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Aero-Engine Design

Hany Moustapha
Professor and Director, Aero-ETS
Ecole Technologie Superieure, University of Quebec
Senior Technology Advisor
2
Pratt & Whitney Canada

Aero-Engine Design

Copyright Statement
This course handbook is mainly used as a reference material for
lectures given at Pratt & Whitney Canada Inc. and at educational
institutions in Canada, U.S.A. and Europe. No part of this publication
may be reproduced, disclosed or distributed without written
authorization from Pratt & Whitney Canada Inc. Some figures used
in this volume are from the references listed in the handbook.
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Lectures Outline

Gas turbine cycles

Propulsion
Energy transfer in turbomachines
Flow in turbomachines
Performance characteristics
Aerodynamic losses
Compressors
Combustion
Turbines
Systems
Design process and evolution

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References
Cohen H., Rogers G.F.C. & Saravanamuttoo H.I.H., Gas Turbine Theory, Longman.
Dixon S.L., Fluid Mechanics, Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery, Pergamon Press.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

Shepherd D.G., Principles of Turbomachinery, MacMillan.

Vavra H., Aerothermodynamics & Flow in Turbomachines, J. Wiley.
Yoshinaka Y., Sampath P & Moustapha H., Gas Turbines - Handbook of Fluid Dynamics and
Fluid Machinery, J. Wiley.
Sawyers Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook, Volume 1.
The Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine and its Operation, United Technologies - Pratt & Whitney.
The Jet Engine, Rolls Royce Publications
Balje O.E., Turbomachines : A Guide to Design, Selection and Theory, J. Wiley.
Lakshminarayana B., Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer of Turbomachinery, J. Wiley.
Horlock J.H., Axial Flow Turbines, Krieger.
Horlock J.H., Axial Flow Compressors, Butterworths.
Turbines Design & Applications, NASA SP-290, Volume 1,2 and 3.
Aerodynamic Design of Axial Flow Compressors, NASA SP-36.
Axial and Radial Turbine Design, Moustapha H. et al, Concepts-NREC

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Gas Turbine Cycles

Compressible flow relations

Brayton cycle : thermal efficiency and specific work
Closed and open cycles
Cycle modifications : intercooling, reheat and
regeneration
Efficiencies : overall, stage and polytropic
Combustion efficiency, pressure losses and variation of
specific heats
Gas turbine applications
Shaft arrangements : single and multi-spool

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First Law of Thermodynamics

Q-W

ho2 - ho1

ho

h + V2 / 2

To

T + V2 / 2 Cp

Cp (To1 - To2) for Q = 0

Cp (To2 - To1) for W = 0

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Compressible Flow Relations

Stagnation conditions : Po and To

( Po / P )

= ( To / T ) / -1

( Po1 / P1 ) = ( To1 / T1 ) / -1
( Po2 / Po1 ) = ( To2 / To1 ) / -1
( Po2 / P1 ) = ( To2 / T1 ) / -1

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Mach Number Relations

Mach Number M = V / ( R T ) 0.5

Subsonic, sonic and supersonic
Nozzle and diffuser

To / T = 1 + ( - 1 / 2 ) M2
Po / P = [ 1 + ( - 1 / 2 ) M2 ] / -1
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Positive Displacement Machines vs Turbomachines

AIR INTAKE

COMPRESSION

COMBUSTION
Continuous

FUEL

EXHAUST
Propulsive gases

Gas Turbine
>>1/4 lb/hp

Piston Engine
>> 2 lb/hp
AIR/FUEL INTAKE

COMPRESSION

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COMBUSTION
Intermittent

EXHAUST
Waste gases

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Horsepower of a Single Gas Turbine Blade

Business Jet = 200 hp

Military fighter = 400 hp
Large commercial = 900 hp
Gas Turbine Blade

Piston Engine
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Fuel Burn
Fuel Consumption/100 passengers-kms (litres)
Sport car

10

Family car

Train

Aircraft 2

1% SFC reduction:
$1M/AC/Year or $100M saving for 100AC fleet
10 PAX
CO2/NOX reduction
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Gas Turbine Design Steps

Market
research

Specification

Customer
requirements

Preliminary studies:choice of cycle,

type of turbomachinery,
layout

Thermodynamic design
point studies
Mode re
aerodynamics

Off-design
performance

Aerodynamics of
compressor, turbine,
intake, exhaust, etc

Component test rigs:

compressor, turbine,
combustion , etc

Mods re
stressing

Stress design:stressing of discs,

blades, casing, vibration, whirling,
bearing

Uprated and
modified versions
Design mode

Control system
studies

Mechanical design

Test and development

Production

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After sales service

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Closed and Open Gas Turbine Systems

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Closed Cycles
Dangerous atmosphere : nuclear reactors
Reduce erosion of turbine blades from products of
combustion
No filtration of incoming air
Uses gases with higher specific heat ratio
Needs external heating system
Impose temperature difference between combustion
gases and working fluid
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Applications
Hydro, steam and gas turbines for electric power generation
Aircraft propulsion : turboprop, turboshaft, turbofan and
turbojet
Aircraft auxiliary power units
Pump drives for gas or liquid pipelines
Land and marine applications
Expansion units in gas liquefaction and cryogenic
refrigeration processes
Space power systems
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Industrial Applications

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Aircraft Propulsion

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Turbomachine Components

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The Ideal Brayton Cycle

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Cycle Analysis
Wnet
QA
QR
Wnet

=
=
=
=
=

th

= Wnet / QA

: Thermal Efficiency

r
t

= Po2 / Po1
= To3 / To1

: Pressure Ratio
: Temperature Ratio

th

= 1 - 1 / r -1/

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WT - WC = QA- QR
cp ( To3 - To2 )
cp ( To4 - To1 )
cp ( To3 - To4 ) - cp ( T o2 - To1 )
cp ( To3 - To2) - cp ( To4 - To1 )

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Thermal Efficiency

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Specific Work Output

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Specific Work Output

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Effect of Pressure Ratio and Turbine Inlet Temperature

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The Gas Intercooling Cycle

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The Gas Reheat Cycle

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The Gas Regenerative Cycle

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Thermal Efficiency for a Regenerative Cycle

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The Regenerative, Reheat and Intercooling Cycle

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Effect of Cycle Modifications

Modification to
simple cycle

Effect on Efficiency

Effect on Work

Regeneration

+ 50%

0%

Intercooling

- 6.5%

+ 10.2%

Reheat

- 10.4%

+ 24.5%

Reheat + Regeneration

+ 66.7%

+ 24.5%

Intercool + Regeneration

+ 68%

+ 10.2%

Intercool + Reheat +

- 18.2%

+ 34.7%

Intercool + Reheat +
Regeneration

+ 80%

+ 34.7%

All calculations are performed for a cycle with rp=4 and t-T3/T1=3 and equal division of the overall
pressure ratio in compression or expansion, corresponding to maximum work output, is assumed when
intercooling or reheat are used.
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Combined Gas-Steam Turbine Cycle : COGAS

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Cogeneration Plant

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Gas Turbine for Aircraft Engines

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Isentropic Efficiencies

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Turbine Reheat Effect

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Compressor Preheat Effect

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Effect of Component Efficiencies on Cycle Performance

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Pressure Losses

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Variation of Specific Heats

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Combustion Temperature Rise

Combustion temperature rise, K (assuming complete combustion)

Combustion temperature rise, K (assuming complete combustion)

Fuel/air ratio

Fuel/air ratio

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Shaft Arrangements
Single Shaft
Suitable for fixed speed and load conditions
Efficiency at part speed is unimportant
Reduced danger of overspeed : high inertia due to compressor
drag
Twin-Shaft : Free Power Turbine
Mechanically independent compressor and power/fan turbine :
optimum performance
Starter unit for Gas Generator (compressor and compressor
turbine)
Small reduction gearbox
Rapid overspeeding of power turbine if electric load removed
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Single Spool

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Twin Spool

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Propulsion

Propulsion engines
Gross and net thrust
Propulsive, thermal and overall efficiency
Thrust specific fuel consumption and specific thrust
Intake
Propelling nozzles
Factors affecting thrust : cycle parameters, cruising speed,
altitude and climate
Turbojet, turbofan and turboprop
Thrust augmentation and reversal
Noise suppression
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Lorins Jet Engine : 1913

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Frank Whittle Turbojet Engine : 1930

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Pressure Variation in a Turbojet

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Pressure and Temperature Stations in a Turbojet

P1
T1

P2
T2

P3
T3

P4
T4

P5
T5

P6
T6

P0 T0

AMBIENT

P4 T4

TURBINE ENTRY

P1 T1

INTAKE

P5 T5

HIGH PRESSURE TURBINE EXIT

P2 T2

LOW PRESSURE

P6 T6

LOW PRESSURE TURBINE EXIT

P7 T7

EXHAUST

P8 T8

PROPELLING NOZZLE

P7
T7

COMPRESSOR DELIVERY
P3 T3 HIGH PRESSURE
COMPRESSOR DELIVERY

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Gross and Net Thrust

All pressures are total pressures except p which is the static pressure at the propelling nozzle
W = Weight of air passing through engine (lb. per sec.)
vj = Jet stream velocity (ft. per sec.)
P = Static pressure across propelling nozzle (lb. per sq. in.)
Po = Atmospheric pressure (lb. per sq. in.)
A = Propelling nozzle area (sq. in.)
V = Aircraft speed (ft. per sec.)

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Engine Thrust
Forward velocity, V0

Flow, m0
Pressure, p0
Inlet Momentum
Drag
m0V0
Thrust on engine,

Exhaust nozzle area, Aj

pj

Vj
mj = m0 + mf

Fuel, mf
Exhaust Momentum
Gross Thrust
(m0 + mf) Vj

Nozzle Pressure
Thrust
Aj(pj - p0)
F = (m0 + mf) Vj - m0 V0

Aj (pj - p0)

Momentum thrust
Pressure thrust
Typical engine @ cruise, F = 1350 - 700
+
150
= 800 lb.
@ sea level take off, Fn gross thrust = 4100 lb.
For mf m0 and p0 = pj
high F with high Vj
Turbojet
F=m0(Vj - V0)
high F with high m0
Turboprop
Example: Turbofan Engine @ SLTO mo=132.7 lb/s; Vo=0
@ 43,000 ft cruise: mo=36.5 lb/s, Vo=630ft/s, Vj=1193 ft/s, pj=2.77 psig, Aj= 350sq in
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Propulsive Efficiency

Ratio of useful propulsive energy to available energy

p = F V0 / [F V0 + 1/2 m0 (Vj - V0)2]
Remember that F = m0 V0 [(Vj / V0) -1]
simplifying p = 2 / [1 + (Vj / V0)]
Thus, if Vj V0 ; Thrust, F is maximum but,
if Vj / V0 = 1; Propulsive efficiency is maximum, but

p
F

0
0

In practice, Vj must be greater than V0 but not by too much!

Example : Typical turbofan @ 43,000 ft Cruise, Vj / V0 = 1.78 = 72%

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Propulsive Efficiencies and Aircraft Speed

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Turbofan Engine

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Turboprop Engine

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Thermal Efficiency
Ratio of available energy to fuel energy supplied
th = F V 0 + 1/2 m0 (Vj - V0)2
mf LHV
with fuel flow rate, mf lb/s
and
Lower Heating Value of fuel, LHV ~ 18,400 BTU/lb
simplifying,

th = (Vj2 - V02) / [2 LHV mf / m0)]

Example : Typical turbofan engine at cruise fuel/air ratio, (mf/m0) = 0.004, th = 29%

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Overall Efficiency
Ratio of propulsive work to fuel energy supplied
ov = F V 0 / (mf LHV)
simplifying,

ov = p th
Example: Typical turbofan at cruise, ov = 19%

Define TSFC, Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption = mf/F lb (hr lgf)

Thus,

ov = V0 / LHV TSFC)

Specific Aircraft Range, SAR = V0/mf = V0/ (F TSFC) = OV LHV/F

For high SAR, need high ov (=p, th, ), Vj Vo and low F @ Cruise Design Point
Example: Typical twin engine business aircraft, SAR ~ 0.86 miles per lb of fuel

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Specific Fuel Consumption and Specific Thrust

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The Turbojet

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Ram Effect and Adiabatic Efficiency

Ram Pressure Rise
Ram Recovery Factor

Po1 - P a
Po1 / P oa

In take Isentropic Efficiency

i = Toli - Ta / To1 - Ta
Intake Ram Efficiency
= Po1 - Pa / Poa - Pa
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Ram Effect on Thrust

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Propelling Nozzles

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Con and Con-Di Nozzles

Convergent Con Nozzles
- Po4 / Pa >> Po4 / Pc where Pc : critical P at M = 1
- Used by most aircraft : P04 / Pa up to 3
- Variable area, thrust reverser and noise suppressor
Convergent-Divergent Con-Di Nozzles
- For supersonic aircraft
- Variable exit/throat area ratio
j = T o4 - T 5 / T o4 - T 5i
P o4/P c
= 1/ [ 1 - ( - 1 ) / j ( + 1 ) ] / -1
= 1.85 for = 1.33 and j = 100%
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Factors Affecting Thrust

Related to ENGINE:
RPM
compressor PR and turbine WORK
EXHAUST NOZZLE SIZE
jet VELOCITY
FUEL FLOW RATE
combustor HEAT generation
COMPRESSOR BLEED FLOW increased turbine SPECIFIC WORK
TURBINE INLET TEMPERATURE
COMPONENT PERFORMANCE

Related to MEDIUM in which engine operates:

FORWARD SPEED
AIR DENSITY

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thrust decrease and more fuel required, TSFC high

high altitude drops pressure & temperature (upto 36,000)
cold day, density high and, thus high F
hot day, density low and engine runs faster to maintain F
until TIT limit
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Effect of Pressure Ration and Turbine Inlet Temperature

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Effect of Aircraft Speed

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Effect of Air Pressure and Temperature

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Effect of Altitude

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The Turbofan or Fanjet : Characteristics

Originally conceived to improve propulsive efficiency by
reducing jet velocity
Combines good operating efficiency and high thrust capability
of a turboprop and the high speed and altitude capability of a
turbojet
Cold (fan) nozzle/thrust and hot (engine) nozzle/thrust
By pass ratio BPR : secondary airflow through outer fan to
primary airflow through basic engine
Fan contribution to total thrust (30 to 75%) depending on BPR
Low noise with respect to turbojet : lower jet velocity and
mixing of exit cool and hot air
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The Turbofan or Fanjet : Characteristics

BPR 0.5 to 10
Front fan or aft fan
Non-mixed or mixed exhausts
Short or long ducts
G.E. CF6 on Jumbos 50,000 lbs thrust, twin spool and BPR of 5
Rolls Royce RB-211 : 3 spools and 5:1 BPR
P&WA JT-8D on 727, DC-9 and 737 : 2 spools, 1:1 BPR and
15,000 lbs thrust
P&WA PW4000 : 70 - 80,000 lbs thrust on B777 and A330
P&WC JT-15D and PW500 on Citation : 2 spools, 3:1 BPR and
2500 lbs thrust
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Turbofan Configurations

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Turbofan Configurations

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Turbofan Configurations

Dual-Compressor Turbofan with an Afterburner

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JT9D Turbofan Pressures and Temperatures

Pt (PSIA)
o

Tt ( F)

14.7
o

59

22.6
o

130

32.1
o

210

22.4

316
o

130

880

302
o

Vj = 885

20.9
o

1970

850

Vj = 1190

FT/SEC

FT/SEC

AT SEA LEVEL STATIC TAKEOFF THRUST OF 43,500 LBS, WT = 1248 LBS/SEC, WC = 247 LBS/SEC

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The Turboprop and Turboshaft : Characteristics

High propulsive efficiency at aircraft speed of 200 to 400 m.p.h.
Very high BPR : 20 to 50 for turboprops and 250 for turboshafts
(helicopter)
Propeller or shaft driven through a speed-reducing gear systems
Difference from shaft power unit : some of the useful output
appears as jet thrust
Lower jet velocity : lower noise (except for propeller)
P&WC T/P PW100 : 1800 to 5500 SHP on ATR, Fokker,
Dornier, DeHavilland,
P&WC T/S PT6 500 to 700 SHP on Sikorsky and Bell

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Turboprop Configuration

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Turboshaft Configuration

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Thrust and Power

Thrust Horsepower THP
= SHP ( propeller ) + F Ca
= SHP ( propeller) + [ m ) Cj - Ca) + Aj (Pj - Pa) ] Ca

Equivalent Shaft Horsepower ESHP

= THP / ( propeller )
= SHP + F Ca / ( propeller )

Propeller produces 8.5 N of thrust/KW power under

static conditions
Take-Off ESHP = SHP = F / 8.5
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Thrust Augmentation : Afterburners

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Thrust Reversal

CLAMSHELL DOORS IN FORWARD THRUST POSITION

EJECTOR RETRACTED - FORWARD THRUST

EJECTOR EXTENDED - BUCKET DEFLECTOR DOORS IN

FORWARD THRUST POSITION

CLAMSHELL DOORS IN REVERSE THRUST POSITION

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BUCKET DEFLECTOR DOORS IN REVERSE

THRUST POSITION

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Noise Suppression : Mixer

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Energy Transfer in Turbomachines

Types of turbomachines : axial, radial and mixed

Euler equation
Velocity triangles
Components of energy transfer
Degree of reaction
Rothalphy
Design governing equations

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Classification of Turbomachines
Power conversion
Produce power : Turbines
Absorb power : Compressors

Type of fluid
Incompressible fluids : Hydraulic machinery
Compressible fluids : Thermal machinery

Casing
Open type or unshrouded : Propellers, windmills,
Closed type or shrouded : conventional turbines, pumps,

Flow path w.r.t. axis of rotation

Axial flow
Radial Flow
Mixed Flow
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Types of Turbomachines

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General Turbomachine Flow

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Euler Equations
Axial & Meridional (Radial) Flow Velocity Components : V a & Vm
Do not contribute to energy transfer
Determine flow rate in axial and radial turbomachines
Change in velocity generates force absorbed by the bearings

Tangential Flow Velocity Components : V u

Determine the energy transfer across the turbomachine

Change in magnitude and radius = change in fluid angular momentum

Newtons Law of Motion

Torque = Rate of change of angular momentum
= m (r2 V u2 - r1 V u1)
m: mass flow rate in lb (kg) / sec
Power

= m ( r2 V u2 - r1 V ul)
= m (U2 Vu2 - U1 V u1)

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: turbomachine angular speed in rad/sec

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Euler Equations
W = Specific work
= ho2 - ho1
= U2 V u2 - U1 V u1
= U (V u2 - V u1 )

for U2 = U1

(Axial Machines)

U : Blade speed
Vu : Flow tangential velocity
W
- Positive for a compressor
- Negative for a turbine
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Velocity Triangles - Turbines

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Velocity Triangles - Compressors

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Pressure & Velocity Change in Axial Compressors

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Combined Velocity Triangles

Vu2

Vu1

= Vu
r2

Vr1
Vr2

r1

V1

V1

r1

V1

r2
Vr2

Vr1

V2

Va

Vru

Vu

Vu1

U
Vu2

U
U
= Stator Angles

r1 - r2 = Fluid Deflection

r = Rotor Angles

1 - 2

Absolute Flow OR Defelction

(measure of

work)

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Velocity Triangles : Turbines and Compressors

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General Velocity Triangles

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Components of Energy Transfer

Compressors : across rotor 1 to 2

W = U2 V u2 - U1 Vu1
= 1/2 [ ( U22 - U12 ) + ( Vrl2 - Vr22 ) + ( V22 - V12 ) ]
Turbines : across rotor 2 to 3
W = U2 V u2 - U3 V u3
= 1/2 [ ( U22 - U32 ) + ( Vr32 - Vr22 ) + ( V22 - V32 ) ]

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First Law for a Turbine Stage

Across the nozzle : Q = W = 0
ho1 = ho2
also To1 = To2
h1 - h2 = 1/2 ( V22 - V12)
Across the rotor :
W = ho2 - ho3 = (h2 - h3 ) = 1/2 ( V22 - V32 )
= U2 V u2 - U3 Vu3
= 1/2 [ ( U22 - U32 ) + ( Vr32 - Vr22 ) + ( V22 - V32 ) ]
Across the stage : Q = 0
W = ho1 - ho3 = ( ho1 - ho2 ) + ( ho2 - ho3 ) = ( ho2 - ho3 )
Across the ducts : Q = W = 0
h4 - h3 = 1/2 ( V32 - V42 )
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Rothalpy - Turbines
Rothalpy = hor - 1/2 U2 = Constant
= Change in rotational stagnation enthalpy
hor2 - 1/2 U22 = hor3 - 1/2 U32

h2 - h3 = 1/2 [ ( U22 - U32 ) - ( V r22 - Vr32 ) ]

For an Axial Turbine
hor2 = hor3 also Tor2 = Tor3
h2 - h3 = 1/2 [ ( V r32 - V r22 ) ]
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Degree of Reaction
Rotor energy w.r.t stage energy
Degree of acceleration in the rotor passages
Pressure based reaction
Rp = P2 - P3 / P1 - P3
Temperature based reaction
RT = T2 - T3 / T1 - T3
=
( U22 - U32 ) + Vr32 - Vr22 )
(U22 - U32 ) + ( Vr32 - Vr22 ) + ( V22 - V32 )
Aero-Engine Design

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Design Governing Equations - Turbines

Aero-Engine Design

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Design Governing Equations - Turbines

Aero-Engine Design

99

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Design Governing Equations - Turbines

Aero-Engine Design

100

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Flow in Turbomachines
Lift and drag
Lift and energy transfer
blading terminology
Turbine and compressor airfoils
Airfoil Mach number distribution
Three- dimensional flow

Aero-Engine Design

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Lift and Drag Forces

Lift and drag forces are caused by the sum of the tangential
and normal forces on the surface of the airfoil
Lift is a measure of the ability of an airfoil to transfer energy
L = CL ( V2 / 2 ) A , CL : Lift coefficient
Drag is a measure of the loss of energy associated with lift
D = CD ( V2 / 2 ) A, CD : Drag coefficient
Viscous or friction drag due to tangential stresses : flat plates
Form or pressure drag due to normal stresses : bluff bodies

Aero-Engine Design

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103

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Lift and Drag Forces

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Lift Coefficient and Energy Transfer

F = Tangential forces
= L cos m + D sin m
for compressors
= m (V u1 - V u2)
for compressors
2
Vm /2 ( CL cos m + CD sin m ) A = m ( V u1 - V u2 )
Va2/2 ( CL cos m + CD sin m ) h c / cos 2m
= Va2 s h ( tan 1 - tan 2)
CL = 2(s/c) ( tan 1 - tan 2 ) cos m - CD tan m
= 2 (s/c) (tan 1 - tan 2 ) cos m

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Blading Terminology
Leading Edge (L.E.)

Leading Edge

(L.E.)

Trailing Edge

(T.E.)

Pressure Surface

(PS)

Suction Surface

(SS)

Chord

(C)

Axial Chord

(Ca)

Stagger Angle

( )

Pitch or Spacing

(S)

Height or Span

(h)

Throat

(O)

Blade or Metal Angles

(1 , 2)

Flow or Gas Angles

(1, 2)

Incidence Angle

I= 1 - 1

Deviation Angle

= 2 2

Camber Angle

= 1 2

Flow Defection

= 1 2

Aspect Ratio

Inlet Blade
Angle (1)
Trailing Edge (T.E.)

Axial Chord (Ca)

Camber

Suction
Surface

Shroud (Tip)
Exist Blade Angle
(2)

Exit Flow
Angle (2)

Pressure
Surface

Height (h)

AR = h/c

Solidity

= C/S

Pitch Chord Ratio

S/C

Aero-Engine Design

Inlet Flow
Angle (1)

Hub (Root)

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Compressor and Turbine Airfoils

Aero-Engine Design

106

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Airfoil Mach Number Distribution

AXIAL DISTANCE FROM LEADING EDGE/AXIAL CHORD

Aero-Engine Design

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Two-Dimensional Airfoils
Large aspect ration : h/c
Constant velocity triangles from hub to tip
Neglect endwall effects

Aero-Engine Design

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Three-Dimensional Effects:
Theory of Radial Equilibrium

Aero-Engine Design

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Three-Dimensional Flow : Free-Vortex

Axial component of vorticity = Zero
Vur

= Constant

Va

= Constant with radius r

= Constant with radius r

tan

= Constant / r

= 1 - Constant / r2

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Performance Characteristics

Dimensional analysis
Similarity
Dimensionless groups
Performance characteristics

Aero-Engine Design

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Dimensional Analysis
Logical procedure whereby group of variables representing
some physical situation is reduced to a smaller number of
dimensional group
Experimental correlations easily derived with reduced
number of independent variables

Head, H m

N202

Head coefficient gH

Loci of dynamically
similar conditions
Key : x x 2500 rev/min
o o 3500
4500
+ + 5000

Note: gH in m2/s2
N rev/s
Q m 3/s
Dm

Observe deterioration in performance

at high speeds (effect is due to
cavitation)

Flow coefficient, Q /(ND3)

Volumetric flow rate Q

Aero-Engine Design

dm3/s

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Dimensional Analysis for Turbomachines

Prediction of prototypes performance from tests conducted
on a scale model Similarity
Examination of general behaviour of a turbomachine and
analysis of its overall Performance Characteristics
Determination and Selection of the most suitable type of
machine, on the basis of maximum efficiency, for a
particular application

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Similarity

Geometric similarity : same linear dimension ratios e.g.

aspect ratio, solidity, etc
Kinematic similarity : same velocity ratios e.g. Mach number,
flow velocity to blade speed, etc
Dynamic similarity : same ratios of different forces e.g.
similar streamline flow

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Dimensionless Groups for Turbomachines

Primary variables : Mass, Length, Time and Temperature
Dimensionless groups = secondary - primary variables
Geometric variables : inner/outer diameter, blade height,
chord, etc
Kinematic variables : rotational speed, flow velocity, etc
Performance variables : mass flow rate, power, efficiency,
pressure ratio, etc
Fluid properties : density, viscosity, ratio of specific heat, etc...

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Dimensionless Groups
Reynolds Number or viscous coefficient
Capacity coefficient, velocity or flow coefficient

Head coefficient, loading or energy transfer coefficient

Power coefficient
Specific speed or shape number
Aero-Engine Design

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Compressor Performance Characteristic

Aero-Engine Design

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Turbine Performance Characteristic

Aero-Engine Design

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Non-Dimensional Parameters

Pressure ratio
Mass flow parameter
Speed parameter
Efficiency
Reaction
Loss coefficients
Diffusion factors
Blade loading
Stage loading

P o1 / P o3 or Po1 / P3
m To1 / Po1
N / T o1
ts or tt
R
Y N and Y R
Ds and Dp

Flow coefficient
Aero-Engine Design

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Aerodynamic Losses
Classification
Loss coefficients and relations with efficiency
Loss estimation : experiments, correlations and analyses

Profile and annulus losses

Secondary losses
Tip leakage losses
Additional losses : shock, cooling, incidence,...
Aero-Engine Design

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Aerodynamic Losses

Aero-Engine Design

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Losses : Enthalpy-Entropy Chart

Aero-Engine Design

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Turbine Nozzle Loss Coefficients

Pressure Loss Coefficient
YN = (P o1 - P o2 ) / ( Po2 - P2 )
Enthalpy Loss Coefficient
N = (h2 - h2s ) / ( 0.5 V 22)
Velocity Loss Coefficient

N = V2 / V2s
YN = N (1 + 0.5 M22)
N = (1/ N2) - 1
Aero-Engine Design

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Turbine Rotor Loss Coefficients

Pressure Loss Coefficient
YR = ( Por2 - P or3 ) / ( Por3 - P3 )
Enthalpy Loss Coefficient
R = ( h3 - h3s ) / ( 0.5 Vr32)
Velocity Loss Coefficient

R = Vr3 / Vr3s
YR = R ( 1+ 0.5 Mr32)
R = ( 1/ R2 ) - 1
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Relations with Efficiency

Turbine efficiency from Enthalpy-Entropy diagram

tt
= (ho1 - ho3 ) / ( ho1 - ho3ss )
tt

Turbine efficiency from loss coefficients and velocity triangles

tt
= 1/1 + ( N V22 + R Vr32) / 2 (ho1 - ho3)

Aero-Engine Design

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Loss Estimation : Empirical Correlations

Aero-Engine Design

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Loss Estimation : 3D Viscous Analysis

0.7% Cl / h

Efficiency Change, %

1.4% Cl / h

3D Viscous Analysis
Experiments
Meanline Analysis

Tip Clearance/Blade Span, %

Aero-Engine Design

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Loss Breakdown

Aero-Engine Design

128

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Profile and Annulus Losses

Aero-Engine Design

129

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Secondary Flow

Aero-Engine Design

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Endwall Flows

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Secondary Loss

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Clearance Variation

Time
Aero-Engine Design

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Tip Leakage Mechanism

Aero-Engine Design

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Tip Clearance Flows

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Efficiency Change with Clearance - Turbines

Aero-Engine Design

136

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Effect of Mach Number - Shock Losses

Isentropic Exit Mach No.

Aero-Engine Design

137

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Effect of Reynolds Number

Aero-Engine Design

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Effect of Cooling

platform cooling

firtree leakage

shroud cooling

Aero-Engine Design

Percent Cooling

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Off-Design Operation - Incidence Losses

Aero-Engine Design

140

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Loss Models
Models for predicting design and off-design performance of
turbomachines
Loss systems are generally based on experimental data:
Cascades : 2D and 3D
Turbine rigs
Engines
In the form of empirical correlations or graphics:
Empirical corrrelations for each loss components
Graphics or efficiency multiplier
Should includes all the parameters affecting the loss
mechanisms
Capable of predicting the efficiency of any turbomachines
within 0.5%
Needs to be reviewed periodically to reflect new test results and
recent trends in turbomachines design
Aero-Engine Design

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Axial Compressors
Components and types
Velocity triangles
Energy transfer
Degree of reaction
Inlet guide vanes
Stage characteristics
Off-design performance
Stall and choke margin, compressor surge
Aero-Engine Design

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Axial Compressor Layout

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Single Spool Compressor

Aero-Engine Design

144

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Twin-Spool Compressor

Aero-Engine Design

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Fan and Multistage Axial Compressor

Aero-Engine Design

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147

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Fans

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Enthalpy-Entropy and Velocity Triangles

Aero-Engine Design

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Energy Transfer
W = Specific work
= ho3 - ho1
= U2 V u2 - U1 V u1
= U ( V u2 - V u1 ) for U2 = U1
= U Va (tan 2 - tan 1 ) for V a = constant
= U Va ( tan r1 - tan r2 ) for V a = constant
= ho2 - ho1
= ( h2 - h1 ) + 1/2 ( V22 - V12 )
= 1/2 [ ( U22 - U12 ) - V r22 - V r12 ) + ( V22 - V12 ) ]
= 1/2 [ ( V rl2 - V r22 ) + ( V22 - V12 ) ] for U2 = U1
Aero-Engine Design

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Degree of Reaction
R = ( V rl2 - V r22 ) / 2U ( Vu2 - Vu1 )
= ( Va / 2 U ) ( tan r1 + tan r2 ) for Va = constant

= V rum / U
= tan rm
where : tan rm = 0.5 ( tan r1 - tan r2 )
Aero-Engine Design

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Velocity Triangles and Reaction

Aero-Engine Design

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First Stage Optimization : Pre Whirl

Front stage temperature is lowest : high relative Mach
number, particularly at the tip
Objective is to minimize tip Mach number (reduced
shock losses ) for a given mass flow, RPM and hub
radius
Inlet pre-whirl will further reduce the tip relative
velocity ( and Mach number ) , however energy transfer
will reduce
Inlet Guide Vanes IGV require anti-icing and
generate noise
Aero-Engine Design

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Inlet Guide Vane - IGV

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Stage Loading Coefficient

Flow coefficient
= Va / U
Stage loading coefficient
= ho / U2
= U ( V u2 - V u1 ) / U2
= U Va ( tan 2 - tan 1 ) / U2 for V a = constant
= ( tan 2 - tan 1 ) for V a = constant
= ( tan rl - tan r2 ) for V a = constant
= 1- ( tan 1 + tan r2 ) for V a = constant
Aero-Engine Design

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Off-Design Performance

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Work Done Factor

Mean section V a ( choking ), negative incidence and
reduced and energy transfer
Root and tip section V a ( stalling ) , positive incidence
and increase and energy transfer , but very high losses
E = W.D.F. U V a ( tan 2 - tan 1 )

Aero-Engine Design

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157

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Work Done Factor

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Stage Characteristics

Aero-Engine Design

158

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159

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Compressor Maps

Aero-Engine Design

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Compressor Surge Line and Margin

Aero-Engine Design

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Compressor Surge

High positive incidence in more than one stage : excessive

airfoil stalling
Severe flow break-down over airfoils, loss of PR and flow
reversal inside the engine
Engine endures high stresses
Airfoils sustain high torsional displacement
Surge line is locus of peak pressure rise on compressor
map
Surge margin is a measure of PR gap between surge line
and engine running line
Aero-Engine Design

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Compressor Stability

Flow incidence is critical to compressor stability : high

positive incidence results in poor stability
Altering velocity triangles will reduce incidence on
airfoil and PR across compressor : improved stability
Stability-enhancing features are needed at low speeds
where incidence is high
As rotational speed increases, flow increases much
faster and incidence reduces : choking or airfoil
passages
Aero-Engine Design

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Stability Features

Variable Inlet Guide Vanes (IGVs)

Increase pre-swirl to reduce rotor (+ ve) incidence
Unstalls rotor and increases part speed efficiency
Mechanical complexity, cost and maintenance
Inter-Stage Bleed Valves
Incidence change due to flow increase
Drop running line : lower PR and efficiency
Simple but also requires valve control
Aero-Engine Design

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Engine Handling
Compressor stability must be ensured during transient
engine operation : slam accels, decels and maneuvers

Aero-Engine Design

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Compressor-Turbine Matching
Each component has optimum efficiency point
Turbine flow factor impacts compressor running line position
Lower running line : improved stability but lower compressor
efficiency and worse SFC

Aero-Engine Design

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Centrifugal Compressors
Components and types
Axial vs centrifugal
Energy transfer

Impeller inlet : pre-whirl

Impeller vanes
Impeller exit : slip factor
Diffuser : vaneless and vaned
Aero-Engine Design

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Centrifugal Compressor Components

Aero-Engine Design

167

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Compressor Impeller

Aero-Engine Design

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Types of Impellers

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Pressure and Velocity Changes in Centrifugal

Compressors

Aero-Engine Design

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Centrifugal vs Axial Compressors

Higher pressure ratio capacity due to radius change
More compact in length : one piece
Low parts count
Wide range of delivery pressure and flow : better
stability
Higher efficiency at low specific speed ( speed per unit
flow)
Small engines applications
Aero-Engine Design

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Multi-Axial and Centrifugal Compressor

Aero-Engine Design

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Velocity Triangles

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Energy Transfer
W= Specific work
= ho3 - ho1
= U2 V u2 - U1 Vu1
Diffuser ( Stator ) : Q = W = 0 so : ho3 = ho2
W= ho2 - ho1
= ( h2 - h1 ) + 1/2 ( V22 - V12 )
= 1/2 [ ( U22 - U12 ) - ( V r22 - V r12 ) + ( V22 - V12 ) ]
Also hor2 - hor1 = 1/2 [ ( U22 - U12 ) : Rothalpy
Aero-Engine Design

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Impeller Inlet : Pre-Whirl

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Head-Capacity Characteristics
H = U2 V u2 = U2 ( U2 - V ru2 ) for no whirl at inlet
= U2 ( U2 - V m2 tan r2 )
= U2 [ U2 - (Q/A2 ) tan r2 ]
= K1 - K2 Q where K2 = U2 tan r2 / A2

r2 < 0 deg. Forward

r2 = 0 deg. Radial

Head H

r2 > 0 deg. Backward

Capacity Q
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Forward, Back Swept and Radial Vanes

Forward Sweep
Backward Sweep

Radial

Aero-Engine Design

- High energy transfer

- Big size diffuser
- Low energy transfer
- Small size diffuser
- Stable operation (surge)
- Good compromise
- Easy to manufacture

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Impeller Exit : Split Factor

Aero-Engine Design

178

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Centrifugal Compressor Characteristics

Aero-Engine Design

179

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Impeller - Diffuser

Aero-Engine Design

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Vaneless and Vaned Diffuser

Aero-Engine Design

181

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Vaneless and Vaned Diffuser

Vaneless Diffuser
- Mixing of distorted flow at impeller exit
- Deceleration of impeller exit supersonic flow to subsonic
conditions
- Provides proper incidence for vaned diffuser inlet
- Wide operating range and good stability
- Large size w.r.t. vaned diffuser
- Low efficiency due to high friction losses and mixing
Vaned Diffuser
- High efficiency
- Smaller size
- Low range due to sensitivity to incidence
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Diffuser Vanes

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Combustion System

Classification
Flow characteristics
Performance requirements
Exit conditions

Aero-Engine Design

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Combustor 3D Flow
Turbulent 2 phase combustion in primary zone
Combustion completion in intermediate zone
Mixing in dilution zone for turbine inlet temperature distribution

Aero-Engine Design

185

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Combustion Performance Requirements

High combustion efficiency
(>99.5%)
Integrity - Reliability
PW 150 Combustor

PW 308 Combustor
Aero-Engine Design

Exit temperature distribution

-Turbine Integrity
Relight at altitude
Pressure loss - Fuel
consumption
Emissions - Smoke, CO, HC,
NOx
Cold Starting (-40 F)
Weight, cost, repair
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Combustor Exit Temperature Quality

Uniformity & profile important to turbine durability
Expressed as temperature distribution factor & radial profile
Circumferential

Radial

Influenced by: Combustor length, combustor height, pressure loss, number of

nozzles, T3 & T4
Aero-Engine Design

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Axial Turbines

Classification
Energy transfer
Degree of reaction
Stage characteristics : stage loading and flow coefficient
Airfoil loading : Zweifel coefficient
Off-design performance
Blade stresses
Turbine cooling and secondary air
Cooling governing equations
Turbine cooling schemes

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Classification
Hydraulic, steam and gas turbines
Compressor and power/fan turbines

High and low pressure turbines

Unshrouded and shrouded turbines
Subsonic and supersonic turbines
Impulse and reaction turbines
Aero-Engine Design

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Components

Aero-Engine Design

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Enthalpy-Entropy and Velocity Triangles

Aero-Engine Design

191

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Energy Transfer
W = Specific work
= ho1 - ho3
= U2 Vu2- U3 Vu3
= U ( Vu2 + Vu3 ) for U2 = U3
= U Va ( tan 2 + tan 3 ) for Va = constant
= U Va ( tan r2 + tan r3 ) for Va = constant
= ho2 - ho3
= ( h2 - h3 ) + 1/2 ( V22 - V32 )
= 1/2 [ ( U22 - U32 ) - Vr22 - Vr32 ) + ( V22 - V32 ) ]
= 1/2 [ ( Vr32 - Vr22) + ( V22 - V32 )] for U2 = U3
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Degree of Reaction

R = ( Vr32 - Vr22 ) / 2U ( Vu2 - Vu3 )

= ( Va / 2 U ) ( tan r3 - tan r2 ) for V a = constant

= -V rum / U
= tan rm
where : tan rm = 0.5 ( tan r3 - tan r2 )

Aero-Engine Design

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Velocity Triangles and Reaction

Aero-Engine Design

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Flow and Stage Loading Coefficient

Flow coefficient

= Va / U
Stage loading coefficient
= ho / U2
= U ( Vu2 + V u3 ) / U2
= U Va ( tan 2 + tan 3 ) / U2 for Va = constant
= ( tan 2 + tan 3 ) for Va = constant

Aero-Engine Design

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Stage Characteristics - Smith Chart

Aero-Engine Design

196

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Airfoil Loading : Zweifel Coefficient

Zweifel Blade Loading Coefficient = Actual Tangential Force

Ideal
Tangential Force
= 2 S (tan 1 + tan 2 ) cos2 2
Ca
Aero-Engine Design

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Blade Platform Fit

Aero-Engine Design

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199

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Shroud Configuration

Aero-Engine Design

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Off-Design Performance

Aero-Engine Design

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Contribution of Cooling

Aero-Engine Design

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Turbine Cooling and Secondary Air

Aero-Engine Design

202

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Turbine Vane and Blade Cooling

Aero-Engine Design

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Multi-Pass Cooling Schemes

Series of internal passages
Single or multiple feeds
Vanes and blades

Aero-Engine Design

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Lifting of Cooled Airfoils

Aero-Engine Design

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Centrifugal Loads on Turbine Blades

6 tons (4-5 cars) over an area the size of a dime

Aero-Engine Design

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Blade Cooling to Handle Large Heat Loads

1 blade heat flux = electricity usage of 4 homes

Aero-Engine Design

207

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Turbine Aero-Stress Characteristics

Decreasing U

Low Efficiency
Low Stress

High Efficiency
High Stress

Decreasing U

Aero-Engine Design

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Engine System
Secondary and cooling system
System requirements

Air system
Oil system
Installation

Aero-Engine Design

209

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Turbine Cooling and Secondary Air

Aero-Engine Design

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Air/Oil System Requirements

Cooling the hot components
Heating (anti-icing) the cold components
Sealing the bearing compartment
Controlling the bearing load
Ventilating certain cavities
Providing cabin bleed
BOV operation
Aero-Engine Design

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Engine Air System

Aero-Engine Design

212

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213

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Engine Oil System

Aero-Engine Design

106

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Installation Considerations

Aero-Engine Design

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Design Process, Durability and Evolution

Design procedure
Preliminary meanline design
Through-flow design

Airfoil design and stacking

Durability aspects
Creep and fatigue
Material capabilities
Evolution of gas turbine design
Aero-Engine Design

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Gas Turbine Design Steps

Market
research

Specification

Customer
requirements

Preliminary studies:choice of cycle,

type of turbomachinery,
layout

Thermodynamic design
point studies
Mode re
aerodynamics

Off-design
performance

Aerodynamics of
compressor, turbine,
intake, exhaust, etc

Component test rigs:

compressor, turbine,
combustion , etc

Mods re
stressing

Stress design:stressing of discs,

blades, casing, vibration, whirling,
bearing

Uprated and
modified versions
Design mode

Control system
studies

Mechanical design

Test and development

Production

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After sales service

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Aerodynamic Design Process

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Preliminary Mean Line Design

Along the mean streamline and neglecting radial and
circumferential variation of flow parameters
Objective is to determine overall geometric parameters
and mean velocity triangles for maximum efficiency
Given parameters : Inlet total pressure and temperature,
mass flow, pressure ratio, rotational speed, power or
enthalpy drop and target efficiency
Geometric limitations and parameters are used : axial
length and chords, inner and outer radii, clearances,
Empirical loss models, design and off-design, to calculate
efficiencies
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Through Flow Hub to Shroud Design

Starting from meanline design velocity triangles, geometric

and aerodynamic parameters
Axial/radial variation and neglecting circumferential
variation of flow parameters
Objective is to determine velocity triangles from hub to
shroud and from leading to trailing edges to achieve
optimum radial work/pressure distribution
Intake and combustor exit total pressure, temperature and
swirl radial profiles
Assumed radial distribution of airfoil blockage, exit angle,
and loss
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Airfoil Design Sections

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Airfoil Geometry Design

INLET
BLADE
ANGLE

PARAMETERS REQUIRED TO
GENERATE A COMPLETE AIRFOIL
SECTION

INLET
1/2WEDGE
ANGLE

AIRFOIL RADIUS
LEADING
EDGE
RADIUS

AXIAL CHORD
TANGENTIAL CHORD
UNGUIDED TURNING
INLET BLADE ANGLE
INLET WEDGE ANGLE

TANGENTIAL
CHORD

LEADING EDGE RADIUS

EXIT BLADE ANGLE
UNGUIDED
TURNING

TRAILING EDGE RADIUS

NUMBER OF BLADES
THROAT

AXIAL CHORD

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TRAILING
EDGE
RADIUS

EXIT
BLADE
ANGLE

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Airfoil Stacking

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Multistaging : Stacking View

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Failure Mechanisms of Gas Turbine Components

Fan Blades
Fan Discs
Compressor Stator
Compressor Blades
Compressor Discs
Combustor Liner
Aero-Engine Design

Fatigue, Bird strike, Erosion,

Corrosion
Low cycle fatigue, High cycle
fatigue Burst
High cycle fatigue, Flutter
High cycle fatigue, Flutter,
Erosion, Corrosion
Low cycle fatigue, High cycle
fatigue, Burst
Thermal fatigue, Overheating
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Failure Mechanisms of Gas Turbine Components

Turbine Vanes

Creep, Oxidation, Thermal

fatigue
Turbine Blades
High cycle fatigue, Thermal
fatigue, Creep, Oxidation
Turbine Discs
Low cycle fatigue, Burst
Low Pressure Shafts
Bird strike, Low cycle fatigue
Shaft whirling
High Pressure Shafts
Low cycle fatigue, Shaft
whirling
Engine Casings, Flanges, Low cycle fatigue, Bird strike,
Bearing Supports
Blade containment
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Blade Stresses
Steady Stresses
Centrifugal stresses
Gas bending stresses
Centrifugal untwisting stresses
Shroud and fixing stresses
Thermal stresses
Dynamic Stresses
Resonant vibration
Random vibration : buffeting
Flutter
Foreign object damage FOD : bird, hail, etc
Compressor surge
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Low Cycle Fatigue, Thermal and Corrosion Fatigues

Large variations in stress applied a relatively small
number of times
Examples : Start-stop centrifugal, thermal loading of
discs, etc
Centrifugal stresses close to material yield strength
Crack initiation in high stress concentration areas
Crack growth to a critical size with subsequent complete
rupture
Failure occurs after long time of operation
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High Cycle Fatigue

Low stresses and rapid cycling
Vibratory loads from vanes, blades and discs
Blade or disc excitation from aerodynamic loads at
frequency close to one of the fundamental natural
frequencies
Frequency adjusted by airfoil count, chord, thickness
distribution, etc
Shrouding at part span or tip, disc stiffening, vibration
dampers, etc
Vane/blade axial gap optimization
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Creep
Continuous deformation of material subjected to stress and
high temperature over a period of time
Three stages of creep : primary, secondary and tertiary
Creep failure is taken as the initiation of tertiary creep, after
which the component stretches unstably to rupture

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Current Engine Program Process

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Evolution of PT6 Engines

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Evolution of Compressor Performance

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Evolution of Turbine Performance

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Elapsed Design Time Reduction

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Material Capabilities

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Aircraft Gas Turbine Requirements

Safety

Profitability

Engine Needs
Mechanical Integrity
No fire hazard

Low acquisition cost

Low Operating cost
High payload capability

Operational readiness
Reliability
Low noise/vibration
Comfort
Range and Speed Low drag
Growth potential
Low weight

Aero-Engine Design

Component Needs
Low Stresses
Containment
Failure sequence
Choice of material
Proper fabrication
Minimum parts count
High efficiency
High cycle PR
High turbine inlet temp.
Ease of maintenance
Low weight
Simple mechanical layout
High bypass ratio
Low frontal area
Provide for increase in flow/temp.

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Evolution & Technology Trends

Product Cost
Design and Development Time
Propulsion System Integration
Environmental
Performance
Material capabilities
Virtual Engine
More electric and intelligent engine

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