Crystal structure

There are two main forms of solid substance, characterizing different atoms arrangement in their
microstructures: amorphous and crystalline.
Amorphous solid
Amorphous solid substance does not possess long-range order of atoms positions. Some liquids
when cooled become more and more viscous and then rigid, retaining random atom characteristic
distribution.
This state is called undercooled liquid or amorphous solid. Common glass, most of Polymers,
glues and some of Ceramics are amorphous solids. Some of the Metals may be prepared in
amorphous solid form by rapid cooling from molten state.
Crystalline solid
Crystalline solid substance is characterized by atoms arranged in a regular pattern, extending in
all three dimensions. The crystalline structure is described in terms of crystal lattice, which is a
lattice with atoms or ions attached to the lattice points. The smallest possible part of crystal
lattice, determining the structure, is called primitive unit cell.
Examples of typical crystal lattice are presented in the picture:

Metal crystal structure and specific metal properties are determined by metallic bonding
force, holding together the atoms of a metal. Each of the atoms of the metal contributes its
valence electrons to the crystal lattice, forming an electron cloud or electron gas, surrounding
positive metal ions. These free electrons belong to the whole metal crystal.

Ability of the valence free electrons to travel throughout the solid explains both the high
electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity of metals.
Other specific metal features are: luster or shine of their surface (when polished), their
malleability (ability to be hammered) and ductility (ability to be drawn).
These properties are also associated with the metallic bonding and presence of free electrons in
the crystal lattice.
The following elements are common metals:
aluminum(Al), barium(Ba), beryllium(Be), bismuth(Bi), cadmium(Cd), calcium(Ca),
cerium(Ce), cesium(Cs), chromium(Cr), cobalt(Co), copper(Cu), gold(Au), indium(In),
iridium(Ir), iron(Fe), lead(Pb), lithium(Li), magnesium(Mg), manganese(Mn), mercury(Hg),
molybdenum(Mo), nickel(Ni), osmium(Os), palladium(Pd), platinum(Pt), potassium(K),
radium(Ra), rhodium(Rh), silver(Ag), sodium(Na), tantalum(Ta), thallium(Tl), thorium(Th),
tin(Sn), titanium(Ti), tungsten(W), uranium(U), vanadium(V), zinc(Zn).

Thermal properties

Thermal Conductivity
Thermal Conductivity () is amount of heat passing in unit time through unit surface in a
direction normal to this surface when this transfer is driven by unite temperature gradient under
steady state conditions.
Thermal conductivity may be expressed and calculated from the Fouriers law:
Q/ t = *S *T/ x
Where
Q -heat, passing through the surface S;
t - change in time;
- thermal conductivity;
S - surface area, normal to the heat transfer direction;
T/x-temperature gradient along x direction of the heat transfer.
Fouriers law is analogue of the First Ficks law, describing diffusion in steady state.
Metals have high thermal conductivity. Heat is transferred through the metal crystal by free
electrons. Compare:
of alumina = 47 BTU/(lb*F) (6.3 W/(m*K)).
of Al = 1600 BTU/(lb*F) (231 W/(m*K)).

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Thermal Expansion (Coefficient of Thermal Expansion) is relative increase in length per unite
temperature rise:
= L/ (LoT)
Where
-coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE);
L length increase;
Lo initial length;

T temperature rise.
Thermal expansion of metals is generally higher, than that of ceramics.
Compare:
CTE of SiC = 2.3 F (4.0 C).
CTE of Al = 13 F (23 C).

Specific Heat Capacity

Heat Capacity is amount of heat required to raise material temperature by one unit.
Specific Heat Capacity is amount of heat required to raise temperature of unit mass of material
by one unit:
c= Q/(mT)
Where
c -specific heat capacity;
Q amount of heat;
m material mass;
T temperature rise.
Specific Heat Capacity of metals is lower, than that of ceramics.
Compare:
c of alumina = 0.203 BTU/(lb*F) (850 J/(kg*K)).
c of steel = 0.115 BTU/(lb*F) (481 J/(kg*K)).
Magnetic properties
Most of metals are slightly magnetic, but only few of them (iron, nickel, cobalt and their alloys)
display pronounced magnetic properties, called ferromagnetism.

Magnetically soft metals metals, which are demagnetized after the

magnetic field is removed. Magnetically soft metals are used in electric
motors and transformers.

Magnetically hard metals metals, retaining their magnetization after the

magnetic field is removed.Magnetically hard metals are used for permanent
magnets.

Magnetostriction effect of changing dimensions of a ferromagnetic metal

when its magnetization is changed.

Tensile test and Stress-Strain Diagram

Stress-Strain Diagram expresses a relationship between a load applied to a material and the
deformation of the material, caused by the load .
Stress-Strain Diagram is determined by tensile test.
Tensile tests are conducted in tensile test machines, providing controlled uniformly increasing
tension force, applied to the specimen.
The specimens ends are gripped and fixed in the machine and its gauge length L0 (a calibrated
distance between two marks on the specimen surface) is continuously measured until the rupture.
Test specimen may be round or flat in the cross-section.
In the round specimens it is accepted, that L0 = 5 * diameter.
The specimen deformation (strain) is the ratio of the increase of the specimen gauge length to its
original gauge length:
= (L L0) / L0
Tensile stress is the ratio of the tensile load F applied to the specimen to its original crosssectional area S0:
= F / S0

The initial straight line (0P)of the curve characterizes proportional relationship between the
stress and the deformation (strain).
The stress value at the point P is called the limit of proportionality:
p= FP / S0
This behavior conforms to the Hooks Law:
= E*
Where E is a constant, known as Youngs Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity.
The value of Youngs Modulus is determined mainly by the nature of the material and is nearly
insensitive to the heat treatment and composition.
Modulus of elasticity determines stiffness - resistance of a body to elastic deformation caused by
an applied force.
The line 0E in the Stress-Strain curve indicates the range of elastic deformation removal of
the load at any point of this part of the curve results in return of the specimen length to its
original value.
The elastic behavior is characterized by the elasticity limit (stress value at the point E):
el= FE / S0
For the most materials the points P and E coincide and therefore el=p.

A point where the stress causes sudden deformation without any increase in the force is called
yield limit (yield stress, yield strength):
y= FY / S0
The highest stress (point YU) , occurring before the sudden deformation is called upper yield
limit .
The lower stress value, causing the sudden deformation (point YL) is called lower yield limit.
The commonly used parameter of yield limit is actually lower yield limit.
If the load reaches the yield point the specimen undergoes plastic deformation it does not
return to its original length after removal of the load.

Hard steels and non-ferrous metals do not have defined yield limit, therefore a stress,
corresponding to a definite deformation (0.1% or 0.2%) is commonly used instead of yield limit.
This stress is called proof stress or offset yield limit (offset yield strength):
0.2%= F0.2% / S0
The method of obtaining the proof stress is shown in the picture.
As the load increase, the specimen continues to undergo plastic deformation and at a certain
stress value its cross-section decreases due to necking (point S in the Stress-Strain Diagram).
At this point the stress reaches the maximum value, which is called ultimate tensile strength
(tensile strength):
t= FS / S0
Continuation of the deformation results in breaking the specimen - the point B in the diagram.
The actual Stress-Strain curve is obtained by taking into account the true specimen cross-section
instead of the original value.

Other important characteristic of metals is ductility - ability of a material to deform under

tension without rupture.
Two ductility parameters may be obtain from the tensile test:
Relative elongation - ratio between the increase of the specimen length before its rupture and its
original length:
= (Lm L0) / L0
Where Lm maximum specimen length.
Relative reduction of area - ratio between the decrease of the specimen cross-section area
before its rupture and its original cross-section area:
= (S0 Smin) / S0
Where Smin minimum specimen cross-section area.

Fracture Toughness
Fracture is a process of breaking a solid into pieces as a result of stress.
There are two principal stages of the fracture process:

Crack formation

Crack propagation

Ductile fracture
Ductile materials undergo observable plastic deformation and absorb significant energy before
fracture.
A crack, formed as a result of the ductile fracture, propagates slowly and when the stress is
increased.
Plastic deformation of a multi-phase material causes formation and coalescence of voids on the
phase and inclusions boundaries. These voids are responsible for the specific appearance of the
ductile fracture surface, consisting of numerous spherical micro-cavities (dimples), initiating
formation of the crack.
Tensile specimen fractured by the ductile mechanism is characterized by the cap and cone
appearance of the fracture.
Single-phase alloys and pure metals are more ductile, than metals, containing second phases or
inclusions.

Brittle fracture

Brittle fracture is characterized by very low plastic deformation and low energy absorption prior
to breaking.
A crack, formed as a result of the brittle fracture, propagates fast and without increase of the
stress applied to the material.
The brittle crack is perpendicular to the stress direction.
There are two possible mechanisms of the brittle fracture: transcrystalline (transgranular,
cleavage) or intercrystalline (intergranular).
Cleavage cracks pass along crystallographic planes through the grains.
Intercrystalline fracture occurs through the grain boundaries, embrittled by segregated
impurities, second phase inclusions and other defects.
The brittle fractures usually possess bright granular appearance.

Toughness
Toughness is ability of material to resist fracture.
The general factors, affecting the toughness of a material are: temperature, strain rate,
relationship between the strength and ductility of the material and presence of stress
concentration (notch) on the specimen surface.
Fracture toughness is indicated by the area below the curve on strain-stress diagram (see the
figure):

As seen from the diagram toughness of the ductile materials is higher than toughness of brittle
materials.
Stress-intensity Factor (K) is a quantitative parameter of fracture toughness determining a
maximum value of stress which may be applied to a specimen containing a crack (notch) of a
certain length.
Depending on the direction of the specimen loading and the specimen thickness, four types of
stress-intensity factors are used: KC, KIC KIIC KIIIC.

KC stress-intensity factor of a specimen, thickness of which is less than a critical value.

KC depends on the specimen thickness. This condition is called plane stress.
KIC,KIIC, KIIIC stress-intensity factors, relating to the specimens, thickness of which is above
the critical value therefore the values of KIC KIIC KIIIC do not depend on the specimen thickness.
This condition is called plane strain.
KIIC and KIIIC stress-intensity factors relating to the fracture modes in which the loading
direction is parallel to the crack plane. These factors are rarely used for metals and are not used
for ceramics;
KIC plane strain stress-intensity factor relating to the fracture modes in which the loading
direction is normal to the crack plane. This factor is widely used for both metallic and ceramic
materials.
KIC is used for estimation critical stress applied to a specimen with a given crack length:
C KIC /(Y( a))
Where
KIC stress-intensity factor, measured in MPa*m;
C the critical stress applied to the specimen;
a the crack length for edge crack or half crack length for internal crack;
Y geometry factor.

Impact test

Impact test is used for measuring toughness of materials and their capacity of resisting shock.
In this test the pendulum is swing up to its starting position (height H ) and then it is allowed to
strike the notched specimen, fixed in a vice. The pendulum fractures the specimen, spending a
part of its energy. After the fracture the pendulum swings up to a height H.
The impact toughness of the specimen is calculated by the formula:
a = A/ S
Where
a-impact toughness,
A the work, required for breaking the specimen ( A = M*g*H0M*g*H),
M - the pendulum mass,
S - cross-section area of the specimen at the notch.

One of the most popular impact tests is the Charpy Test, schematically presented in the figure
below:

The hammer striking energy in the Charpy test is 220 ft*lbf (300 J).

Fatigue
Fatigue is a type of failure of a material, occurring under alternating loads.
Most of the failures of machine details are caused by fatigue.
Fatigue life is the number of cycling stresses, causing failure of the material.
Frequency of these stresses is not important.
Fatigue limit is the maximum value of repeatedly applied stress that the material can withstand
after an infinite number of cycles (10-20 mln. Cycles in practice).

Fatigue strength at N cycles is the load, producing the material fracture after N cycling
applications of the load.
Fatigue limit of a material is much lower, than its ultimate tensile strength.
Fatigue tests are carried out in the Whler-type machine, schematically shown in the picture.
The rotating specimen in form of a cantilever is driven by an electric motor. The specimen is
loaded by the force F, applied to the ball bearing, mounted on the end of the specimen.
Since the force direction does not change, the direction of the stress applied to the specimen will
be reversed each 180 of the shaft rotation.

This scheme provides cycling loading of the specimen, presented in the equivalent scheme.
To find the fatigue limit the fatigue test is repeated at different loads.

The tests results are presented in form of S-N curve (stress vs. number of cycles):
Fatigue fracture is characterized by presence of two different types of the surface:
One part is smooth and discolored with ripple-like marks, indicating slow crack growth from the
center of the crack formation. Another part of the surface has coarse crystalline appearance
resulted from the final catastrophic crack propagation.
The following factors affect fatigue fracture:

Surface factor

Fatigue cracks form and initiate on the specimen surface therefore hardened and smooth surface
(without stress concentrations - notch, flaw) will increase the fatigue limit.

Compressive stress

Compressive stresses, produced in the specimen surface by Shot peening, cold work or heat
treatment result in considerable increase of fatigue limit.

Micro-structure defects

Non-metallic inclusions and other micro-defects may initiate formation of fatigue cracks.

Environmental factorFatigue in the presence of corrosive environment (Corrosion

fatigue) occurs at lower cycling stresses and after lower number of cycles.

Creep
Creep is a phenomenon of slow plastic deformation (elongation) of a metal at high temperature
under a constant load.
The creep mechanism:
At low stresses the creep is controlled by the diffusion of atoms through the grain boundaries. At
higher stresses the creep strain proceeds due to the dislocations movement.
The rate of creep is a function of the material, the applied stress value, the temperature, and the
time exposure.
Considerable creep deformation, causing damage of machines and structures occur at high
temperatures (about a half of the melting point measured in the absolute temperature scale).
Therefore this phenomenon is taken into account in design and operation of heat exchangers,
steam boilers and pipes, jet engines and other loaded equipment, working at high temperatures.
Soft metals (lead, tin) may experience creep at room temperature.
A typical creep behavior is presented in the diagram:

The initial strain is not time dependent and it is caused mainly by elastic deformation.

The first stage creep is characterized by relatively fast plastic deformation occurring at
decreasing rate. During this stage resistance creep increases causing decrease the deformation
rate.
The second stage creep occurs at a constant and relatively low deformation rate. This rate is
used in the engineering design.
The rate of creep at the second stage depends on both the load (stress) and the temperature.
The third stage creep is associated with accelerated strain rate caused by decrease of the cross
sectional area of the specimen (necking). This stage is finalized by the specimen fracture.
At room temperature creep is negligible at any stress below the yield point.
The quantity, which is used in precise design of machines and structures working at elevated
temperatures, is creep strength.
Creep strength is a stress which causes a definite creep strain after a specified period of time at
a given temperature.
Creep strength of a material is much lower, than its tensile strength.
If a large amount of deformation is tolerated rupture strength is used in design.
Rupture strength is a stress which causes a fracture of a metal after a specified period of time at
a given temperature.
Creep strength and rupture strength are determined in stress-rupture tests conducted in [Tensile
test and Stress-Strain Diagram|tensile test]] machines equipped with a furnace providing uniform
heating of the tested specimens.
This machine records amount of strain at every moment after the test has started and until the
specimen failure.

Fracture toughness tests of ceramics

Fracture is a process of breaking a solid into pieces as a result of stress.
There are two principal stages of the fracture process:

Crack formation

Crack propagation

There are two fracture mechanisms: ductile fracture and brittle fracture.
Ceramic materials have extremely low ductility, therefore they failure by brittle mechanism.

Brittle fracture
Fracture Toughness

Flexure Test

Indentation Fracture Test

Brittle fracture
Brittle fracture is characterized by very low Plastic deformation and low energy absorption prior
to breaking.
A crack, formed as a result of the brittle fracture, propagates fast and without increase of the
stress applied to the material.
The brittle crack is perpendicular to the stress direction.
There are two possible mechanisms of the brittle fracture: transcrystalline (transgranular,
cleavage) or intercrystalline (intergranular).
Cleavage cracks pass along crystallographic planes through the grains.
Intercrystalline fracture occurs through the grain boundaries, embrittled by segregated
impurities, second phase inclusions and other defects.
The brittle fractures usually possess bright granular appearance.

Fracture Toughness
Fracture Toughness is ability of material to resist fracture when a crack is present.
The general factors, affecting the fracture toughness of a material are: temperature, strain rate,
presence of structure defects and presence of stress concentration (notch) on the specimen
surface.
Stress-intensity Factor (K) is a quantitative parameter of fracture toughness determining a
maximum value of stress which may be applied to a specimen containing a crack (notch) of a
certain length.
Depending on the direction of the specimen loading and the specimen thickness, four types of
stress-intensity factors are used: KC, KIC, KIIC, KIIIC.
KC stress-intensity factor of a specimen, thickness of which is less than a critical value.
KC depends on the specimen thickness. This condition is called plane stress.
KIC,KIIC, KIIIC stress-intensity factors, relating to the specimens, thickness of which is above the
critical value therefore the values of KIC, KIIC, KIIIC do not depend on the specimen thickness.
This condition is called plane strain.
KIIC and KIIIC stress-intensity factors relating to the fracture modes in which the loading
direction is parallel to the crack plane. These factors are rarely used for metallic materials and are
not used for ceramics;
KIC plane strain stress-intensity factor relating to the fracture modes in which the loading
direction is normal to the crack plane. This factor is widely used for both metallic and ceramic
materials.
KIC is used for estimation critical stress applied to a specimen with a given crack length:
C KIC /(Y( a))
Where
KIC stress-intensity factor, measured in MPa*m;
C the critical stress applied to the specimen;
a the crack length for edge crack or half crack length for internal crack;
Y geometry factor.

Two test methods are used for measuring fracture toughness parameter (stress-intensity factor) of
ceramic materials: Flexure Test and Indentation Fracture Test.

Flexure Test
The test method is similar to that which is used for measuring Flexural Strength, however
notched specimens are used.

Indentation Fracture Test

Vickers Hardness Method is used for this test.
Polished surface of a ceramic sample is indented by Vickers Indenter, resulting in formation of
four cracks emanating from the indent corners.
The cracks length is inversely proportion to the material toughness; therefore KIC may be
estimated by measuring the cracks length.

Hardness test methods

Hardness is resistance of material to plastic deformation caused by indentation.
Sometimes hardness refers to resistance of material to scratching or abrasion.
In some cases relatively quick and simple hardness test may substitute tensile test.
Hardness may be measured from a small sample of material without destroying it.
There are hardness methods, allowing to measure hardness onsite.
Principle of any hardness test method is forcing an indenter into the sample surface followed
by measuring dimensions of the indentation (depth or actual surface area of the indentation).
Hardness is not fundamental property and its value depends on the combination of yield strength,
tensile strength and modulus of elasticity.
Benefits of hardness test:

Easy
Inexpensive

Quick

Non-destructive

May be applied to the samples of various dimensions and shapes

May be performed in-situ

Depending on the loading force value and the indentation dimensions, hardness is defined as a
macro- , micro- or nano-hardness.
Macro-hardness tests (Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers) are the most widely used methods for rapid
routine hardness measurements. The indenting forces in macro-hardness tests are in the range of
50N to 30000N.
Micro-hardness tests (micro-Vickers, Knoop) is applicable when hardness of coatings, surface
hardness, or hardness of different phases in the multi-phase material is measured. Small diamond
pyramid is used as indenter loaded with a small force of 10 to 1000gf.
Nano-hardness test uses minor loads of about 1 nano-Newton followed by precise measuring
depth of indentation.

Brinell Hardness Test

Rockwell Hardness Test

Rockwell Superficial Hardness Test

Vickers Hardness Test

Knoop Hardness Test

Shore Scleroscope Hardness Test

Brinell Hardness Test

In this test a hardened steel ball of 2.5, 5 or 10 mm in diameter is used as indenter.

The loading force is in the range of 300N to 30000N (300N for testing lead alloys, 5000N for
testing aluminum alloys, 10000N for copper alloys, 30000N for testing steels). The Brinell
Hardness Number (HB) is calculated by the formula:
HB = 2F/ (3.14D*(D-(D - Di)))
Where
F- applied load, kg
D indenter diameter, mm
Di indentation diameter, mm.
In order to eliminate an influence of the specimen supporting base, the specimen should be seven
times (as minimum) thicker than indentation depth for hard alloys and fifteen times thicker than
indentation depth for soft alloys.

Rockwell Hardness Test

In the Rockwell test the depth of the

indenter penetration into the specimen surface is measured. The indenter may be either a
hardened steel ball with diameter 1/16, 1/8 or a spherical diamond cone of 120 angle (Brale).
Loading procedure starts from applying a minor load of 10 kgf (3kgf in Rockwell Superficial
Test) and then the indicator, measuring the penetration depth, is set to zero. After that the major

load (60, 100 or 150 kgf)is applied. The penetration depth is measured after removal of the major
load.
Hardness is measured in different scales (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K) and in numbers, having no
units (in contrast to Brinell and Vickers methods).
Aluminum alloys, copper alloys and soft steels are tested with 1/16 diameter steel ball at 100
kgf load (Rockwell hardness scale B).
Harder alloys and hard cast iron are tested with the diamond cone at 150 kgf (Rockwell
hardness scale C).
An example of Rockwell test result: 53 HRC. It means 53 units, measured in the scale C by the
method HR (Hardness Rockwell).
Rockwell Superficial Hardness Test
Rockwell Superficial Test is applied for thin strips, coatings, carburized surfaces.
Reduced loads (15 kgf, 30 kgf, and 30 kgf) as a major load and deduced preload (3kgf) are used
in the superficial test.
Depending on the indenter, two scales of Rockwell Superficial method may be used: T (1/16
steel ball) or N (diamond cone).
62 R30T means 62 units, measured in the scale 30T (30 kgf, 1/16 steel ball indenter) by the
Rockwell Superficial method (R).

Vickers Hardness Test

The principle of the Vickers Hardness method is similar to the Brinell method.
The Vickers indenter is a 136 degrees square-based diamond pyramid.
The impression, produced by the Vickers indenter is clearer, than the impression of Brinell
indenter, therefore this method is more accurate.
The load, varying from 1kgf to 120 kgf, is usually applied for 30 seconds.
The Vickers number (HV) is calculated by the formula:
HV = 1.854*F/ D
Where
F-applied load, kg
D length of the impression diagonal, mm
The length of the impression diagonal is measured by means of a microscope, which is usually
an integral part of the Vickers Tester.

Knoop Hardness Test

A diamond pyramid indenter with angles 130 and 17030 is used in this method.
The Knoop Hardness Test is applied for testing soft material and thin coating, since the
penetration depth is very small (about 1/30 of the impression length).
The loading force in the Knoop method are usually in the range of 10 gf to 1000gf (microhardness range).
The Knoop number (HK) is calculated by the formula:
HK = 14.229*F/L
Where
F-applied load, kg
L long diagonal of the impression, mm
Shore Scleroscope Hardness Test
The Shore Scleroscope hardness is associated with the elasticity of the material.

The appliance consists of a diamond-tipped hammer, falling in a graduated glass tube from a
definite height. The tube is divided into 140 equal parts.
The height of the first rebound is the hardness index of the material.
The harder the material, the higher the rebound.
The Shore method is widely used for measuring hardness of large machine components like rolls,
gears, dies, etc.
The Shore scleroscope is not only small and mobile, it also leaves no impressions on the tested
surface.

Hardness Conversion Table

(submitted by the website administration)
RA RB RC RD
HB HB
HV
R15N R30N R45N R15T R30T R45T
60 100 150 100
500 3000 Diamond Shore
Brale Brale Brale 1/16 1/16 1/16
Brale 1/16 Brale Brale
10mm 10mm Pyramid
92
80
87
97
92
87
1865
92
79
86
96
92
87
1787
91
78
85
96
91
86
1710
91
77
84
96
91
85
1633
90
76
83
96
90
84
1556
90
75
83
95
89
83
1478
89
74
82
95
89
82
1400
89
73
81
95
88
81
1323
88
72
80
95
87
80
1245
87
71
80
94
87
79
1160
87
70
79
94
86
78
1076
101
86
69
78
94
85
77
1004
99
85.6 68
76.9 93.2 84.4 75.4 940
97
85
67
76.1 92.9 83.6 74.2 900
95
84.5 66
75.4 92.5 82.8 73.3 865
92
83.9 65
74.5 92.2 81.9 72
739 832
91
83.4 64
73.8 91.8 81.1 71
722 800
88
82.8 63
73
91.4 80.1 69.9 705 772
87
82.3 62
72.2 91.1 79.3 68.8 688 746
85
81.8 61
71.5 90.7 78.4 67.7 670 720
83
81.2 60
70.7 90.2 77.5 66.6 613 697
81
80.7 59
69.9 89.8 76.6 65.5 599 674
80
80.1 58
69.2 89.3 75.7 64.3 587 653
78

79.6 57
68.5 88.9 74.8 63.2 575 633
76
79
56
67.7 88.3 73.9 62
561 613
75
RA RB RC RD
HB HB
HV
R15N R30N R45N R15T R30T R45T
60 100 150 100
500 3000 Diamond Shore
Brale Brale Brale 1/16 1/16 1/16
Brale 1/16 Brale Brale
10mm 10mm Pyramid
78.5 120 55
66.9 87.9 73
60.9 546 585
74
78
120 54
66.1 87.4 72
59.8 534 577
72
77.4 119 53
65.4 86.9 71.2 58.6 519 560
71
76.8 119 52
64.6 86.4 70.2 57.4 500 544
69
76.3 118 51
63.8 85.9 69.4 56.1 487 528
68
75.9 117 50
63.1 85.5 68.5 55
475 513
67
75.2 117 49
62.1 85
67.6 53.8 464 498
66
74.7 116 48
61.4 84.5 66.7 52.5 451 484
64
74.1 116 47
60.8 83.9 65.8 51.4 442 471
63
73.6 115 46
60
83.5 64.8 50.3 432 458
62
73.1 115 45
59.2 83
64
49
421 446
60
72.5 114 44
58.5 82.5 63.1 47.8 409 434
58
72
113 43
57.7 82
62.2 46.7 400 423
57
71.5 113 42
56.9 81.5 61.3 45.5 390 412
56
70.9 112 41
56.2 80.9 60.4 44.3 381 402
55
70.4 112 40
55.4 80.4 59.5 43.1 371 392
54
69.9 111 39
54.6 79.9 58.6 41.9 362 382
52
69.4 110 38
53.8 79.4 57.7 40.8 353 372
51
68.9 110 37
53.1 78.8 56.8 39.6 344 363
50
68.4 109 36
52.3 78.3 55.9 38.4 336 354
49
67.9 109 35
51.5 77.7 55
37.2 327 345
48
67.4 108 34
50.8 77.2 54.2 36.1 319 336
47
66.8 108 33
50
76.6 53.3 34.9 311 327
46
RA RB RC RD
HB HB
HV
R15N R30N R45N R15T R30T R45T
60 100 150 100
500 3000 Diamond Shore
Brale Brale Brale 1/16 1/16 1/16
Brale 1/16 Brale Brale
10mm 10mm Pyramid
66.3 107 32
49.2 76.1 52.1 33.7 301 318
44
65.8 106 31
48.4 75.6 51.3 32.5 294 310
43
65.3 105 30
47.7 75
50.4 31.3 286 302
42
64.7 104 29
47
74.5 49.5 30.1 279 294
41
64.3 104 28
46.1 73.9 48.6 28.9 271 286
40.5
63.8 103 27
45.2 73.3 47.7 27.8 264 279
40
63.3 103 26
44.6 72.8 46.8 26.7 258 272
38
62.8 102 25
43.8 72.2 45.9 25.5 253 266
37.5
62.4 101 24
43.1 71.6 45
24.3 247 260
37
62
100.5 23
42.1 71
44
23.1 243 254
36
61.5 100 22
41.6 70.5 43.2 22
93
82
72
201 237 248
251

61
99
21
40.9 69.9 42.3 20.7 92.5 81.5 71
195 231 243
246
60.5 98.5 20
40.1 69.4 41.5 19.6 92.4 81.2 70.5 192 228 238
243
60
98
20
92.3 81
70
189 226 237
241
59.5 97
19
92
80.5 69
184 222 234
236
59
96
18
91.8 80
68
179 216 230
231
58
95
16
91.5 79
67
175 210 222
226
57.5 94
14
91.3 78.5 66
171 205 213
221
57
93
13
91
78
65.5 167 200 208
216
56.5 92
11
90.5 77.5 64.5 163 195 200
211
56
91
10
90.8 77
63.5 160 190 196
206
RA RB RC RD
HB HB
HV
R15N R30N R45N R15T R30T R45T
60 100 150 100
500 3000 Diamond Shore
Brale Brale Brale 1/16 1/16 1/16
Brale 1/16 Brale Brale
10mm 10mm Pyramid

Estimations of composite materials properties

Composite materials may be either isotropic or anisotropic, which is determined by the
Structure of composites.
Isotropic material is a material, properties of which do not depend on a direction of measuring.
Anisotropic material is a material, properties of which along a particular axis or parallel to a
particular plane are different from the properties measured along other directions.
Rule of Mixtures

Rule of Mixtures is a method of approach to approximate estimation of composite material

properties, based on an assumption that a composite property is the volume weighed average of
the phases (matrix and dispersed phase) properties.
According to Rule of Mixtures properties of composite materials are estimated as follows:

Density
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Modulus of Elasticity

Shear modulus

Poisson's ratio

Tensile strength

Density
dc = dm*Vm + df*Vf
Where
dc,dm,df densities of the composite, matrix and dispersed phase respectively;
Vm,Vf volume fraction of the matrix and dispersed phase respectively.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (CTE) in longitudinal direction (along the

fibers)

cl = (m*Em*Vm + f*Ef*Vf)/(m*Vm + Ef*Vf)

Where
cl, m, f CTE of composite in longitudinal direction, matrix and dispersed phase (fiber)
respectively;
Em,Ef modulus of elasticity of matrix and dispersed phase (fiber) respectively.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (CTE) in transverse direction (perpendicular

to the fibers)

ct = (1+m) m *Vm + f* Vf
Where

m Poissons ratio of matrix.

Poissons ratio is the ratio of transverse contraction strain to longitudinal extension strain in the
direction of applied force.

Modulus of Elasticity
Long align fibers

Modulus of Elasticity in longitudinal direction (Ecl)

Ecl = Em*Vm + Ef*Vf

Modulus of Elasticity in transverse direction (Ect)

1/Ect = Vm/Em + Vf/Ef

Short fibers
Ecl = 0LVf Ef + VmEm
L = 1 - 2/L*tanh(L /2)
= [8 Gm/(EfDln(2R/D))]
where:
Ef modulus of elasticity of fiber material;
Em modulus of elasticity of matrix material;
Gm - shear modulus of matrix material;
L length correction factor;
L fibers length;
D fibers diameter;
2R distance between fibers;
0 - fiber orientation distribution factor.
0 = 0.0 align fibers in transverse direction
0 = 1/5 random orientation in any direction (3D)
0 = 3/8 random orientation in plane (2D)
0 = 1/2 biaxial parallel to the fibers
0 = 1.0 unidirectional parallel to the fibers
Shear modulus
Gct = Gf Gm/(Vf Gm + VmGf)
Where:

Gf shear modulus of elasticity of fiber material;

Gm shear modulus of elasticity of matrix material;
Poisson's ratio
12 = vf f + Vmm
Where:
f Poissons ratio of fiber material;
m Poissons ratio of matrix material;

Tensile Strength

Tensile strength of long-fiber reinforced composite in longitudinal direction

c = m*Vm + f*Vf
Where
c, m, f tensile strength of the composite, matrix and dispersed phase (fiber) respectively.

Tensile strength of short-fiber composite in longitudinal direction

(fiber length is less than critical value Lc)

Lc = f*d/c
Where
d diameter of the fiber;
c shear strength of the bond between the matrix and dispersed phase (fiber).
c = m*Vm + f*Vf*(1 Lc/2L)
Where
L length of the fiber

Tensile strength of short-fiber composite in longitudinal direction

(fiber length is greater than critical value Lc)

c = m*Vm + L* c*Vf/d

Classification of composites
Composite material is a material composed of two or more distinct
phases (matrix phase and dispersed phase) and having bulk
properties significantly different form those of any of the
constituents.

Matrix phase

The primary phase, having a continuous character, is called matrix. Matrix is usually more
ductile and less hard phase. It holds the dispersed phase and shares a load with it.

Dispersed (reinforcing) phase

The second phase (or phases) is embedded in the matrix in a discontinuous form. This secondary
phase is called dispersed phase. Dispersed phase is usually stronger than the matrix, therefore it
is sometimes called reinforcing phase.

Many of common materials (metal alloys, doped Ceramics and Polymers mixed with additives)
also have a small amount of dispersed phases in their structures, however they are not considered
as composite materials since their properties are similar to those of their base constituents
(physical properties of steel are similar to those of pure iron).
There are two classification systems of composite materials. One of them is based on the matrix
material (metal, ceramic, polymer) and the second is based on the material structure:
Classification of composites I
(based on matrix material)

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)

Metal Matrix Composites are composed of a metallic matrix (aluminum, magnesium, iron,
cobalt, copper) and a dispersed ceramic (oxides, carbides) or metallic (lead, tungsten,
molybdenum) phase.

Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)

Ceramic Matrix Composites are composed of a ceramic matrix and embedded fibers of other
ceramic material (dispersed phase).

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

Polymer Matrix Composites are composed of a matrix from thermoset (Unsaturated Polyester
(UP), Epoxiy (EP)) or thermoplastic (Polycarbonate (PC), Polyvinylchloride, Nylon,
Polysterene) and embedded glass, carbon, steel or Kevlar fibers (dispersed phase).
Classification of composite materials II
(based on reinforcing material structure)

Particulate Composites
Particulate Composites consist of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in form of particles.
1. Composites with random orientation of particles.
2. Composites with preferred orientation of particles. Dispersed phase of
these materials consists of two-dimensional flat platelets (flakes), laid parallel
to each other.

Fibrous Composites

1. Short-fiber reinforced composites. Short-fiber reinforced composites

consist of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in form of discontinuous
fibers (length < 100*diameter).
1. Composites with random orientation of fibers.
2. Composites with preferred orientation of fibers.
2. Long-fiber reinforced composites. Long-fiber reinforced composites
consist of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in form of continuous
fibers.
1. Unidirectional orientation of fibers.
2. Bidirectional orientation of fibers (woven).

Laminate Composites
When a fiber reinforced composite consists of several layers with different fiber orientations, it is
called multilayer (angle-ply) composite.

Structure of composites
Structure of a composite material determines its properties to a significant extent.
Structure factors affecting properties of composites are as follows:

Bonding strength on the interface between the dispersed phase and

matrix;

Shape of the dispersed phase inclusions (particles, flakes, fibers,

laminates);

Orientation of the dispersed phase inclusions (random or preferred).

Interfacial bonding
Good bonding (adhesion) between matrix phase and dispersed phase provides transfer of load,
applied to the material to the dispersed phase via the interface. Adhesion is necessary for
achieving high level of mechanical properties of the composite.
There are three forms of interface between the two phases:
1. Direct bonding with no intermediate layer. In this case adhesion (wetting) is
provided by either covalent bonding or van der Waals force.
2. Intermediate layer (inter-phase) is in form of solid solution of the matrix and
dispersed phases constituents.
3. Intermediate layer is in form of a third bonding phase (adhesive).

Shape and orientation of dispersed phase

Importance of these structure parameters is confirmed by the fact, that one of the systems of
Classification of composites is based on them.

Particulate Composites
Fibrous Composites

Laminate Composites

Particulate Composites
Particulate Composites consist of a matrix reinforced with a dispersed phase in form of particles.
Effect of the dispersed particles on the composite properties depends on the particles dimensions.
Very small particles (less than 0.25 micron in diameter) finely distributed in the matrix impede
movement of dislocations and deformation of the material. Such strengthening effect is similar to
the precipitation hardening. In contrast to the precipitation hardening, which disappears at
elevated temperatures when the precipitated particles dissolve in the matrix, dispersed phase of
particulate composites (ceramic particles) is usually stable at high temperatures, so the
strengthening effect is retained. Many of composite materials are designed to work in high
temperature applications.
Large dispersed phase particles have low strengthening effect but they are capable to share load
applied to the material, resulting in increase of stiffness and decrease of ductility.
Hard particles dispersed in a softer matrix increase wear and abrasion resistance.
Soft dispersed particles in a harder matrix improve machinability (lead particles in steel or
copper matrix) and reduce coefficient of friction (tin in aluminum matrix or lead in copper
matrix).

Composites with high electrical conductivity matrices (copper, silver) and with refractory
dispersed phase (tungsten, molybdenum) work in high temperature electrical applications.
When dispersed phase of these materials consists of two-dimensional flat platelets (flakes) which
are laid parallel to each other, material exhibits anisotropy (dependence of the properties on the
axis or plane along which they were measured). In the case of flakes oriented parallel to a
particular plane, material demonstrates equal properties in all directions parallel to the plane and
different properties in the direction normal to the plane.

Fibrous Composites
Dispersed phase in form of fibers (Fibrous Composites) improves strength, stiffness and Fracture
Toughness of the material, impeding crack growth in the directions normal to the fiber.
Effect of the strength increase becomes much more significant when the fibers are arranged in a
particular direction (preferred orientation) and a stress is applied along the same direction.
The strengthening effect is higher in long-fiber (continuous-fiber) reinforced composites than in
short-fiber (discontinuous-fiber) reinforced composites.
Short-fiber reinforced composites, consisting of a matrix reinforced with a dispersed phase in
form discontinuous fibers (length < 100*diameter), has a limited ability to share load.
Load, applied to a long-fiber reinforced composite, is carried mostly by the dispersed phase fibers. Matrix in such materials serves only as a binder of the fibers keeping them in a desired
shape and protecting them from mechanical or chemical damages.

Laminate Composites
Laminate composites consist of layers with different anisotropic orientations or of a matrix
reinforced with a dispersed phase in form of sheets.
When a fiber reinforced composite consists of several layers with different fiber orientations, it is
called multilayer (angle-ply) composite.
Laminate composites provide increased mechanical strength in two directions and only in one
direction, perpendicular to the preferred orientations of the fibers or sheet, mechanical properties
of the material are low.