PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS

PROPERTIES OF GAMMA RAYS

Gamma radiation is a very high-energy ionizing radiation

Gamma photons have no mass and no electrical charge they are pure electromagnetic
energy
Because of their high energy, gamma photons travel at the speed of light
They can pass through many kinds of materials, including human tissue. Very dense
materials, such as lead, are commonly used as shielding to slow or stop gamma photons
Their wave lengths are so short that they must be measured in nanometers, billionths of a
meter. They range from 3/100ths to 3/1,000ths of a nanometer.

PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS

Most X-rays have a wavelength in the range of 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to

frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 hexahertz (31016 Hz to 31019 Hz) and
energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV
X-rays with photon energies above 510 keV are called hard X-rays, while those with
lower energy are called soft X-rays.
X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds. This
makes it a type of ionizing radiation and thereby harmful to living tissue . The ionizing
capability of X-rays can be utilized in cancer treatment to kill malignant cells using
radiation therapy. It is also used for material characterization using X-ray spectroscopy.

Hard X-rays can traverse relatively thick objects without being much absorbed or scattered.
For this reason X-rays are widely used to image the inside of visually opaque objects. The
most often seen applications are in medical radiography and airport security scanners, but
similar techniques are also important in industry (e.g. industrial radiography and industrial
CT scanning) and research (e.g. small animal CT).

X-rays have much shorter wavelength than visible light, which makes it possible to probe
structures much smaller than what can be seen using a normal microscope. This can be
used in X-ray microscopy to acquire high resolution images, but also in X-ray
crystallography to determine the positions of atoms in crystals.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GAMMA RAYS AND X-RAYS

The key difference between gamma rays and X-rays is how they are produced. Gamma
rays originate from the nucleus of a radionuclide after radioactive decay whereas X-rays
are produced when electrons strike a target or when electrons are rearranged within an
atom.
PROPERTIES OF X RAY AND GAMA RAY IN GENERAL

They move in straight lines and with speed of light

They cannot be deflected by means of lens or prism although their path can be bent by a
crystalline grid

They pass through matter the degree of penetration depends on the kind of matter and
energy of radiation
They are ionizing radiation, that is to say they liberate electrons in matter
They can impair and destroy living cells
Many substance fluoresce when they absorb x radiation

RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
Radiography is used in a very wide range of applications including medicine, engineering,
forensics, security, etc. In NDT, radiography is one of the most important and widely used
methods. Radiographic testing (RT) offers a number of advantages over other NDT methods,
however, one of its major disadvantages is the health risk associated with the radiation. In
general, RT is method of inspecting materials for hidden flaws by using the ability of short
wavelength electromagnetic radiation (high energy photons) to penetrate various materials. The
intensity of the radiation that penetrates and passes through the material is either captured by a
radiation sensitive film (Film Radiography) or by a planer array of radiation sensitive sensors
(Real-time Radiography). Film radiography is the oldest approach, yet it is still the most widely
used in NDT.
Basic Principles
In radiographic testing, the part to be inspected is placed between the radiation source and a
piece of radiation sensitive film. The radiation source can either be an X-ray machine or a
radioactive source (Ir-192, Co-60, or in rare cases Cs-137).The part will stop some of the
radiation where thicker and more dense areas will stop more of the radiation. The radiation that
passes through the part will expose the film and forms a shadow graph of the part. The film
darkness (density) will vary with the amount of radiation reaching the film through the test
object where darker areas indicate more exposure (higher radiation intensity) and liter areas
indicate less exposure (higher radiation intensity).
This variation in the image darkness can be used to determine thickness or composition of
material and would also reveal the presence of any flaws or discontinuities inside the material
Advantages
Both surface and internal discontinuities can be detected.
Significant variations in composition can be detected.
It has a very few material limitations.
Can be used for inspecting hidden areas (direct access to surface is not required)
Very minimal or no part preparation is required.
Permanent test record is obtained.
Good portability especially for gamma-ray sources.
Disadvantages
Hazardous to operators and other nearby personnel.
High degree of skill and experience is required for exposure and interpretation.
The equipment is relatively expensive (especially for x- ray sources).
The process is generally slow.

Highly directional (sensitive to flaw orientation).

Depth of discontinuity is not indicated.
It requires a two-sided access to the component
Real Time Radiography (RTR)
Real-time radiography (RTR), or real-time radioscopy, is a nondestructive test (NDT) method
whereby an image is produced electronically, rather than on film, so that very little lag time
occurs between the item being exposed to radiation and the resulting image. In most instances,
the electronic image that is viewed results from the radiation passing through the object being
inspected and interacting with a screen of material that fluoresces or gives off light when the
interaction occurs. The fluorescent elements of the screen form the image much as the grains of
silver form the image in film radiography. The image formed is a "positive image" since brighter
areas on the image indicates where higher levels of transmitted radiation reached the screen. This
image is the opposite of the negative image produced in film radiography. In other words, with
RTR, the lighter, brighter areas represent thinner sections or less dense sections of the test object.
Real-time radiography is a well-established method of NDT having applications in automotive,
aerospace, pressure vessel, electronic, and munitions industries, among others. The use of RTR is
increasing due to a reduction in the cost of the equipment and resolution of issues such as the
protecting and storing digital images. Since RTR is being used increasingly more, these
educational materials were developed by the North Central Collaboration for NDT Education
(NCCE) to introduce RTR to NDT technician students.
The term radiography often refers to the specific radiological method that produces a permanent
image on film conventional radiography or paper radiography or x radiography. In a broad sense,
however, radiography can also refer to other radiological techniques that can produce two
dimensional, plane-view images from the unabsorbed radiation.
Film or paper Radiography: A two-dimensional latent image from the projected radiation is
produced on a sheet of film or paper that has been exposed to the unabsorbed radiation passing
through the testpiece. This technique requires subsequent development of the exposed film of
paper so that the latent image becomes visible for viewing.
Real-time Radiography also known as radioscopy: A two-dimensional image can be
immediately displayed on a viewing screen or television monitor. This technique does not
involve the creation of a latent image; instead, the unabsorbed radiation is converted into an
optical or electronic signal, which can be viewed immediately or can be processed in near real
time with electronic and video equipment.
SWSI, DWSI, DWDI
As mentioned in the previous article the quality of a radiograph is assessed using three factors:
density, contrast and definition or sharpness of the image. Density and contrast have already been
covered but there also has to be some method by which the sensitivity (the ability to reveal

imperfections) can be measured. To do these devices known as image quality indicators (IQIs),
formerly called, are used. These can be of several forms as illustrated in Fig.

Fig: Image quality indicators

Radiography of pipes, where access to the bore to place the film is not possible presents some
problems and terms such as SWSI and DWSI are used as shorthand to identify the various
techniques that may be used.
Single wall, single image (SWSI) is a technique whereby the radiographic source is placed
inside the pipe by some suitable method, the film wrapped around the outside of the pipe and the
exposure made as shown in Fig. This may also be known as a PANORAMIC EXPOSURE. The
IQI is placed on the outside of the pipe immediately beneath the film. Both X- and gammaradiography can be used, the source being placed in position by the use of a pre-placed spider or
by means of a crawler unit. This method is most commonly used for the inspection of pipelines
where the weld can be radiographed in one exposure, making the technique rapid and cost
effective.

Fig: Single wall, single image (SWSI) or panoramic radiographic technique

Where access to the bore is not possible or the pipe diameter is too small to permit the use of an
internal source then the double wall, single image (DWSI) technique is used. Here the film is
placed on the outside of the pipe on the farthest side from the radiographic source, as shown in
Fig. The source may be offset slightly to avoid an image of the upper part of the weld to be
projected onto the film or directly in line. The source may be close to or a substantial distance
from the pipe, the location being a compromise between a less sharp image but short exposure
time for a small stand-off and sharper image but longer exposure time for a large stand-off. The
need to penetrate two wall thicknesses means that the sensitivity will be poorer than with the
single wall single image technique. The technique also requires multiple exposures to enable the
complete circumference of the pipe to be examined specification or contract requirements

frequently specify the minimum numbers of exposures to ensure complete coverage and images
of an acceptable quality. The technique is generally used on pipes over 80mm in diameter.

Fig: Double wall, single image

The last technique is double wall, double image (DWDI), generally used only on pipes less than
75-80mm in diameter. By offsetting the source from the weld centre line and using a long source
to film distance it is possible to project an image onto the film of both the upper and the lower
parts of the weld as shown in Fig. As with the DWSI technique multiple exposures are required
to achieve complete coverage.

Fig: Double wall double image radiograph of a pipe butt weld. Note the IQI, identification
numbers and position markers.
IMAGE PROCESSING
The method of developing the latent image into a manifest image (a permanent visible
image) may be achieved by:
1. Manual Processing
2. Automatic Processing
3. Computed Radiography/Laser Processing
Film Processing Systems
2 types film processing techniques: Manual/Wet method & Automatic/Tabletop
processing
Both systems require same area. The processing principles are basically the same even
though the method/ equipment is different.
Basic Processing Method

1. Film is passed into a developing solution to convert exposed silver bromide crystals into
black metallic silver
2. The film is then rinsed in water
3. Film is then passed into a fixing solution and any unexposed silver halide crystals are
removed
4. The film is then washed in water again to remove any residual processing chemicals
.Film is dried
Manual/Wet Processing

Less common nowadays

Time consuming
Messy
Open to human error
Has to be carried out in safelight conditions
Requires a large amount of workspace
Requires a safe drying area
Chemical tanks require regular use

Automatic Processing

Initial purchase of automatic processor can be expensive

Fast (90-120seconds)
Save manpower & time
Human error is reduced
Consistent film quality
Use lower levels of expensive chemicals
Require a smaller work area
Floor standing or bench top

Different types of films used in X-radiography

Direct Exposure, which is used without intensifying screens, used mainly for
extremities, previously for mammography. It requires 10 100 times more the
exposure dose. In this, the emulsion is thicker than screen film. It renders excellent

detail.
Mammography Film is a single emulsion film, using fine grain.
Video Film exposes images displayed on a video monitor and it can format to present
up to 16 images on one film.

Laser film uses a laser printer and it provides excellent image quality. It i s sensitive

to red light. It must be processed in complete darkness.

Duplication film is a single emulsion film, used for producing copies of radiographs.
Subtraction film is a type of single emulsion film used with angiography. It is of two
types :

One type prepares a positive copy of the image.

The other type enhances subject contrast and detail.
Cine film is used with cardiac catheterization. It is produced in 16 and 35mm sizes. It

is also used for radiography of the esophagus.

Spot film is produced in 70 and 105mm sizes. It is used in fluoroscopy with a spot
film camera.
RADIATION SAFETY

Radiation health risks

As mentioned previously, the health risks associated with the radiation is considered to be one
the major disadvantages of radiography. The amount of risk depends on the amount of radiation
dose received, the time over which the dose is received, and the body parts exposed. The fact that
X-ray and gamma-ray radiation are not detectable by the human senses complicates matters
further. However, the risks can be minimized and controlled when the radiation is handled and
managed properly in accordance to the radiation safety rules.
The active laws all over the world require that individuals working in the field of
radiography receive training on the safe handling and use of radioactive materials and
radiation producing devices.
Today, it can be said that radiation ranks among the most thoroughly investigated (and somehow
understood) causes of disease. The primary risk from occupational radiation exposure is an
increased risk of cancer. Although scientists assume low-level radiation exposure increases one's
risk of cancer, medical studies have not demonstrated adverse health effects in individuals
exposed to small chronic radiation doses.
The occurrence of particular health effects from exposure to ionizing radiation is a complicated
function of numerous factors including:
Type of radiation involved: All kinds of ionizing radiation can produce health effects. The main
difference in the ability of alpha and beta particles and gamma and X-rays to cause health effects
is the amount of energy they have. Their energy determines how far they can penetrate into tissue
and how much energy they are able to transmit directly or indirectly to tissues.
Size of dose received: The higher the dose of radiation received, the higher the likelihood of
health effects.
Rate at which the dose is received. Tissue can receive larger dosages over a period of time. If the
dosage occurs over a number of days or weeks, the results are often not as serious if a similar
dose was received in a matter of minutes.
Part of the body exposed. Extremities such as the hands or feet are able to receive a greater
amount of radiation with less resulting damage than blood forming organs housed in the upper
body.

The age of the individual. As a person ages, cell division slows and the body is less sensitive to
the effects of ionizing radiation. Once cell division has slowed, the effects of radiation are
somewhat less damaging than when cells were rapidly dividing.
Biological differences. Some individuals are more sensitive to radiation than others. Studies have
not been able to conclusively determine the cause of such differences.
Radiation Detectors
Instruments used for radiation measurement fall into two broad categories:
Rate measuring instruments.
Personal dose measuring instruments.
Rate measuring instruments measure the rate at which exposure is received (more commonly
called the radiation intensity). Survey meters, audible alarms and area monitors fall into this
category. These instruments present a radiation intensity reading relative to time, such as R/hr or
mR/hr. An analogy can be made between these instruments and the speedometer of a car because
both are measuring units relative to time.
Dose measuring instruments are those that measure the total amount of exposure received
during a measuring period. The dose measuring instruments, or dosimeters, that are commonly
used in industrial radiography are small devices which are designed to be worn by an individual
to measure the exposure received by the individual. An analogy can be made between these
instruments and the odometer of a car because both are measuring accumulated units.
Some radiation detectors
Survey Meters
The survey meter is the most important resource a radiographer has to determine the presence
and intensity of radiation. There are many different models of survey meters available to measure
radiation in the field. They all basically consist of a detector and a readout display. Analog and
digital displays are available. Most of the survey meters used for industrial radiography use a gas
filled detector.
Gas filled detectors consists of a gas filled cylinder with two electrodes having a voltage applied
to them. Whenever the device is brought near radioactive substances, the gas becomes ionized.
The electric field created by the potential difference between the anode and cathode causes the
electrons of each ion pair to move to the anode while the positively charged gas atom is drawn to
the cathode. This result in an electrical signal that is amplified correlated to exposure and
displayed as a value.
Audible Alarm Rate Meters
Audible alarms are devices that emit a short "beep" or "chirp" when a predetermined exposure
has been received. It is required that these electronic devices be worn by an individual working
with gamma emitters. These devices reduce the likelihood of accidental exposures in industrial
radiography by alerting the radiographer to exposure levels or dosages of radiation above a
preset amount. It is important to note that audible alarms are not intended to be and should not be
used as replacements for survey meters. Modern survey meters have this alarm feature already
built in.
Pocket Dosimeter
Pocket dosimeters are used to provide the wearer with an immediate reading of his or her
exposure to X-rays or gamma rays. As the name implies, they are commonly worn in the pocket.

The principal advantage of a pocket dosimeter is its ability to provide the wearer an immediate
reading of his or her radiation exposure. It also has the advantage of being reusable. The limited
range, inability to provide a permanent record, and the potential for discharging and reading loss
due to dropping or bumping are a few of the main disadvantages of a pocket dosimeter.
The two types commonly used in industrial radiography are the Direct Read Pocket Dosimeter
and the Digital Electronic Dosimeter.
Direct Read Pocket Dosimeter:-A direct reading pocket ionization dosimeter is generally of the
size and shape of a fountain pen. The accumulated dose value can be read by pointing the
instrument at a light source and observing the internal fiber through a system of built-in lenses.
The fiber is viewed on a translucent scale which is graduated in units of exposure. Typical
industrial radiography pocket dosimeters have a full scale reading of 200 mR but there are
designs that will record higher amounts. During the shift, the dosimeter reading should be
checked frequently. The measured exposure should be recorded at the end of each shift.
Digital Electronic Dosimeter:-These dosimeters measure both dose information and dose rate
and display them in digital form. Also, some Digital Electronic Dosimeters include an audible
alarm feature which emits an audible signal or chirp with each recorded increment of exposure.
Consequently, the frequency or chirp rate of the alarm is proportional to the radiation intensity.
Some models can also be set to provide a continuous audible signal when a preset exposure has
been reached.
Film Badges
Personnel dosimetry film badges are commonly used to measure and record radiation exposure
due to gamma rays, X-rays and beta particles. The detector is, as the name implies, a piece of
radiation sensitive film. The film is packaged in a light proof, vapor proof envelope preventing
light, moisture or chemical vapors from affecting the film. Film badges need to be worn correctly
so that the dose they receive accurately represents the dose the wearer receives. Whole body
badges are worn on the body between the neck and the waist, often on the belt or a shirt pocket.
The film is contained inside a film holder or badge. The badge incorporates a series of filters to
determine the quality of the radiation. Radiation of a given energy is attenuated to a different
extent by various types of absorbers. Therefore, the same quantity of radiation incident on the
badge will produce a different degree of darkening under each filter. By comparing these results,
the energy of the radiation can be determined and the dose can be calculated knowing the film
response for that energy. The badge holder also contains an open window to determine radiation
exposure due to beta particles (since beta particles are shielded by a thin amount of material).
The major advantages of a film badge as a personnel monitoring device are that it provides a
permanent record, it is able to distinguish between different energies of photons, and it can
measure doses due to different types of radiation. It is quite accurate for exposures greater than
100 mR. The major disadvantages are that it must be developed and read by a processor (which
is time consuming) and prolonged heat exposure can affect the film.
Thermo luminescent Dosimeter (TLD)
Thermo luminescent dosimeters (TLD) are often used instead of the film badge. Like a film
badge, it is worn for a period of time (usually 3 months or less) and then must be processed to
determine the dose received, if any. TLDs can measure doses as low as 1 mR and they have a
precision of approximately 15% for low doses which improves to approximately 3% for high

doses. TLDs are reusable, which is an advantage over film badges. However, no permanent
record or re-readability is provided and an immediate, on the job readout is not possible.
A TLD has a phosphor, such as lithium fluoride (LiF) or calcium fluoride (CaF), in a solid crystal
structure. When a TLD it is exposed to ionizing radiation at ambient temperatures, the radiation
interacts with the phosphor crystal causing some of the atoms in the material to produce free
electrons and become ionized. The free electrons are trapped and locked into place in the
imperfections in the crystal lattice structure.
Heating the crystal causes the crystal lattice to vibrate, releasing the trapped electrons in the
process. Released electrons return to the original ground state, releasing the captured energy
from ionization as light, hence the name thermoluminescent. Instead of reading the optical
density (blackness) of a film, as is done with film badges, the amount of light released versus the
heating of the individual pieces of thermoluminescent material is measured. The glow curve
produced by this process is then related to the radiation exposure. The process can be repeated
many times.
Safety Controls
Since X-ray and gamma radiation are not detectable by the human senses and the resulting
damage to the body is not immediately apparent, a variety of safety controls are used to limit
exposure.
The two basic types of radiation safety controls used to provide a safe working environment are
engineered and administrative controls. Engineered controls include shielding, interlocks,
alarms, warning signals, and material containment. Administrative controls include postings,
procedures, dosimetry and training.
Engineered controls such as shielding and door interlocks are used to contain the radiation in a
cabinet or a radiation vault. Fixed shielding materials are commonly high density concrete
and/or lead. Door interlocks are used to immediately cut the power to X-ray generating
equipment if a door is accidentally opened when X-rays are being produced. Warning lights are
used to alert workers and the public that radiation is being used. Sensors and warning alarms are
often used to signal that a predetermined amount of radiation is present. Safety controls should
never be tampered with or bypassed.
When portable radiography is performed, most often it is not practical to place alarms or warning
lights in the exposure area. Ropes (or cordon off tape) and signs are used to block the entrance to
radiation areas and to alert the public to the presence of radiation. Occasionally, radiographers
will use battery operated flashing lights to alert the public to the presence of radiation.

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
The penetrating nature of radiation means it has many beneficial applications in industry, and
common consumer products. A vast array of industries - from agriculture to manufacturing to
computers - use radionuclide's to assess the efficiency of materials, products and processes.
Irradiated silicon is also common in many household goods.
Measuring materials
Radionuclide gauges are used in industrial processes to measure thickness, density or levels of
materials during production, for example, paper, plastic film, steel sheet or surface coatings. The

material passes between a radioactive source and a detector. As the intensity of the radiation is
diminished by passing through the material, the strength of the detector signal can be used to
measure the thickness, density or level of the material.
Measuring the level of liquid in soft drinks
Radionuclide gauges are also used to measure the level of liquid in cans of soft drink on a
conveyor belt, at a rate of thousands of cans per minute.
Steel manufacturing
Modern steel rolling mills could not manufacture steel plate without accurate, continuous
measurement of thickness by radionuclide devices at every stage of production.
Everyday products
Gauging can also be used on adhesive tape, brass plating, chemicals of many types, coke and
coal, detergents, floor coverings, jet engine fuel, molten aluminium, glass and scrap irons,
petroleum, plastic, rubber, stainless steel, surgical adhesive, tyre fabric, vinyl wall coverings and
wood chips.
Irradiation
ANSTO operates an irradiation facility know as GATRI, which is used to sterilise and treat a
wide range of items for medical, health, industry, agriculture and research purposes
Industrial radiography
Industrial radiography is similar to medical X-ray. It uses gamma radiation to detect structural
faults in materials such as metal and concrete. Gamma radiation is also used to inspect welds and
to detect cracks in pipelines by using a gamma source mounted on a remote-controlled trolley
that travels inside the length of the pipe. Neutron scattering is also used in industrial materials
testing and remaining life assessments. These technologies have the advantage of being nondestructive.
Coal-fuelled power stations
Coal fuelled power stations use radioisotopes to monitor the state of furnaces used to produce
electricity. Small controlled radioactive sources are embedded at different depths from the outer
surface of a furnace. As the lining of the furnace deteriorates and collapses inwards, which is
normal, the remaining thickness of lining can be monitored.
Radioactive materials methods have had a significant impact on controlling atmospheric
emissions. Radioactive measurements and on-stream analysers are also used for monitoring and
controlling the ash and moisture content in coal and coke.
Aircraft and ships

Another important application made possible by the ability of radiation to penetrate matter is
radiography or radiographic inspection. This well-established technique consists of taking a
picture of gamma rays which pass through an object to search for defects in a casting or weld.
Just as an X-ray allows a doctor to obtain a detailed picture of a bone fracture, an industrial Xray examination permits the foundry worker to obtain a detailed picture of an internal crack in a
metal casting.
In Australia, both civil and military aircraft are inspected by radiography during their regular
maintenance schedules. Jet engines are checked for correct functioning by remotely exposing a
radioactive source inside the engine and creating an image on a film. The exposed film can then
be examined to identify any faults in the engine.
Aircraft manufacturers require radiographic inspection of all wing structure components on
commercial aircraft. Similarly, shipbuilding firms require radiographic inspection of up to 10,000
welds on a single hull.
Inspecting welds in pipelines
The most frequent application of gamma radiography is the inspection of the welds in highpressure, large diameter pipelines. A radioactive source is placed inside the pipe and the film is
attached to the outside of the weld.
For examining pipelines that are hundreds of kilometres long, sophisticated, self-propelled
crawlers which actually travel in and along the pipe are used. Virtually all new natural gas or oil
pipeline systems are checked with this kind of radiographic inspection equipment.
Radiographic techniques are used extensively in inspecting petroleum and gas pipeline welding.
The petroleum industry also uses density and liquid level radioactive gauges.
Mineral analysis
Neutrons and gamma ray techniques can be used for mineral analysis. Neutrons can interact with
atoms in a sample causing the emission of gamma rays which, when analyzed for characteristic
energies and intensity, will identify the types and quantities of elements present. These
techniques are used for online analysis in cement, mineral and coal industries. Another
application is to establish the density of water in soil, such as in borehole logging, where a
neutron source can be contained in a probe that can be lowered into the hole.
Gamma ray transmission or scattering can be used to determine the ash content of coal online on
a conveyor belt. X-ray fluorescence is used to determine element concentrations, for example, in
process streams of mineral concentrators. Probes containing radioisotopes and a detector can be
immersed directly into slurry streams.
Oil, petrol and gas
Radionuclides have been used in a variety of ways in oil exploration for many years. They
provide the only convenient means of locating and evaluating underground flow patterns.
Radioactive material measurement can help determine the best location for an oil well and is
important in reducing the costs of oil exploration.

When testing motor oils and lubricants, oil companies use radioactive tracers to measure friction
wear in a petrol engine without dismantling the engine, or even stopping it. This method of
measuring wear and tear is much quicker than other methods and more can be learned in a few
hours than used to be possible by running an engine for a month!
Silicon chips in computers
The computer and electronic industries have high demand for high quality, precisely doped
silicon. Irradiation of silicon ingots in a reactor accurately changes its semi-conducting
properties by bombarding it with neutrons for precise periods and converting some atoms to
phosphorus. The electronic properties of the silicon change with decreased resistively, make it
valuable to use in high quality electronic equipment.