09

5.52 (high tide)

Calculate the Mean High Water Springs

(MHWS) and Mean Low water Springs
(MLWS) heights at the job site.

10.00

2.522

11.00

2.482

12.00

1.422

MHWS = 5.28 m

13.00

0.432

MLWS = 0.72 m

14.00

-0.038

15.27

At Mackay Outer Harbour,

0.40 (low tide)

Difference in spring tides = 5.28 - 0.72 m = 4.56 m

Equivalent difference in spring tides at job site =
4.56 x Tide Ratio = 4.56 x 0.50 = 2.28 m

Step 1
Compare the tidal ranges at the site and at the
gauge.
Difference between high and low tide (tidal range)
at the job site on 2/11/98,
Tidal Range, TRsite = 2.522 - (-0.038) = 2.56 m
At Gauge, TRgauge = 5.54 - 0.40 = 5.14 m
TR site
2.56
=
= 0.50
Tide Ratio,
TR gauge 5.14

Step 2
Calculate the Highest Astronomical Tide
(HAT) height at the job site.

7-18

Next, find the MHWS tide height at the job site in

a similar procedure as that for HAT.
At Mackay Outer harbour, height MHWS is
below 2/11/98 high tide = 5.54 - 5.28 = 0.26 m
Therefore, at job site, height MHWS is below
2/11/98 high tide = 0.26 x Tide Ratio = 0.26 x 0.50
= 0.13m
Therefore, MHWS height at job site = 2.522 0.13 = 2.39 m
Therefore, MLWS height at job site = 2.39 2.28 m = 0.11 m
Adopt at job site, MHWS Ht 2.39 m and MLWS
Ht 0.11 m.

July 2002

Road Drainage Design Manual

7.10 Floodway Calculations

The following example illustrates principles of
floodway design described in Section 4.2.3.
Reference should be made to this Section for
design curves and to Section 4.2.2.
This example initially fixes the allowable depth of
water over the road i.e. the headwater, and the
order of calculations is different to that shown in
Section 4.2.2.
However, both Case A and Case B calculations in
the Section are also carried out, Case A being
critical to check the allowable velocity through
the culverts and Case B to calculate the afflux for
floods larger than the design flood.
Required:
A floodway with 20 year trafficability is required
to be designed over a natural open channel
approximately trapezoidal in shape.
The floodway would be approximately 90 to
100m long and for cost reasons, road batters will
be grass covered only for protection against scour.
Preliminary Considerations:
Because the batters will be protected by grass
only, culverts will be required to build up the
tailwater to not more than 300 mm below the
edge of the downstream shoulder when
overtopping of the road first occurs. Allowing
for crossfall, there will be a head of 450 mm
and a velocity of about 2.30-2.45 m/s through
the culverts if this minimum tailwater is
adopted. Is this acceptable on this job? (This
will be answered in the example).
For 20 year ARI trafficability, the floodway
level should be at the 20 year unrestricted flood
level to allow the maximum amount of water
over the road and save on culvert and overall
costs.
In general it is only in very long floodways
with very little velocity in the open channel
and/or where costly protection is unavoidable,
that increasing culvert requirements by raising
the road, thus decreasing the flow over the road

July 2002

Chapter 7: Worked Examples

(to the extreme of a flood free road) may reduce

the overall cost of the job.
Step 1
List all relevant criteria:
Required standard: Trafficable in a 20 year ARI
flood.
Time of closure: Maximum of 1 day in a 50 year
ARI flood. (Calculated hydrograph shows this
maximum only a matter of hours - not included
here).
Batter protection: Grass.
Width of floodway: 10 m.
Road crossfall: 3 %
Step 2
Calculate the rating curve for the unrestricted
channel.
From open channel hydraulic calculations similar
to those shown in Section 7.1, key results are:
Q50 = 162 m/s @ Ht 322.76 m
Q20 = 130.4 m/s @ Ht 322.58 m,
V = 0.68 m/s
Q10 = 108.1 m/s @ Ht 322.44 m
Q = 70 m/s @ Ht 322.13 m
Step 3
Adopt a road level and calculate the maximum
allowable depth of water over the road.
Adopt the road level at the unrestricted 20 year
ARI flood level and show the cross-sectional
details in Figure 7.14.

Figure 7.14

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Road Drainage Design Manual

From Section 4.2.3.5, closure to traffic occurs

when
V2
H =h+
> 300 mm
2g

Maximum allowable h, depth of water over the

road, occurs when H = 0.300 m

Therefore,
h=H

V2
0.682
= 0.300
2g
2 x 9 .8

h = 0.28 m
Step 4

Step 5
Check for culvert requirements when the flood
is at the point of overtopping the road (Case 2).
Preliminary considerations at the start of this
example discussed batter protection, the need to
build up the tailwater and a culvert velocity of
2.30 - 2.45 m/s from a head of 450 mm.
These considerations apply to this example and
the velocity is acceptable. The discharge of
70m/s required through the culverts corresponds
to a tailwater Ht 322.13 m (0.45 m below the
crown of the road).
Step 6

Calculate the discharge over the road and

through the culverts in a 20 year ARI flood.
The total discharge over the road and through the
culverts must equal the discharge in the
unrestricted channel downstream with flow at
height 322.58 m.
i.e. Qtot = QR + QC = 130.4 m/s
Flow over the road,
QR = CfLH1.5 (Section 4.2.3.3 for free flow,
tailwater not above crown level of road)
where Cf = coefficient of discharge
Cf = 1.674

Chapter 7: Worked Examples

(From Figure F14,

H/1 =.30/10 = 0.03 <0.15)

Detailed culvert design

Case 1 requires culverts to take a discharge of
104.5 m/s operating under a head of 0.3 m.
Case 2 requires culverts to take 70 m/s from a
head of 450 mm.
Obviously more culverts will be required from
Case 1. Proceed with the design of culverts to take
104.5 m/s.
Height of culvert opening, D, from
D = crown level of road - crossfall - minimum fill
above culvert - thickness of deck slab - invert
level
D = 322.58 - 5 x 0.03 - 0.100 - 0.180 - 320.55

L = length of floodway = 94 m

D = 1.60 m.

H = 0.30 m

For culvert design:

Therefore

Outlet control with H = 0.30 m

QR = 1.674 x 94 x 0.31.5

Tailwater at Ht 322.58 m, HW at Ht 322.88 m

QR = 25.9 m/s
Discharge through culverts,
QC = Qtot - QR = 130.4 - 25.9
QC = 104.5 m/s
Therefore, culverts are required to take a discharge of 104.5 m/s operating under a head of
0.30 m and outlet control for this design condition
(say Case 1).
7-20

Invert at Ht 320.50 m say

From culvert design procedure in Chapter 11,
illustrated in the example in Section 7.3,
13 / 2700 x 1500 RCBC have a capacity of
104m/s with Outlet Velocity = 1.98 m/s.
Adopt 13 / 2700 x 1500 RCBC and Floodway
Ht 322.58 m and Length 94 m.
July 2002

Road Drainage Design Manual

Chapter 7: Worked Examples

Step 7
If required, calculate the afflux in larger floods
(e.g. 50 year ARI flood) with procedure shown in
Section 4.2.3.3 (B. At Peak of the Flood).

July 2002

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