Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
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By
Donald M. MacGregor, Ph.D. (Electrocon International, Inc, USA)
A. T. (Tony) Giuliante, Fellow of IEEE (ATG Exodus, Inc., USA)
Russell W. Patterson, P.E. (Tennessee Valley Authority, USA)
Presented to
56th Georgia Tech Protective Relaying Conference
Atlanta, Georgia
May 1-3, 2002
A. T. (Tony) Giuliante
Russell W. Patterson
1. Introduction
Modern numerical relays provide many protection functions in a single package. In order to manage
the large number of elements and settings, an automatic, systematic, setting procedure is almost
essential. Here we present setting rules for the electrical parameters, such as distance element reach
and overcurrent pickup. These rules are based largely on the standards and experience at the
Tennessee Valley Authority, and follow the principles given in [1]. They are widely applicable to both
stepped-distance schemes and directional comparison pilot schemes such as POTT, PUTT, and blocking
schemes.
A protection simulation environment, described in section 2, enables a user to encode the setting rules.
Detailed reports identify possible conflicts in the setting rules.
Section 3 shows how the user can run the algorithms and adjust the setting parameters. Each
algorithm includes a module that specifies the tap names for the relay models in use, allowing settings
to be saved in the system database and transferred to the relay electronically.
Section 4 outlines a typical case involving directional overcurrent and distance elements in a
Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip scheme. This scheme uses direct tripping from zone 1 and
permissive tripping from a forward pilot element, with two time-delayed zones for a backup steppeddistance scheme. The permissive signal is echoed to allow sequential tripping after one breaker opens.
Section 5 explains the setting rules in detail. All directional comparison pilot schemes use a
combination of underreaching, overreaching and reverse blocking zones, as follows:
Zone 2 and/or forward pilot zone to cover the entire protected line
Reverse pilot zone, coordinated with the facing forward pilot zone for blocking
Directional elements
Zone timers
An apparent impedance and an operating margin, defined in section 6, measure how close a relay
element is to its operating limit for a particular fault. For solid faults, overcurrent elements use the
multiples of pickup and distance elements use the relative distance of the apparent line impedance
from the characteristic. For resistive faults, the maximum fault resistance seen by zones 1 to 3 is
presented graphically as a function of distance, using the detailed phasor operating equations for the
particular relay model.
Section 7 demonstrates a stepped-event simulation of the permissive tripping sequence. This checks
the settings and will find any primary-backup miscoordinations.
2. Protection Simulation
The protection simulation environment allows a user to compute settings and send them to a relay, or
to read settings from a relay and test them in the modeled system. The components are:
A network model (buses, generators, lines, shunts, and transformers) and a short-circuit analysis
with high-level commands for faults and outage contingencies [2]. Currents and voltages are
treated as steady-state phasors.
A library of detailed relay models [3]. A relay model consists of instantaneous overcurrent, time
overcurrent, directional, distance, voltage, timer, and recloser elements, with auxiliary elements for
internal logic and pilot (teleprotection) schemes. Special code for each relay model interprets the
setting names and evaluates the comparators using a steady-state phasor analysis [4]. As a result,
element response is always based on the actual relay logic. Actual settings are modeled so that the
relay model is set in the same way as the physical device.
Rules for locating relays. An integrated database [5], with an interactive editor, contains the CTs
and VTs connecting the relays to the network, and specifies the protected equipment and its logical
breakers.
A macro facility. The macro language has many commands associated with a high-level language,
such as IF-THEN-ELSE, DOWHILE, and DO loops tailored to power system applications. For
example, DOXFMRS and DOLINES find the transformers and lines at a bus, and DOPATH and
DOREMOTE search through a meshed network with load-tap buses. Standard functions (e.g. SIN,
ABS, and POLAR) and special protection functions (e.g. OPERATING_CYCLES and
GET_TOC_TIME) are installed. Support for defining and looping through sets of buses, branches,
and relay elements is provided. The engineer can access all information in the database (e.g. line
impedances) and quantities developed by the programs (e.g. fault currents and source impedances).
The relay setting rules are encoded using the macro language and can be modified by a user.
Settings for a 38kV stepped- distance scheme have been obtained in this way for several years [6].
Import/export facilities to communicate with a physical relay indirectly via relay vendor databases,
or to send settings to a field engineer. Most numerical relays have their own setting software and
can store relay settings in a database. The independent simulation environment complements this
by modeling together the entire network and its protective devices from multiple vendors. Settings
can then be transferred to the relay vendors database product for subsequent electronic
transmittal to the relay, making paper setting sheets unnecessary.
3. Setting Procedure
The user chooses one relay from the system database and then selects one of the setting algorithms.
These prompt for the maximum load current, the load angle, and the minimum pickup needed to avoid
operation for unbalanced load currents. Then the primary impedance reaches and pickup currents or
voltages are computed at the network level. These settings apply to any relay model. Next, secondary
tap settings are computed for the elements that exist in the chosen relay. The user can test the
settings while they are in temporary memory or can save them in the system database. The database
can hold groups of alternative settings for trial purposes and for varied network conditions.
A user can add algorithms for other relay functions, such as loss-of-potential logic, switch-onto-fault
detection and breaker failure protection.
Actual relays use some or all of the parameters in Table 1. The values shown are typical and are easily
edited. Each algorithm includes a module that specifies the tap names for the relay models in use.
Table 1 Adjustable Relay-Setting Quantities
Stepped-Distance Mho
Parameter
USE_APPARENT_IMPEDANCE
USE_APPARENT_IMPEDANCE
DEFAULT_MAX_LOAD_CURRENT
DEFAULT_LOAD_DEG
DIST_LOAD_FACTOR
ZONE_1_FRACTION
LINE_END_FRACTION
ZONE_2_FRACTION
ZONE_3_FRACTION
ZONE_3R_FRACTION
XFMR_FRACTION12
XFMR_FRACTION3
Value
FALSE
TRUE
3000
30
1.5
0.8
1.2
0.2
1.2
0.25
0.5
0.8
Description
FALSE to set zones from line ohms only
TRUE to adjust zones using fault study
Default load amps
Default load angle
Max load ohms/Max setting
Zone 1/Line ohms
Zone 2/Line ohms at line end
Zone 2 overreach/Downstream line
Zone 3 overreach/Downstream line
Zone 3 offset/Min reverse line
Zone 2 overreach into tapped XFMR
Zone 3 overreach into tapped XFMR
Value
0.2
1.5
Description
Forward pilot overreach/ Downstream line
Reverse pilot/Max reverse line
Value
0.05 I_Rated
1.3
40
0.5
0.5
1.25
Description
Min IOC pickup in relay model
Pickup/max current for remote-bus faults
Fault resistance tested at remote bus
Pickup/Current for remote-bus resistive fault
Reverse Level 3/Remote level 2 pickup
Level 2 multiples for XFMR secondary fault
Pilot Mho
Parameter
FORWARD_PILOT_FRACTION
REVERSE_PILOT_FRACTION
Definite-Time Overcurrent
Parameter
IOC_ISEC_MIN
IOC_LEVEL_1_FRACTION
IOC_LEVEL_2_FAULT_OHMS
IOC_LEVEL_2_FRACTION
IOC_LEVEL_3_FRACTION
IOC_XFMR_FRACTION
Fault Detectors
Parameter
FD_PG_ISEC_MIN
IOC_LOAD_FACTOR
ZONE_1_PICKUP_FRACTION
ZONE_1_LINE_END_FRACTION
Value
0.1 I_Rated
1.1
0.8
0.33
Description
Default min phase-ground pickup
50PP1 pickup/Max load amps
Zone 1 pickup/Min amps for reach faults
Zone 1 pickup/Min amps with line end open
Value
0.02
0.1
0.05 I_Rated
Description
Min I2/I0 relay tap
Default min I2/I0
Current pickup in relay model
Value
10
0.1 I_Rated
30
Description
Amps/Pickup for remote-bus SLG fault
Min TOC pickup in relay model
Delay at TOC_MULT
Value
0
0
20
20
75
75
0
0
20
20
75
240
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Negative-Sequence Directional
Parameter
MIN_A2
DEFAULT_DES_A2
MIN_50Q
Inverse-Time Overcurrent
Parameter
TOC_MULT
TOC_ISEC_MIN
TOC_CYCLES
Power-Swing Detector
Parameter
BLINDER_INNER_R_DIV_ZT
BLINDER_RATIO
Value
0.288
2.5
Description
Blinder inner resistance/System impedance
Min (outer R / inner R )
2.0
1.1
1.1
0.1
0.1
0.02 * Frequency
0.02 * Frequency
0.02 * Frequency
0.05 * Frequency
0.4 * Frequency
BLINDER_DELR
OS_X_RATIO_FWD
OS_X_RATIO_REV
OS_MIN_X_REV
OS_DELX
OS_OPER_CYC
OS_WAY_IN_TRIP_CYC
OS_WAY_OUT_TRIP_CYC
OS_BLOCK_CYC
OS_OVERRIDE_CYC
(2)
248.000
239 Louisvi SS 5
161.0 kV
147.200
21.300 No_Op
51N LFZP_TZ3
Z2GD,51N
MDAR_T2G,MDAR_TOC
1151 Adaton
161.0 kV
1159 Starkvile T2
161.0 kV
94.200
LFZP_TZ3
161_BU_GND
(1)
4.200
231 Eupora, MS 5
161.0 kV
161.0 kV
(1)
4.000
Z1G
67N2,RECEIVER
CE
No_Op
LFZP_TZ3
LFZP_TOC
3
111.400
161_BU_GND
69.0 kV
Zero Sequence
Ackerman - Sturgis #1
161.0 kV
484.500
2446 Sturgis
69.0 kV
The computed positive-sequence source-impedance ratio for this case ranges from 1.3 to 4.4 depending
on fault location; this is a medium line [1].
Here, a Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT) scheme uses phase and ground distance relay
elements with backup ground and negative-sequence overcurrent elements. Figure 1 shows the
operation for a close-in phase-A-ground fault at Sturgis. Zone 1 opens the local breaker at Sturgis; the
directional overcurrent element operates at Red Hills with the permissive signal.
The elements in a single zone are shown in Figure 2.
50ABC
32QF
21P
50PP
PHASE
DISTANCE
50L
50G
32Q
21G
GROUND
DISTANCE
50N
TRIPPING LOGIC
OR
PILOT SIGNAL
67N
32Q
INSTANTANEOUS
OVERCURRENT
50Q
67Q
32Q
INSTANTANEOUS
OVERCURRENT
51NP
51N
32Q
GROUND TIME
OVERCURRENT
opposite terminal (Red Hills) will send a permissive signal to Sturgis, and this signal will be echoed
back to Red Hills after a set delay (typically 2 cycles). Receipt of the echo signal will allow the breaker
at Red Hills to open and clear the fault.
For extra reliability, TVA is using in parallel two independent relay sets from different manufacturers.
In one manufacturers relay, the pilot zones also serve as zones 2 and 3 and provide time-delayed
backup for the adjacent lines. The other relay uses zone 1 for instantaneous tripping, uses dedicated
forward and reverse pilot zones, and uses separate zones 2 and 3 for time-delayed backup in a steppeddistance scheme.
In one relay model, the echo signal starts only when the remote permissive signal is received, the local
reverse zone 3 has not operated, and the local forward pilot element has not operated within a set time
(the echo block time delay). In the other relay, the echo signal also requires a 52b switch to assert
with the local breaker open.
The algorithms set one element at a time and warn where setting rules conflict. They do not
automatically coordinate relays at different locations, but the user can investigate coordination
problems graphically (section 6).
X
P.Ohms
40
30
20
10
232
109
-20
-10
R
10
20
P.Ohms
-10
Figure 3 Local Forward Mho Distance Characteristics and Remote Reverse Characteristic.
The algorithms use solid faults for initial mho settings. Then all phase zones are checked for load
encroachment. The user supplies the maximum forward and reverse load currents and worst load
angle, from separate load flow computations.
The actual memory-polarized characteristics are expanded circles and allow the zone to cover resistive
faults [4 ,7, 8]. However, for solid faults, the angle of the apparent impedance and the MTA are both
within a few degrees of the line angle. For settings based on solid faults, therefore, it is a useful
approximation that a distance element will operate whenever the apparent impedance magnitude is
less than the reach setting. Subsequently we check the operation for resistive faults using the complete
comparator equations.
5.1.1 Zone 1
Zone 1 reaches 80% along the protected line. Specifically, the total positive-sequence and zero-sequence
line impedances Z1 and Z0 are found from the database. The maximum torque angle (MTA) equals the
zone 1 line angle arg(Z1), and the set reach is 80% of the magnitude of Z1. Then the phase zone is
further limited to 66 percent of the apparent impedance at maximum forward load current and a
specified power angle, typically 30 degrees.
The zero-sequence compensation factor [9] multiplying the neutral current is set as:
k 0 = ( Z0 /Z1 -1) /3
To avoid overreach due to mutual coupling [7], the reach of the zone 1 ground distance element is also
limited to 80% of the least apparent impedance for a solid single-line-ground fault on the remote bus.
The calculation is run first with all lines in service and then with coupled lines grounded one at a time,
and with intermediate infeed removed.
The supervising phase fault detector is useful to prevent instantaneous operation on loss of potential.
It is desirable to set it above expected load current while maintaining a margin below expected fault
current to allow the distance elements to operate reliably. In relays with a separate fault detector
(50PP1) for zone 1, the recommended setting (based on experience) is the lower of:
(a) 0.8 times the least fault current for solid faults 80% along the line, with sources out one at a time
behind the relay bus, and
(b) 0.33 times the fault current for the same faults with the remote breaker open, for sequential
tripping.
To prevent zone 1 from tripping with a loss of potential under load, this pickup must also be set at least
10 percent above the maximum load current from temporary overloads and heavy loads under reduced
system voltage.
The single-phase and ground-fault detectors (50L and 50G level 1 or 2) are allowed to operate with load
currents. This is because both 50L and 50G must operate to trip a ground distance zone, and the 50G
residual elements do not operate with load except under abnormal conditions such as a breaker with
one phase open.
In relays with only one fault detector for all zones, current sensitivity for remote faults takes priority,
including those in the reverse pilot zone or zone 3. The setting may necessarily be below the maximum
load current. These relays have separate elements to block the distance elements under loss of
potential.
To avoid tripping for faults on the secondary winding of a tapped transformer, zone 2 should not
overreach the primary bus by more than a given percentage (20% to 50%) of the transformer reactance.
Where separate fault detectors 50PP2, 50L2 and 50G2 for zone 2 are available, they are set at the least
relay current (with one source removed) for remote-bus faults with fault resistance of 40 primary ohms.
The zone 2 timer is set at 20 cycles. Downstream zone 1 elements and breaker-failure protection at the
line-end bus (about 15 cycles delay) are allowed to operate first.
10
30 Degrees
************************************************************
Relay on 109 376 Ckt 1 RED HILLS STEAM PLANT - ACKERMAN 161-kV SUB 161 kV
Base kV 161
Base ohms 259.210
************************************************************
*** Zone 1 = 0.80000 * min apparent impedance for remote-bus faults
Zone 1 path
109 376 1 to 376
Total line ohms 7.54279
Phase Setting
0.80000 * 7.54279 =
6.03 Ohm
Ground Setting 0.80000 * 7.15863 =
5.73 Ohm
MTA
85.3 deg
*** Zone 2 = Longest line or apparent impedance + 0.20000 * shortest adjacent line
Zone 2 path 109 376 Ckt 1 to 232 109 Ckt 2
Path 109 376 Ckt 1 to 232 to 232 109 Ckt 2
Setting Phs
7.543 @ 85 deg + 0.20000 *
7.567
9.056
7.567
13.033
=
Setting Gnd
Phase Zone 1
Ground Zone 1
Phase Zone 2
Ground Zone 2
11.521 @
/
/
/
/
Max
Max
Max
Max
82 deg +
impedance
impedance
impedance
impedance
to
to
to
to
0.20000 *
depth
depth
depth
depth
=
80.0
75.9
120.1
172.8
1
1
1
1
%
%
%
%
@
@
@
@
85
85
85
83
deg
deg Ohm
deg
deg Ohm
(note 1)
11
MVAR
2513.
1675.
500. (note 2)
1675.
557.
Notes:
1. The ground zone 2 and the forward pilot zone are computed as 1.728 times the protected line ohms
to overcome infeed and mutual coupling, but are then reduced from 13.0325 to 10.4028 ohms to
avoid the tapped transformers at bus 376.
2. With these settings, a load up to 1000 MVA at 30 degrees will appear outside zone 3 with a margin
of 50 percent. This is the relay load limit [10], above which the element may misoperate.
Example of Fault Detector Settings (excerpts):
******************************************************************
Setting Fault Detectors for Permissive Overreach
******************************************************************
Minimum allowed fault-detector pickup = 200 Primary A
Zone 1 fault detectors: no load;
0.80000 * min current from solid faults 0.8 along line
50PP1 Phase-phase Primary A 4282.21
50L1
Single phase Primary A 2141.52
50G1
3*Izero
Primary A 2345.51
Zone 1
0.33 *
50PP1
50L1
50G1
Zone 1
50PP1
50L1
50G1
12
13
14
Level 1 IOC
Max
50N1 Primary A 4881.84
50Q1 Primary A 5582.18
Level 2 IOC:
1.30000* Max
6346.40
7256.83
3I0
3I2
TPHR
LTLR
DLGR
SLGR
0.0
0.0
403.4
405.5
0.0
1275.9
464.6
458.3
15
The following table shows how the tapped transformers limit the sensitivity allowed:
Level 2 IOC elements (Primary A)
Without XFMRS
201.69
229.13
50N2
50Q2
With XFMRS
1818.53
3720.81
1
6
Protected Line
Local Relay
IOC 67N3
2
Remote Relay
IOC 67N2
16
Figure 5 Time-overcurrent characteristic with sliding 40-ohm faults. This element trips in 30 cycles
for a close-in 40-ohm fault and 300 cycles for a 40-ohm fault on the remote bus.
17
(c) Sliding faults on each coupled line with all lines in service.
Generic zero-sequence and negative-sequence directional elements are used to measure the direction as
in reference [15]. The user is shown where the current may reverse and is warned where an external
fault appears as internal.
The following example verifies that internal faults remain as forward (F) at both ends of the line when
a coupled line is grounded. The phase differences between the voltages (V) and currents (I) at the ends
of the line are labeled Arg(Right/Left).
Direction at end buses 109 and 232 for single-line-ground faults on line 109 376 1 to 232
Fault: SLG
Relay branch 109 376 1
Fault branch 109 376 1 to 232 Internal
0 seq
-seq
0 seq
-seq
Fault direction
Fault direction
Arg(Right/Left)
Dist Left end Right end
Left end Right end
V
I
V
I
1 0.25
F
F
F
F
-3.8
2.8
-0.7
3.4
2 0.50
F
F
F
F
-7.5
0.9
-0.7
3.1
3 0.75
F
F
F
F
-10.0
-0.3
-0.7
3.4
Fault: SLG
Line Grounding 109 Red Hill 161 to 232 Sturgis
Relay branch 109 376 1
Fault branch 109 376 1 to 232 Internal
0 seq
-seq
Fault direction
Fault direction
Dist Left end Right end
Left end Right end
1 0.25
F
F
F
F
2 0.50
F
F
F
F
3 0.75
F
F
F
F
5 Ckt 2
0 seq
-seq
Arg(Right/Left)
V
I
V
I
-3.8
6.1
-1.2
5.7
-4.7
5.1
-1.3
5.7
-4.9
5.0
-1.2
5.7
The following example checks the direction measured for external faults on a coupled branch (109 232 2
to 232). At least one end must see the external fault as reverse (R); otherwise a warning is shown.
Normal current reversal occurs when the fault location changes on the parallel line.
External faults on coupled branches; all lines in service
Fault: SLG
Relay branch 109 376 1
Fault branch 109 232 2 to 232 External
0 seq
-seq
0 seq
-seq
Fault direction
Fault direction
Arg(Right/Left)
Dist Left end Right end
Left end Right end
V
I
V
I
1 0.25
R
R
R
F
-3.8 -15.6
-0.7 180.0
2 0.50
F
R
R
F
-7.5 172.9
-0.7 180.0
3 0.75
F
R
F
R
-10.0 178.3
-0.7 -180.0
18
Z2 = Re ( ( V2 /I 2 ) exp ( -jMTA ) )
The angle MTA is a tap setting, usually set equal to the +/- sequence line angle arg(ZL1). Z2 changes
abruptly from a negative value for close-in forward faults to a positive value for reverse faults.
Directionality is assured by computing the least negative Z2 for forward faults, and the least positive Z2
for reverse faults. Then the forward and reverse impedance pickups Z2F and Z2R are set between
these limits, with
19
service
232 2
24026 1
reverse faults 23.1450 primary ohms
Default settings
Rated amps
5
Total line ohms
7.54279
Total secondary ohms 2.15524
Default Z2F = 0.5 * total secondary ohms= 1.07762
Default Z2R = Z2F + 0.5/(rated amps)
= 1.17762
Default values lie within required range (-3.567, 6.613) secondary ohms
Primary 3*I2 (A)
TOC_FACTOR chosen as
Primary pickup (3*I2)
CTR
Secondary pickup (3*I2)
2133.70
0.10000
213.370
400
0.53343 relay A
20
80% along the protected line; all phase zones are checked for max
load.
0.8 times the least fault current for solid faults 80% along the line.
0.33 times the fault current for the same faults with the remote breaker
open.
Phase pickup 10% above maximum load current.
Maximum of (line ohms and largest apparent impedance for remotebus fault) + 20% of the shortest downstream line.
Phase element limited to 66% of the apparent impedance at maximum
load current and a power angle of 30 degrees.
Time-delayed zone 2
Maximum of (line ohms and largest apparent impedance for remotebus fault) + 20% of the shortest downstream line.
Phase element limited to 66% of the apparent impedance at maximum
load current and a power angle of 30 degrees.
Must not overreach a downstream zone 1.
Must not overreach the primary bus of a tapped XFMR by more than
20 to 50% of the transformer reactance.
Least relay current (with one source removed) for remote-bus faults
with fault resistance 40 primary ohms.
Zone 2 timer
20 cycles.
Minimum setting.
21
Time-delayed forward
zone 3
Zone 3 timer
75 cycles.
Minimum setting.
25% of zone 1.
20 primary ohms.
Load encroachment
blocking
Outer blinder
Reactance reach
1.1 * largest controlled zone; outer reach 0.1 secondary ohms larger.
Level 1 IOC
1.3 times the maximum current for a fault at the remote bus with infeed
branches outaged and one coupled line grounded.
Level 2 IOC
0.5 times the relay current for a 40-ohm ground fault at the remote
bus.
At most 1.25 times the highest current due to faults on the transformer
secondary.
Level 3 IOC
30 cycles delay for a solid fault at the remote bus and a pickup setting
of 0.1 times the relay current for this fault.
Negative-Sequence
Directional Element
22
using the shortest distance from the apparent impedance point to the boundary of the operating region.
F1
A
F2
Mho circle
MTA
R
Margin =
Fault beyond
Diameter
Diameter + dist A to F1 characteristic
Margin =
Fault within
Diameter
Diameter dist A to F2 characteristic
23
The set reach depends on the tap settings. For a quadrilateral, the reach is measured from the origin
to the reactance line. For a mho circle (Figure 6), the reach is the diameter. By design, this circle
passes through the set reach point at the MTA. Although the actual characteristic expands away from
this angle, solid faults on the protected lines have apparent impedance angles within a few degrees of
the MTA setting, so useful margin estimates for solid faults can be based on a fixed set reach. This
simplification makes the margin calculation independent of the particular relay comparator.
The phase elements are tested for three-phase faults and the apparent impedance is computed as:
Impedance = ( Vb -Vc ) / ( I b -I c )
where the relay phase voltages relative to local ground are (Va, Vb, Vc) and the line currents at the relay
are (Ia, Ib, Ic).
For the ground elements, the apparent impedance is computed. For phase-A-ground element, the
apparent impedance is:
Impedance = Va / ( I a + 3I 0 k 0 )
where the zero-sequence compensation factor k0 is approximated by the relay tap settings.
These impedances equal the apparent positive-sequence ohms between the relay and its local zerovoltage point and therefore give the apparent fault location on the line.
Applications of the reach margins are described in the following sections.
Fault
TPH
Reach
6.03
App P.Ohm
7.54
MHO margin
0.80 Underreach
Fault
SLG
Reach
5.73
App P.Ohm
11.52
MHO margin
0.50 Underreach
1
1
Fault
TPH
SLG
Reach
9.06
10.40
App P.Ohm
7.54
11.52
24
MHO margin
1.20 Overreach
0.90 Underreach
** Warning **
1
1
Fault
TPH
SLG
Reach
9.06
10.40
App P.Ohm
7.54
11.52
MHO margin
1.20 Overreach
0.90 Underreach
** Warning **
Here the automatic procedure cannot set an optimum value, and the engineer must choose compromise
settings for forward pilot operation and for time-delayed tripping. Zone 1 (phase or ground) is critical
and should already have been set to prevent overreach. To increase zone 2 to cover the line, or to relax
the load restrictions or the tapped transformer limit, the user will change the setting factors shown in
Table 1 and repeat the calculation.
along
along
along
along
along
232
232
232
232
232
109 2 to 109
239 1 to 239
1151 1 to 36
1348 1 to 229
1348 1 to 590
Fault
Reach
SLG
SLG
SLG
SLG
SLG
13.03
13.03
13.03
13.03
13.03
Fault
Reach
SLG
SLG
SLG
SLG
SLG
13.03
13.03
13.03
13.03
13.03
App P.Ohm
15.251
69.296
89.135
142.599
83.623
@-105
@ 82
@ 81
@ 82
@ 84
MHO margin
deg
deg
deg
deg
deg
Rev Flt
0.19
0.15
0.09
0.16
Underreach
Underreach
Underreach
Underreach
Underreach
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
along
along
along
along
along
232
232
232
232
232
109 2 to 109
239 1 to 239
1151 1 to 36
1348 1 to 229
1348 1 to 590
App P.Ohm
13.700
20.426
29.017
36.024
22.622
@
@
@
@
@
85
83
83
83
83
MHO margin
deg
deg
deg
deg
deg
0.95
0.64
0.45
0.36
0.58
Underreach
Underreach
Underreach
Underreach
Underreach
*Warning*
OK
OK
OK
OK
along
along
along
along
along
232
232
232
232
232
109 2 to 109
239 1 to 239
1151 1 to 36
1348 1 to 229
1348 1 to 590
Fault
Reach
SLG
SLG
SLG
SLG
SLG
13.03
13.03
13.03
13.03
13.03
App P.Ohm
10.269
20.429
28.844
36.039
23.142
25
@
@
@
@
@
89
83
83
83
84
MHO margin
deg
deg
deg
deg
deg
1.26
0.64
0.45
0.36
0.56
Overreach **Miscoord.**
Underreach
OK
Underreach
OK
Underreach
OK
Underreach
OK
109
109
109
109
109
109
109
109
376
376
376
376
376
376
376
376
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
239
36
229
590
239
36
229
590
Fault
Reach
TPH
TPH
TPH
TPH
SLG
SLG
SLG
SLG
30.34
30.34
30.34
30.34
30.34
30.34
30.34
30.34
App P.Ohm
69.58
54.37
120.92
88.00
85.82
84.83
169.84
105.63
MHO margin
0.44
0.56
0.25
0.34
0.35
0.36
0.18
0.29
Underreach
Underreach
Underreach
Underreach
Underreach
Underreach
Underreach
Underreach
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
Warning
Warning
Warning
Warning
Warning
Warning
Warning
Warning
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
26
Max R
Open at ST
Open at ST
Distance/Line
Distance/Line
Max R
Open at ST
Distance/Line
Figure 7 Threshold fault resistance (primary ohms) for zone 1 (solid lower curves) and zone 2
(dashed upper). Line-end breaker open for lower plots.
Red Hills (RH) substation is at the left (Distance/Line = 0) and Sturgis (ST) is at the right. The largest
resistance seen by zones 1 and 2 at Red Hills decreases with increasing distance along the line. The
region below the zone 1 curves shows the faults in zone 1 that trip directly; Zone 1 reaches no more
than 80 percent along the line as required. The region under both zone 2 curves shows the higher fault
resistances detectable by the pilot scheme. This region must cover the entire line. The NSeq IOC
elements have been made less sensitive than the Gnd IOC elements, to avoid the tapped
transformers; hence the zone 1 NSeq IOC element at Sturgis does not operate for 1Ph faults.
A 15-ohm close-in fault at Sturgis is not seen from Red Hills because of neutral infeed from the two
tapped autotransformers at Ackerman. Such faults will be cleared with zone-2 time delay (20 cycles),
by the TOC element, or sequentially if the current rises enough after the breaker opens at Sturgis. The
lower plots in Figure 7 (open at ST) show the increased coverage in this case. The Gnd IOC curve
flattens out for faults beyond the transformers; this is a result of the neutral infeed, which does not
affect the NSeq IOC element.
We exploit the automatic process by including more thorough fault studies than would be practicable
manually. For example, to set the largest allowed fault detector pickup requires about 50 fault
calculations, and setting the overcurrent elements uses about 85 fault calculations, with various lines
temporarily outaged. Figure 7 required over 6000 fault calculations (under 15 minutes on a 450 Mhz
PC).
27
28
Figure 8 Threshold fault resistance (primary ohms) for SLG faults around loop of parallel lines.
The upper curves show two forward zones on Red Hills Sturgis line 1. The lower curve shows the
reverse pilot element of the facing relay on Sturgis-Red Hills line 1. The reverse element covers the
forward pilot overreach region right of Sturgis.
Coverage of fault impedance is also shown in the circles in Figure 9. These circles are similar in
appearance to traditional mho circles but are not to be confused with them. Each plots the largest fault
impedance seen for a single-line-ground fault at bus 232, using the full relay operating equations. This
impedance may be inductive, resistive, or capacitive: the algorithm searches for the limit at each faultimpedance angle in turn. The limit depends on the equivalent source impedance at the relay, and
hence also varies with fault location. The forward pilot limit is well within the facing reverse
characteristic, which must enclose all external faults that the forward pilot sees.
29
X
P.Ohms
30
20
10
232
12 Ohms
109
-20
-10
R
10
20
P.Ohms
-10
Figure 9 Limits of fault impedance for single-line-ground faults at remote bus 232: for forward pilot
relay at 109 facing the reverse pilot relay at 232. The forward element (smaller circle) barely
operates for a solid fault at bus 232. The reverse element (larger circle) will operate for a 12-ohm
resistive bus fault at bus 232. Both elements see capacitive fault impedance of about j10 ohms at
bus 232.
30
Table 3 summarizes the extra checking rules. Again, these apply to any pilot scheme using phasor
distance relays. If these tests produce warnings, the user must use judgment in finding a compromise
setting.
Table 3
Summary of Extra Checking Rules
Distance zone 1
Directional overcurrent
7. System Simulation
After setting the relay, the engineer can test its operation in the network. The stepped event
simulation uses detailed phasor models of the relays, including the TOC curves and distance- element
comparators, and accounts for the logic of multiple relays in the scheme. It verifies that the primary
protection can successfully clear faults on the protected line, and that other relays will not operate
unintentionally.
Figure 1 shows a close-in solid single-line fault at Sturgis for which the zone 2 ground element at Red
Hills does not operate. The 67N2 pilot element at Red Hills trips on receiving the permissive signal.
The following events are reproduced:
Event
0.0
1.0
1.0
31
1.0
1.2
1.2 (includes 0.2 cycles for
torque control element)
1.2
4.0
4.2
The total time has about 0.5 cycle of random error, since the prefault voltage angle at the instant of the
fault is unknown in a phasor model.
Figure 10 simulates a single-line fault with fault resistance of 6 ohms.
232 Sturgis
161.0 kV
(2)
248.000
239 Louisvi SS 5
161.0 kV
22.500 No_Op
190.800
51N LFZP_TZ3
Z3GD,51N
MDAR_TOC
1151 Adaton
161.0 kV
1159 Starkvile T2
161.0 kV
No_Op
LFZP_TZ3
161_BU_GND
376 Ackerman 161
E 10.400
161.0 kV
(1)
231 Eupora, MS 5
161.0 kV
161.0 kV
(1)
4.000
Z1G
Z2G,ECHO_RECEIVER,6
CE
No_Op
Not tripped
LFZP_TOC
2446 Sturgis
69.0 kV
118.900
161_BU_GND
69.0 kV
69.0 kV
Figure 10 Delayed tripping at Red Hills for 6-ohm ground fault. This fault is outside the reach of
zone 2 at Red Hills until the breaker opens at Sturgis.
It has already been shown that the zone 2 mho and IOC elements may both underreach in this case, so
the pilot zone at Red Hills sees the fault only after the breaker has opened at Sturgis. The following
events are reproduced:
Event
0.0
1.0
4.0
5.0
5.0
5.2
7.2
7.4
10.4
In a systematic search for miscoordinations, the engineer can run many different faults. A typical
series of stepped-event simulations varies the fault resistance for close-in and midline single-lineground faults on the protected line:
32
Protected line: local branch 232 376 circuit 1 to remote bus 109
Fault type
Location
Single-line-ground (SLG)
Single-line-ground
Single-line-ground
Close-in at 232
Close-in at 109
0.5 from 232 376 1 to 109
SLG - 2 Ohms
SLG - 2 Ohms
SLG - 2 Ohms
Close-in at 232
Close-in at 109
0.5 from 232 376 1 to 109
SLG - 6 Ohms
SLG - 6 Ohms
SLG - 6 Ohms
Close-in at 232
Close-in at 109
0.5 from 232 376 1 to 109
SLG - 10 Ohms
SLG - 10 Ohms
SLG - 10 Ohms
Close-in at 232
Close-in at 109
0.5 from 232 376 1 to 109
SLG - 20 Ohms
SLG - 20 Ohms
SLG - 20 Ohms
Close-in at 232
Close-in at 109
0.5 from 232 376 1 to 109
SLG - 40 Ohms
SLG - 40 Ohms
SLG - 40 Ohms
Close-in at 232
Close-in at 109
0.5 from 232 376 1 to 109
The simulation evaluates the time delay between the fastest primary and fastest backup local zones of
protection, reports any miscoordinations or time intervals below the chosen minimum, and continues
with the next fault. On line 2 it is found that faults up to 60 ohms are cleared in 4.4 cycles when the
breakers open simultaneously at both ends. However, on line 1 the instantaneous overcurrent settings
have been limited by the tapped transformers, and the result is that tripping for 20-ohm faults on line 1
requires 25 cycles using the time-overcurrent elements.
8. Summary
Automated setting of complex modern relays improves productivity by applying utility rules
consistently, simplifying routine data-handling and avoiding human error. Fast computers can run
more thorough fault studies than those previously conducted manually. The algorithms presented here
calculate the electrical settings for multiple overcurrent and distance elements and report the margins
of secure operation. They apply to any directional comparison pilot scheme and to any relay model.
The settings are verified graphically and in a system simulation that includes the pilot logic.
References
[1] IEEE Guide for Protective Relay Applications to Transmission Lines, IEEE Standard C37.1131999, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, New York, NY, February 2000.
33
[2] Fernando L. Alvarado, Sao Khai Mong, and Mark K. Enns, A Fault Program with Macros,
Monitors, and Direct Compensation in Mutual Groups, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, vol. PAS-104, No. 5, pp. 1109-1120; May 1985.
[3]. Paul F. McGuire, Donald M. MacGregor, John J. Quada, and Daryl B. Coleman, A Stepped-Event
Technique for Simulating Protection System Response, presented at 6th Technical Seminar on
Protection and Control, Natal, Brazil; September 27 - October 2, 1998.
[4] A. T. Giuliante, S. P. Turner, and J. E. McConnell, Considerations for the Design and Application
of Ground Distance Relays, 22nd Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, Washington;
October 1995.
[5] Mark K. Enns and Paul F. McGuire, Data Base Organization for Protection Engineering, CIGRE
Study Committee 34 Colloquium, Johannesburg, South Africa, October 1-3, 1997.
[6]. Donald M. MacGregor and Hugh Borland, Computer-Aided Setting and Coordination of Distance
Relays in 38 kV Distribution Networks, 13th International Conference on Electricity Distribution
(CIRED 1995), Brussels, Belgium; May 1995.
[7]. George E. Alexander and Joe G. Andrichak, Ground Distance Relaying: Problems and Principles,
47th Annual Georgia Tech Protective Relaying Conference, Atlanta, Georgia; April 28-30, 1993.
Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, Washington; October 24-26, 2000.
[8]. E. O. Schweitzer III and Jeff Roberts, Distance Relay Element Design, 46th Annual Conference
for Protective Relay Engineers, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas; April 12-14, 1993.
[9] S. E. Zocholl, Three-Phase Circuit Analysis and the Mysterious k0 Factor, 22nd Annual Western
Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, Washington; October 1995.
[10] Transmission Line Protective Systems Loadability, report by the IEEE Power System Relaying
Committee Working Group D6, presented at 28th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference,
Spokane, Washington; October 23-35, 2001.
[11] Solveig Ward, Comparison of Quadrilateral and Mho Distance Characteristic, 26th Annual
Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, Washington; October 1999.
[12] Walter A. Elmore, Fernando Calero and Lifeng Yang, Evolution of Distance Relaying Principles,
48th Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers, Texas A&M University, College Station,
Texas; April 3-5, 1995.
[13 ] REL 512 Line Protection and Breaker Control Terminal, manual I.L.40-512, ABB Power
Automation and Protection Division, Coral Springs, FL; July 2001.
[14] Daqing Hou, Shaojun Chen and Steve Turner, SEL-321-5 Relay Out-of-Step Logic, Application
Guide AG97-13, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.; 1997.
[15] Walter A. Elmore and Elmo Price, Polarization Fundamentals, 27th Annual Western Protective
Relay Conference, Spokane, Washington; October 24-26, 2000.
[16] Jeff Roberts, E. O. Schweitzer III, Renu Arora, and Ernie Poggi, Limits to the Sensitivity of
Ground Directional & Distance Protection, 22nd Annual Western Protective Relay Conference,
Spokane, Washington; October 24-26, 1995.
34
A.T. Giuliante is president and founder of ATG Exodus. Prior to forming his company in 1995, Tony
was Executive Vice President of GEC ALSTHOM T&D Inc.- Protection and Control Division, which he
started in 1983. From 1967 to 1983, he was employed by General Electric and ASEA. In 1994, Tony
was elected a Fellow of IEEE for contributions to protective relaying education and their analysis in
operational environments. He has authored over 40 technical papers and is a frequent lecturer on all
aspects of protective relaying, including electromechanical, solid state and digital based equipment.
Tony is a past Chairman of the IEEE Power System Relaying Committee 1993-1994, and past
Chairman of the Relay Practices Subcommittee. He has degrees of BSEE and MSEE from Drexel
University 1967 and 1969.
Donald M. MacGregor is a Lead Engineer at Electrocon International, Inc. He received his B.A. degree
with Honors in mathematics in 1970, from St. Catharines College, Cambridge, England. He next
attended University College of North Wales in Bangor, where he earned his Ph.D. in Electronic
Engineering in 1973. He joined Electrocon in 1973 and has made significant contributions to software
for fault analysis, the modeling of power transformers, and power system protection, including detailed
models of multifunction relays.
Russell W. Patterson is a Project Specialist, System Protection, for the Tennessee Valley Authority
(TVA) in Chattanooga, Tennessee. He is responsible for reviewing and making protective relaying
recommendations on new construction and retrofit projects for the generation and transmission system.
He also has responsibility for protective relaying and control systems and field support. Prior to his
position as Project Specialist, he was TVAs Power Quality Manager responsible for field and customer
support on PQ related issues and disturbances. Mr. Patterson earned the BSEE degree from
Mississippi State University in 1991 and has completed all coursework toward the MSEE at
Mississippi State University. He is a registered professional engineer in the State of Tennessee.
35