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PX432: Electronic Properties

Problem Sheet 2
Dr J. Lloyd-Hughes, MAS 3.06.

March 2014

Question 1: Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors [From Myers, 10.9]


At 300K a very pure sample of Ge has resistivity 3.9 m. The mobilities of electrons and holes are
0.38m2/Vs and 0.18 m2/Vs respectively.
(a) Calculate the intrinsic carrier density, and thus the band gap of Ge (at room temperature).
Solution:

Recall the equations for n0 and p0 in the notes. Putting in the values gives:

Solution:
(b) The sample is then doped with 1022 m-3 boron. What are the concentrations of electrons and
holes and what is the new resistivity of the sample?
Solution:

(c) Where is the chemical potential of the doped sample?


Solution:
With respect to the valence band edge the chemical potential is at an energy = kBT ln(p0/p)

Question 2: Hall coefficient of doped semiconductors [From Singleton, Q10.2]


[Note: the Hall effect was not covered in lectures see the handout for a reminder. To do this
question you only need to know (i) the definition of the Hall coefficient (below) and (ii) a bit about
the temperature dependence of the carrier density in an extrinsic semiconductor.]
The Hall effect can be used to determine the doping type and density of a semiconductor. The Hall
coefficient RH of a material containing electrons and holes, with respective concentrations n and p,
and mobilities e and h, can be written:

(a) Explain why the electron mobility is generally much greater than the hole mobility in many
direct gap semiconductors, such as InSb and GaAs.
The mobility = e / m* for carriers in a periodic potential. We showed that the effective mass is
inversely proportional to the curvature of a band. For electrons, the curvature of the conduction
band is large, which gives small effective masses, typically m* < 0.1 m, and higher mobilities. For
holes, the curvature of the valence band is smaller, and therefore the effective mass is larger, and the
mobility is smaller.

(b) The Figure (right) shows the magnitude of the


Hall coefficient for a doped sample of InSb. It is
observed to change sign at about 1/T = 0.005K-1.
(i) Describe why the curve takes this particular
shape. [Hint: assume that the sample is in the
intrinsic regime at high temperatures (low 1/T),
and the exhaustion regime at lower temperatures
(high 1/T)].

We discussed the temperature dependence of the electron density in lectures. At the highest
temperatures, corresponding to low 1/T, we expect thermal excitation across the bandgap to
dominate the electron and hole density. In this case n=p=ni, which means that:
RH = n h2 - n e2 / e (p h + n e)2
Assuming that the hole mobility is a lot lower than the electron mobility, as explained in part (a),
this means that RH = - 1/ n e = -1/ ni e at high temperatures, in the intrinsic regime. At lower
temperatures, when in the exhaustion regime, if it is an n-type semiconductor the electron density
will equal the donor density, and the hole density will be negligible. If it is a p-type
semiconductor, the electron density is negligible, and the hole density equals the acceptor density.
Therefore, in the exhaustion regime at intermediate temperature we expect:
RH = 1 / p e
for a p-type semiconductor (n~0)
and
RH = -1 / n e
for an n-type semiconductor (p~0).
(ii) Estimate the concentration and type of impurities present in this sample.
The sign of the Hall coefficient changes at 1/T ~ 0.005 K-1, but we don't know whether it is
positive or negative at higher or lower 1/T. However we know from part (i) that in the intrinsic
regime the Hall coefficient is negative. Therefore, if the sign changes at 1/T ~ 0.005 K-1 the
semiconductor must be p-type. The acceptor concentration can therefore be estimated from the
value of the Hall coefficient at high 1/T (exhaustion regime) by calculating p from RH, and
assuming Na=p. This gives Na ~ 3 x 1021 m-3.
(iii) Determine the bandgap of InSb.
Thermal excitation across the bandgap Eg will change the intrinsic carrier density. The graph is
log(n) against 1/T, so the slope should be Eg/2kB. From the slope of the graph in this range, where
1/T < 0.004 K-1, we find Eg ~ 0.3 eV.

Question 3: Pulsed THz generation


The diagram below shows an emitter of pulsed THz radiation, and the beam path THz radiation
takes before arriving at a detector (collimation and focussing optics not shown). The incident
infrared pulse has an electric field EIR in the y-direction.

detector

z
y

THz (optics)

emitter
EIR
(i)
In what directions are the electric field and magnetic field of the radiated THz pulse when it
reaches the detector?
The THz pulse is generated when: 1. an infrared laser pulse hits the (intrinsic) semiconductor
between the metal contacts (shown in the figure); 2. this photoexcites electrons and holes; 3.
electrons and holes separate in opposite directions under the applied bias of the emitter, forming a
dipole.
In the far-field, the dominant radiation from an electric dipole is parallel to the dipole, i.e. in the xdirection (vertical on this diagram). Since the THz pulse is propagating in the z direction, the
magnetic field is in the y direction (EM waves are transverse plane waves in the far field). Note that
this is NOT necessarily the direction of the polarisation of the incident IR beam.
(ii)

How could the electric field direction of the THz pulse be altered?

There are various options: (1) rotate the emitter about the z-axis. (2) Place some polarisation
modifying component in the THz beam path, such as a wire-grid polariser, a waveplate (e.g.
quarter/half waveplates for circular/rotated linear polarisation).
(iii) Name two ways in which the amplitude ETHz of the THz radiation pulse could be increased,
and explain why with reference to simple mathematical formula(e).
The emitted amplitude ETHz is proportional to dJ/dt. Increasing the current density will increase
ETHz: can do this either by increasing the IR laser's power (increasing carrier density), or choosing
a semiconductor with a higher mobility. Alternatively, use a laser with shorter pulse duration (to get
a faster rise in current density), i.e. reduce dt.

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