VOR (VHF OMNIDIRECTION RANGE)

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Two independent modulations are placed on a VHF frequency, known as the reference
and variable phase. The aircraft equipment measures the magnetic bearing of the
station by phase comparison of these two waves.
FREQUENCY
VHF -108 to 117.95 MHz
It is prudent to discuss the allocation of the VHF frequency band in this section.
VORs are used for two separate purposes, as Terminal VORs (TVOR) and Airway
VORs. These beacons occupy different parts of the frequency band. Further
complicating the allocation, Instrument Landing System (ILS) occupies frequencies in
the same range as well.
TVOR uses the first even decimal and first even decimal + 50 kHz up to 112 MHz
(e.g. 108.00 MHz, 108.05 MHz, 108.20 MHz, 108.25 MHz etc.).
ILS uses the first odd decimal and first odd decimal + 50 kHz up to 112 MHz (e.g.
108.10 MHz, 108.15 MHz, 108.30 MHz, 108.35 MHz etc.).
Airways VOR occupies the remainder of the frequency band 112 MHz to 117.95 MHz
at 50 kHz spacing.
POLARISATION
Horizontal
EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS
A9W
CONVENTIONAL VOR
REFERENCE SIGNAL
Conventional VOR is an omni-directional continuous wave transmission on the VOR
frequency. The signal is frequency modulated (FM) at 30 Hz. The polar diagram of
this omni-directional signal is circular, meaning that the phase detected by the
aircraft's receiver is the same on all bearings. This reference signal effectively tells
the VOR receiver where magnetic north is.
VARIABLE SIGNAL
The variable signal is transmitted from an aerial that is effectively a loop and is
amplitude modulated (AM) at 30 Hz. As with the ADF, this produces a figure 8 polar
diagram. Unlike the ADF, the "loop" aerial electronically rotates at 30 revolutions per
second. By combining the reference and variable signal, the resulting polar diagram is
similar to a cardioid with the exception being it does not have a null position.
This polar diagram is called a Iimacon, the French for edible snail.
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AIRCRAFT RECEIVER
The aircraft VOR receiver splits the received signal into three parts. The first connects
to the aircraft communications system so that the beacon can be identified. The
second and third parts pass through a filter that separates the AM and FM reference
signals.
The 30 Hz FM reference signal is then electronically changed so that it can be
compared with the AM variable signal. Thus the principle of operation of VOR is
bearing measurement by phase comparison.

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BEARING MEASUREMENT
The absence of a null position is compensated for by varying the power relationship
between the reference and variable signals. This difference in field strength is
graphically illustrated below.

The resultant shape is that of an elongated cardioid, called a limacon. In the diagram
above, the reference signal appears at the four cardinal headings. If the line of the
variable phase plots the power curve, then it can be seen that at North it is 4 units of
power, West 7 units, South 4 units and East 1 unit. The variable phase is rotated at
the same rate as the reference signal is modulated so that at:
North
The limacon is set in the start position (remember that the aerial is rotating at 30
revolutions per second). By comparing the variable signal wave for magnetic north
with the reference signal wave it is obvious that the wave diagrams are the same. By
looking at the limacon signal strength start North 4, West 7, South 4, and East 1.
Comparing this with the reference signal whose amplitude varies 4, 7, 4, and 1 shows
that the two waves are in phase.
East
On East, the sequence starts East 1, North 4, West 7, and South 4. When drawn as a
sine wave and compared with the reference wave, it shows that the variable signal
lags the reference signal by 90. Hence, the aircraft is on a bearing of 0900M.
South
On South, the sequence starts South 4, East 1, North 4, and West 7. When drawn as
a sine wave and compared with the reference wave, it shows that the variable signal
lags the reference signal by 180. Hence, the aircraft is on a bearing of 1800M.
West
On West, the sequence starts West 7, South 4, East 1, and North 4. When drawn as a
sine wave and compared with the reference wave, it shows that the variable signal
lags the reference signal by 270. Hence, the aircraft is on a bearing of 2700M.

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AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT
AERIAL
The aerial is a small, horizontal dipole, designed to receive the horizontally polarised
signals transmitted from the ground station. Designed for the frequency band of 108
MHz - 118 MHz, the aerial has to be mounted so that it offers 360 reception. It must
also be shielded from transmissions from the VHF communication radio aerial. Aerials
are frequently mounted on the fin of an aircraft.
RECEIVER
The receiver compares the reference signal and the variable signal in order to detect
the phase difference. The signal from the aerial is filtered through the high-frequency
part of the receiver and only the signals from the desired VOR station pass through to
the detectors and filters.

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FREQUENCY SELECTOR
The frequency selector switch on the control panel selects the desired station. The
phase comparator compares the phase of the two signals and the difference is fed to
the indicator. Special circuitry within the receiver detects the identification signal and
amplifies it for a speaker or headphones. Some VORs can also transmit "voice", either
radio communication, identification, met-information, or other voice transmissions.
The receiver panel has a frequency selector knob, a dial indicating the selected
frequency and a selector switch with a position for IDENT and Voice.
Select the IDENT position to hear the identification signal of the VOR. The
identification transmits according to ICAO recommendations and consists of
a two or three letter Morse code transmitted at a rate of:
Seven words a minute
Repeated at least once every 30 seconds
Modulated at 1020 Hz
Selecting the VOICE position improves the reproduction of speech, and is selected
when the transmission contains voice messages (for instance ATIS), or if the station
serves as a regular voice transmitter.
INDICATORS
The indicator can be in many different forms, from the simplest to the most complex
electronic flight information system. The parts and functions of the basic indicator are
covered latter.
MONITORING
All VOR stations are monitored by automatic equipment located approximately 50 It
from the transmitter. The monitor performs functions when it detects any
malfunction:
It warns the control point.
It removes the identification and navigation component of the beacon .
It switches the beacon off in extreme cases.
The monitor limits are:
A change in bearing information of >1'
A reduction of more than 15% in the signal strength of either of the 30 Hz
modulations
The monitor failing
If the beacon is switched off, the standby system comes into operation. The standby
beacon requires time to become operational , so no transmission of identification
happens until a full changeover occurs.
TERRAIN
Uneven ground, high ground, or man made obstacles nearby the VHF wave can affect
VOR signals. If the terrain causes erroneous indications, they are listed in the AlP
under the Designated Operational Coverage.

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DESIGNATED OPERATIONAL COVERAGE (DOC)

VOR operates in a range where the signals are line of sight, so the line of site formula
can be used to calculate the maximum range in which a signal is receivable. The AlP
lists the VORs and provides the maximum range, altitude, and bearings where
reliable signals are obtainable. As with the promulgated range for an NDB, only use
the VOR with confidence within the DOC. VORs on the same frequency must be
spaced at least 500 nm apart to ensure there is no mutual interference. The DOC is
applicable for both day and night operations, as returning sky waves do not affect the
VHF wave as they do the NDB.
CONE OF CONFUSION OR CONE OF SILENCE
Unlike the NOB, which has a cone of confusion of 40 from the vertical, the VOR cone
of confusion is 50 from the vertical. The area above the VOR gives no signal, which
causes problems with the indicators in the aircraft. Rapid bearing changes may be
displayed near the beacon, making it impractical to home or fo llow a radial. The easy
option is to fly the required heading th rough the overhead until receiving reliable
indications.
The cone of confusion is easily calculated by trigonometry

Radius of the cone of silence = altitude (nm) x Tan 50

Example: An aircraft is fl ying at 30 000 ft overhead a VOR, what is the diameter
of the cone of confusion?
30000 ft = 30 000 + 6080 ft = 4.93 nm
Radius = 4.93 x tan 50 = 4.93 x 1.19 = 5.9 nm
The diameter is twice the radius = 11 .8 nm

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ACCURACY
A number of sources account for the total accuracy of a VOR:
Site Error is due to the nature of the terrain or obstacles in the vicinity of the
transmitter. The limitation for course displacement errors is 1.
Propagation Error occurs due to signal travel over terrain or obstructions. These
errors are in the region of 1.
Airborne Equipment Error occurs due to the tolerances of the equipment in the
aircraft. These errors are normally no more than 3.
The normal accuracy of the VOR is 5.

DOPPLER VOR
CVORs suffer from reflections originating with objects in the vicinity of the site. It was
found that reducing these errors is possible by increasing the horizontal aerial
dimensions. This was impractical as the CVOR uses a mechanical rotating aerial, so a
new system was devised.

The Doppler VOR is the second generation VOR, providing improved signal quality and
accuracy. A fundamental change is that the reference signal of the DVOR is amplitude
modulated , while the variable signal is frequency modulated. This .means that the
modulations are the opposite of conventional VORs, so the variable signal rotates
anticlockwise to maintain the same phase relationship at the receiver. Because the
frequency-modulated signal is less subject to interference than the amplitude
modulated signal, the received signals provide a more accurate
bearing determination.
The Doppler effect is created by "electronically rotating" the variable signal. Circular
placed aerials (diameter 44 ft), rotate at a speed of 30 revolutions per second. The
diameter of the circle is 13.4 meters, making the radial velocity of the variable signal
1264 m/s. This causes a Doppler shift, increasing the frequency as the signal rotates
toward the observer and decreasing as it rotates away, with 30 full cycles of
frequency variation per second. This results in an effective FM of 30 Hz. A receiver
situated at some distance in the radiation field continuously monitors the transmitter.

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When certain prescribed deviations are exceeded, either the identification is switched
off, or the complete transmitter is taken off the air. This is similar to the CVOR.
The VOR receiver does not know if it is receiving a signal from a CVOR or a DVOR. As
a result, the pilot treats both types in the same way.

CVOR
DVOR

Reference Signal

Variable Signal

Frequency Modulated

Amplitude Modulated

Amplitude Modulated

Frequency Modulated

RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR

The RMI combines the information from the radio navigation instruments with the
directional information from the directional gyro. The RMI has two needles, which can
indicate both ADF and VOR information.
The two needles usually have single and double lines to make it easier for the pilot to
identify the stations.

There are two small buttons on the bottom of the instrument. These enable the pilot
to select either VOR or ADF information to be displayed by each needle. The indicator
needles constantly point toward the tuned station. The RMI card is slaved to the
directional gyro, so that the heading of the aircraft can be read directly off the lubber
line at the top. In this way, the needles show thebearing to the ground stations
continuously:
The tip of the needles indicate a magnetic bearing to the ground station, the
QDM.
The tail indicates magnetic bearing from the ground station to the aircraft, the
QDR.
When tuned to a VOR, the tail of the needle indicates the VOR radial. In our example,
the single needle points to a VOR station, indicating that the aircraft is on radial 195'.
The needle marked with a double line indicates ODM 302' (ODR 122' ).
Be aware that the bearing registered from the ADF is a magnetic bearing against the
magnetic meridian passing through the aeroplane. If there is a significant variation
change or meridian convergence between the station and the aeroplane, the bearing
indicated is not the same as a ODM.
Consider a fiight at high latitudes, and tuning a station with both a VOR and an NDB
where there is a marked difference of variation and longitude between the station and
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the aeroplane. If the VOR is fed to the single needle and the NDB to the twin needle
of the RMI , will they have the same bearing indications?
OMNI-BEARING SELECTOR
The indicator shown below has three components:
The Omni Bearing Selector
A TO/FROM Indicator
A LEFT/RIGHT Course Deviation Indicator
When using this instrument the pilot has certain selections to make:
OBS Selector
The control knob selects the desired magnetic track that a pilot wishes to fiy TO or
FROM a VOR beacon. In the case above, the pilot has selected a track of 100' M.
TO/FROM Indicator
When the requi red magnetic track is set, the TO or FROM arrow appears showing
where the aircraft is relative to the beacon. The case above shows the TO arrow. The
indication changes as the aircraft passes over the beacon.
Course Deviation Indicator
The indicator has 4 small dots and one large central dot. Each of these dots
represents 2, with a full-scale deflection of the needle being 10. The vertical bar
moves left or right according to the relative position of the aircraft to the magnetic
track selected. With the vertical bar centred, the aircraft is on the magnetic track
selected. In the instrument above, the bar shows 3Y, dots left. This means that the
aircraft has a deviation of 7 from the selected course. To get back to track the
aircraft must fly toward the needle, in this case left.
Warning Flag: A warning flag appears when:
There is a failure of the aircraft's receiving equipment.
There is a failure of the ground station.
There is a failure of the indicator.
Signals received are too weak or the aircraft is out of range of the beacon.
The indications are totally independent of aircraft heading. The instrument shows the
aircraft position in relation to the course selected.
TO Flag
If the TO flag is visible, the number shown by the arrow at the bottom of the
instrument (if the vertical bar is central) is the radial of the aircraft.
FROM Flag
If the FROM flag is visible, the number selected at the top of the instrument (if the
vertical bar is central) is the radial of the aircraft.
HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (HSI)
A more modern derivative of the CDI , this instrument is widely used and pilots need
to be familiar with its presentation and interpretation. As the name suggests, the HSI
(shown below) provides the pilot with a pictorial presentation of the aeroplane's
navigational situation in relation to a selected course, as defined by a VOR radial or
ILS localiser beam. It also displays glide slope information, a heading reference and,
on many units, a DME range indication.

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The instrument consists of a number of discrete elements:

1. The HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (HSI) provides a pictorial
presentation of aircraft deviation relative to VOR radials or localiser beams. It also
displays glide slope deviations and gives heading reference with respect to magnetic
north.
2. The NAV FLAG is in view when the NAV receiver signal is inadequate. When a
NAV fiag is present, the navigation indicator of the autopilot operation is not affected.
The pilot must monitor the navigation indicators for NAV fiags to ensure that the
Autopilot and/or Flight Director are tracking valid navigation information.
3. The LUBBER LINE indicates the aircraft magnetic heading on the compass card
(10).
4. The HEADING WARNING FLAG (HOG) is in view when the heading display is
invalid. If a HOG flag appears and a lateral mode (HOG, NAV, APR or APR BC) is
selected, the autopilot disengages. It is possible to re-engage the autopilot in the
basic wings-level mode along with any vertical mode.
5. The COURSE BEARING POINTER indicates the selected VOR course or localiser
course on the compass card (10). The selected VOR radial or localiser heading
remains set on the compass card when the compass ca rd rotates.
6. The TOI FROM INDICATOR FLAG indicates direction of the VOR station relative
to the selected course.
7. The DUAL GLIDE SLOPE POINTERS indicate, on the glide slope scale (8),
aircraft displacement from the glide slope beam centre. Glide slope pointers in view
indicate the reception of a usable glide slope signal. The glide slope pointers bias out
of view if the glide slope signal is lost.
8. The GLIDE SLOPE SCALES indicate displacement from the glide slope beam
centre. A glide slope deviation bar displacement of 2 dots, represents ful l scale (0.7")
deviation above or below the glide slope beam centre line.
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9. The HEADING SELECTOR KNOB positions the heading bug (14) on the compass
card (10). The bug rotates with the compass ca rd.
10. The COMPASS CARD rotates to display the aeroplane's heading with reference
to lubber line (3) on HSI.
11 . The COURSE SELECTOR KNOB positions the course-bearing pointer (5) on the
compass card (10) by rotating the course selector knob.
12. The COURSE DEVIATION BAR (D-BAR) moves laterally to pictorially indicate
the relationship of aircraft to the selected course utilising the centre portion of the
omnibearing pointer. It indicates degrees of angular displacement from VOR radials
and localiser beams, or displacement in nautical miles from RNAV courses.
13. The COURSE DEVIATION SCALE functions with a course deviation bar
displacement of 5 dots representing full scale (VOR = 10, LOC = 2S; RNAV = 5
nm, RNAV APR = 1 nm) deviation from the beam centre line.
14. The HEADING BUG shows the desired heading, as selected using the heading
bug knob (9).

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