Chemical Monitoring and Management

Much of the work of chemists involves monitoring the reactants and

products of reactions and managing conditions.
Outline the role of a chemist employed in a named industry, identifying the branch of
chemistry undertaken and explaining a chemical principle that the chemist uses
Chemist X
Industry or enterprise: plant chemist at an Australian [pant that manufactures
ethylene from ethane and polymerise it to form polyethylene
Branch of Chemistry: analytical as most of his work revolves around using a gas
chromatograph
Chemical principles used: adsorption and solubility
Identify the need for collaboration between chemists as they collect and analyse data
Need for Collaboration
Many chemical problems require expertise from more than one branch of
chemistry
E.g. producing ethylene can require
o Physical chemistry: equilibrium and rate considerations
o Organic chemistry: how the reaction occurs, optimizing yield
o Analytic chemistry: monitor quantities of materials and products
o Industrial chemistry: scale up equipment
o Environmental chemistry: different wastes
Chemists must work together but also with other scientists e.g. pollution
problems that require a range of scientists (chemistry, biology, ecology, botany,
geography etc.)
Branches of Chemistry
o Analytical
o Environment
o Pharmaceuti
o Physical
al
cal
o Polymer
o Nuclear
o Organic
o
Industrial
o Forensic
o Inorganic
o Food
o
o Describe an example of a chemical reaction such as combustion where
reactants form different products under different conditions and thus
would need monitoring
o Combustion
Combustion = reaction with O2, releasing heat
o
Complete
o Propane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
o
o
o
Incomplete
o Propane + oxygen carbon monoxide + water
o
o
o
o Need for Monitoring
To ensure maximum product is formed

Ensure unwanted products are minimized

No pollutants are being produced
Reaction is going to completion in the favored direction
Efficient energy use
Maximum production
o
o Chemical processes in industry require monitoring and
management to maximise production
o Identify and describe industrial uses of ammonia, that it can be
synthesized from N2 and H2; it is a reversible reaction and is exothermic
o The Haber Process
A process of synthesizing ammonia from its reactants nitrogen and hydrogen
Typically the reaction moves left to produce more product, and by theory
o Reactant increase
o Increase pressure (4mol2mol)
o Removal of products
o Decrease temperature (not enough initial heat)
The compromise s the Haber process
o Ammonia
Uses
o Fertilizer (ammonium nitrate, urea)
o Fibres and plastics (rayon, acrylics, nylon)
o Nitric acid which in turn makes fertilizer, dyes, fibres, plastics, explosives
and nitroglycerine
o Household cleaners
o Detergents
Synthesis of Ammonia
o
(Fe3O4)

N2(g) + H2(g) 2NH3

o

H = -92kJ/mol

o at ordinary pressure, the reaction lies left

o
o explain why the rate of reaction is increased by higher temperatures
rate of reaction is increased by higher temperatures as more heat gives
molecules more energy which is necessary to achieve activation temperature
and react
this is important to consider how long it takes for a reaction to occur
o
o explain why the yield is reduced at higher using Le Chetaliers principle
for the Haber process , when temperatures are lowered, the equation moves
right to compensate. Thus, higher temperatures actually produce a lesser yield
as heat is a product

o N2(g) + H2(g) 2NH3 + heat

o

o explain why the Haber process is based on a delicate balancing act

involving reaction energy, reaction and equilibrium
o Equilibrium

1.

2.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Pressure
o 4moles 2moles
o Haber process increases pressure to force reaction right
o can also increase products to increase pressure
Temperature
o need to reduce heat for reaction rate but reduces energy for the reaction
Reaction Rate
o lowering the temperature increases reaction rate but reduces energy for
the reaction to start and continue
Compromise
o 700K
o 2.5x104kPa (250 x atmospheric pressure)
o catalyst, increased pressure
catalyst the catalyst is not used in the reaction, it is equilibrium. it can help
speed up the reaction; magnetite: Fe3O4
increased pressure forces reaction right i.e. more products
o
o explain why monitoring of the reaction vessel in the Haber process is
crucial and discuss the monitoring required
o Monitoring the Haber Process
temperature and pressure keep them in optimum range; as excessive
temperature can damage catalyst
ratio of hydrogen to nitrogen 3H:N to avoid build up
concentrations of oxygen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and sulfur
compounds low 02 to reduce risk of explosion, low CO and CO2 to reduce
pollution and prevent poisoning of catalyst
concentration of argon and methane these lower efficiency of vessel
purity of ammonia product pure products, no impurities enter
o
o Manufactured foods, drugs and household chemicals are analysed
to determine or ensure their chemical composition
o deduce the ions present in a sample from the results of tests
o Identifying Cations in Solution
o Two problems
identification od the one and only cation present
a. to identify one cation, precipitation are used
i. HCl precipitates out with Pb2+
ii. H2SO4 precipitates out with Ba2+ or Ca2+
iii. NaOH precipitates out to with Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+
identification of all the ions present
o
o Identifying Anions in Solution
Carbonate acid + carbonate carbon dioxide + salt + water
Sulfate add Ba(NO3)2 produces white precipitate; Pb(NO3)2 produces white
precipitate
Chloride AgNO3 produces white precipitate; dissolves in ammonia and darkens
in sunlight
Phosphate - + ammonia + Ba(NO3)2 produces white precipitate
o
o Flame Tests
The flame colour indicates the type of cation present, independent of anion

this is due to energy levels electrons. When an electron reaches a higher energy
level in absorbs energy and light is released
multiple colours indicate multiple electron changes
iron orange
sodium yellow/orange
calcium orange/red
potassium rose/lilac
barium apple green
copper orange/yellow/green
Need for Monitoring
produce must be monitored for standards, stated specification (active
ingredients) and so they dont have unacceptable levels of impurities
some impurities are ionic compounds. thus, it can be determined qualitatively
and then quantitatively if cations or anions are present
The Big Six
OH SO42 PO43NO3 CO32
NH4

describe the use of AAS is detecting concentrations of metal ions in solutions

and asses its impact on scientific understanding of the effects of trace elements
Atomic Emission Spectroscopy
when electrons are excited they move to a higher energy state. As they lose
energy , they go back to their previous state and light is released as a result
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
developed by Australians
ions (usually metal) are dissolved to create a solvent that can be sprayed
different ions observe different lengths of light
a beam of light is shone through a sample of heated sample of the ion.
Depending in the substance, some light is blocked out and this is read by the
AAS. This depends on the absorbance of the substance.

measurements use almost 100% of the substance

different lights can be used

Human activity has caused changes in the composition and the

structure of the atmosphere. Chemists monitor these changes so that
further damage can be limited.
describe the composition and structure of the atmosphere
The Atmosphere
troposphere most cloud mass
Stratosphere cold, jet stream blows from west
Mesosphere thin air that begins to ionize, gradually changes to hydrogen
helium
Thermosphere hot outer layer
Ionosphere 0 molecules are ionized by energy and bombardment
Magnetosphere where the earths magnetic fields trap polar wind particles and
accelerated them in spirals between poles\Exosphere interfaces with particles
in space

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identify the main pollutants found in the lower atmosphere and their sources
Pollutants
Ozone (03)
o formed by reactions of NO2
o incomplete combustion
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
o cars and fuels fires
o poisonous, binds easily to Hb
Carbon Dioxide
o power stations
Oxides of Nitrogen (NxOy)
o cars, fuel fires
o brown haze
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
o power stations, fuel fires
o smells like rotten eggs
Describe ozone as a molecule able to act both as an upper UV radiation shield
and a lower atmosphere pollutant.
Ozone in the upper Atmosphere
In an ozone reaction in the upper atmosphere, O2 is combined with O by UVB
radiation. This absorbs the UVB rays, preventing them from reaching earth.

Ozone in the Lower Atmosphere

interactions between car exhaust fumes and sunlight lead to free O, which is
highly reactive
It reacts to form ozone and this is a very string oxidisnig agent
it can react with other chemicals aggressively to alter their form
Ozone can result in serious respiratory problems through lung tissue damage

describe the formation of a coordinate covalent bond. demonstrate the

formation of coordinate covalent bonds using Lewis electron dot structures
Coordinate Covalent Bonds
in a coordinate covalent bonds one atom provides all the electrons to be shared
.requires some form of activation energy
Ammonia

Oxygen and Ozone

H3O+

NO3-

compare the properties of oxygen and allotropes oxygen and ozone and
account for them on the basis of molecular structure and bonding. compare the
properties of the gaseous forms of oxygen and the oxygen free radical
Oxygen Allotropes
An allotrope is the different forms of the same element
Oxygen Atoms have six electrons in their outer shell, They are very reactive as
the octet is short two electrons.
Free oxygen (O) is only found in small quantities in the upper atmosphere
Oxygen
each atom has a common pool of four electrons
oxygen is colorless, odourless and tasteless
boiling point of -183C
reasonably stable and slightly soluble in water
good oxidizing agent, but requires start up heat
reactivity is due to the DOUBLE BOND
it is a fairly reactive molecule as a double bond is less stable tan a single bond
Ozone
coordinate covalent bond
an asymmetrical molecule
more reactive than oxygen gas as the asymmetry causes the double and single
bond to move continuously, forming a resonance structure
light blue gas, boiling point -111C
brilliant blue liquid
pungent odour, lung irritant
more soluble in water, can be used in place of chlorine to kill pool bacteria
decomposes to O2 when heated
Oxygen Free Radical
highly reactive, the most reactive as it need to fill its outer shell

identify the origins of chlorofluorocarbons and halons in the atmosphere.

discuss the problems associated with the use of CFCs and assess the
effectiveness of steps taken to alleviate these problems
CFCs and Halons
This group includes, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs), halons and methyl halides
CFCs
o somewhat unreactive
o containing all chlorines and fluorines branching off the main carbon chain
o unreactive, odourless, non-toxic, non-flammable
o invented to replace ammonia in fridges
o safe at sea level, highly reactive in the upper atmosphere
o 80g of CFC-12 can destroy 3 tonnes of ozone

Halons
o contain fluorine and bromine
o invented in the war as a non-toxic gas to put out submarine fires
o more destructive to ozone than CFCs
o ten times more destructive
identify and name examples of isomers of haloalkanes up to eight carbons
Single bonds refer to an ANE
haloalkanes can also have Br, F, Cl and I. These are named from the smallest
number rightleft or leftright, and then alphabetically.

discuss the problems associated with the use of CFCs and assess the
effectiveness of steps taken to alleviate these problems
The Ozone Layer
CFCs effectively deplete the ozone layer I the atmosphere, this disrupts natural
cycles and allows UV radiation to reach the earth, having dire consequences in
terms of skin, cellular and eye health
Effectiveness of Counter Measures
putting in place satellites and earth stations to monitor ozone loss. This draws
attention to the problem but is not a fix
better sunscreens. Treats the symptoms not the cause
educated to avoid using ozone-depletes. responsible people listen and act, but
what about hose that dont understand or cant afford it.
Montreal protocol has listed a range of ozone-destroying chemicals and given
each a number that indicates its destructiveness. It is a start, but there is the
issue of disposal
Australia has signed the Montreal protocol. This is fine from richer countries that
can afford to remove these products. But what about the poorer countries that
produce these chemicals as a means of economic boost? or who simply cant
afford to use the alternatives?
Human Activity also impacts on waterways. Chemical monitoring and
management and management assist in providing safe water for
human use and to protect the habitats of other organisms.
Identify that water quality can be determined by concentration of common ions,
total dissolved solids, hardness, turbidity, acidity, dissolved oxygen and
biochemical oxygen demand
Water Testing
Concentration of common ions
o water can be tested for

Cations: Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, K+

Anions Cl-, SO42-, HCO3-, Fo All these ions can affect the quality of drinking water. Sodium, potassium
and chloride ions indicate the salinity of the catchment area. too much
salt in the diet can increase blood pressure and the risk of heart attack
and stroke. Also, the water forms scum precipitates and soap doesnt
lather properly.
o For cations, AAS is used to test the water in laboratories, as well as the
use of flame tests.
o For anions, usually precipitate reactions are used. Cl ions are tested by
precipitation of soluble silver salts. only silver, lead and mercury react
with chloride ions
Total dissolved solids
o a large water sample is filtered and the weight of the solids that have
been removed from the solution are weight and expressed as ppm or
mg/kg (mg/L)
Water hardness
o this is common from water sources that have passed through limestone or
are evaporative deposits
o it is caused by the presence of magnesium and calcium ions in the water.
it forms scum on the sides of bathtubs and soap is useless against it.
o excess soluble sodium carbonate is added to the solution, the precipitate
of calcium carbonate is filtered, dried and weighed. The mass of calcium is
expressed in ppm
Water turbidity
o the clarity of the water.
o a sample of water can be compared over a black and white background
and compared to MacFarlanes scale of turbidity.
Acidity
o universal indicator, pH meter. pH is supposed to be 7
o greatly less than seven can kill the life in the waterway. This usually
comes from pesticides and chemicals in soil runoff.
Dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen demand
o low BOD and Do can result in the death of the organisms in the water
source.
o oxygen probe
o BOD: DO is measured on days 1 and 5 and the difference is BOD. can be
measured using stream watch kits.
Identify factors that affect the concentrations of a range of ions in solution in
natural bodies of water such as rivers and oceans
Ion Sources in Water and Rivers
Chemical Weathering of Minerals
o The water cycle causes water to evaporate and when it rains the water
runs on top of and under the ground. It moves rocks and soil, chemically
weathering minerals and carrying ions towards streams and rivers.
o Limestone is a rich source of calcium and carbonate ions
Irrigation Increases the Salt in rivers
o Irrigation water is often made to flow through rocks which contain old salt
deposits and encourages further weathering of minerals
Water Washes Minerals to the Sea
o High rainfall flushes river systems, reducing the ion concentrations

Dams Encourage Salinity

o Dams prevent rivers flushing. The water behind dams becomes
increasingly saline
Plants Extract Salts from Groundwater
o In peat bogs, sand and wetlands containing plants water is filtered
through the systems and ions are naturally extracted by plants
Sea Animals Extract Calcium and Carbonate Ions
o Molluscs and crustaceans
Nitrate and Phosphate Ions
o Excessive nitrates and phosphates cause eutrophication of water. The
water is green and full of nutrients. Nitrogen and phosphorus, if not
filtered out by plants, cause the growth of blue-green algae. Blue-green
algae can create toxins that poison the aquatic environment and its
aquatic life
Describe and assess the effectiveness of methods used to purify and sanitise
mass water supplies
Methods of Water Purification
Filtration
o The physical process of removing particles and items in the water system.
Screens and sieves filter out rocks and sticks, sand and gravel etc.
o This is highly effective for filtering out large particles to begin the process
Coagulation and Flocculation
o Chemicals are added to the water to cause smaller particles to floc
together, these settle to the bottom of the filtration solution.
o This is effective because it removes all the small particles as well
Clarification
o The flocked solids are pumped out of the basin
o Removes all particles and leaves water pure
Chlorination and Fluoridation
o Chlorine is added to kill of microorganisms. It can also be added with small
amounts of ammonia to help this.
o Fluoride is added for dental hygiene
Describe the design and composition of microscopic membrane filters and
explain how they purify contaminated water
Microscopic Membrane Filters
A thin film of synthetic polymer through which there are pores of reasonably
uniform size. They are used to filter drinking water and treating waste water
They can be made of polypropylene, polyvinylchloride, polycarbonate, polyester,
polysulfone and polytetrafluoroethene
They are classified by size nanometre, microfiltration, ultrafiltration,
nanofiltration
There are 2 main types
o A sheet of porous material folded around a central rigid porous core
o Porous material formed into hollow capillaries PICTURE