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IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 19, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2001
I. INTRODUCTION
Manuscript received December 1, 2000; revised June 1, 2001. This work was
supported in part by grants from VINNOVA and the Academy of Finland. Parts
of this work were presented at the IEEE MMT 2000, Dec. 36, Duck Key, FL,
USA.
F. Berggren and J. Zander are with Radio Communication Systems,
Department of Signals, Sensors and Systems, Royal Institute of Technology,
S-100 44, Stockholm, Sweden (e-mail: fredrik.berggren@radio.kth.se;
jens.zander@radio.kth.se).
S.-L. Kim is with the Radio Resource Management and Optimization Laboratory, Information and Communications University, Yusong, Taejon 305-600,
Korea (e-mail: slkim@icu.ac.kr).
R. Jntti is with the Control Engineering Laboratory, Department of Automation and Systems Technology, Helsinki University of Technology, FIN-02015
Hut, Finland (e-mail: riku.jantti@hut.fi).
Publisher Item Identifier S 0733-8716(01)08482-7.
avoided. Since DS-CDMA systems are considered to be interference limited, less interference allows for reduced transmission power, in turn increasing the capacity and lowering the energy consumption. Hence it suggests that if the same amount of
data can be delivered using this type of scheduling, the impact
will be higher energy efficiency since no power is wasted on
combating the intracell interference.
A fundamental issue for these nonreal time services is the
multiple access scheme, whether simultaneous transmissions
are beneficial or not [5][7]. Although different models are considered, the results of those works to some extent exhibit a time
division solution for maximizing the system throughput. In [8]
and [9], the concept of utilizing a hybrid of TDMA and CDMA
was outlined. This combined access method was shown to take
advantage of the high intracell capacity of TDMA and the intercell interference suppression ability of CDMA. In [10], it was
found that throughput in the DS-CDMA downlink is maximized
when each base station transmits to at most one user at a time
and uses maximum power. Schemes which coordinate transmissions between cells were also suggested for a cellular highway
system. Intercell coordination for hexagonal systems was further considered in [11]. Recently, a similar concept to [10],
where simultaneous transmissions within the cell are avoided,
has been proposed for supporting high data rates (HDR) in the
downlink for a system based on current CDMA physical layer
structure [12]. In the HDR-CDMA system, due to the vastly
different requirements, high-data-rate users are separated from
low-rate voice users by different RF carriers. The high-data-rate
users are scheduled over time slots, where the slot lengths depend on channel conditions and transmission is executed with
a constant maximum transmit power. Aspects of power control
and scheduling were investigated in [6], where the problem of
minimizing the time span for emptying all users data buffers
was addressed. A discrete time model was assumed and the results showed that the optimal solution may require that time division must sometimes be induced. In [13] it was found that
under some conditions, the same amount of data could be delivered in the uplink with less energy by utilizing time division. A
protocol that automatically in a distributed fashion induces time
division based on buffer backlog was suggested to reduce the
energy consumption. In [14], it has been also found that higher
throughput in the DS-CDMA uplink can be obtained by scheduling delay tolerant users, and this gain does not necessarily require more average transmission power.
In this work, we consider efficient use of the downlink radio
resources by exploiting the delay tolerance of nonreal time
service users. Particularly, we elaborate on one-by-one scheduling (TDMA) for the downlink transmission of wireless data
in a DS-CDMA system. A crucial component is quality-based
power control but rather than just focusing on minimum power
solutions [2][4], we will direct this work toward minimum
energy solutions as well, a more natural description seen over
a time interval. The main focus herein is to offer a requested
average data rate with minimum energy consumption by using
intracell scheduling, which is a form of a multiplexing scheme.
We show that intracell scheduling in terms of time division
within the cells merits higher energy efficiency and system
capacity than continuous transmission at a fixed data rate. This
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where
user and
(1)
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IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 19, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2001
by . Consider the following problem of finding the transmission powers during that minimize the total energy consumed:
(4)
(5)
s.t.
(6)
(7)
SIR
(8)
(2)
The instantaneous data rate is assumed to follow as
SIR
(9)
which is the same linear relation as in (2). Thus, we seek the optimum stationary base station power allocation which delivers
the data within the interval with minimum energy. Replacing
, the minimum energy problem
constraint (6) with
reduces to the minimum power assignment problem for continuous transmission considered in [2][4] and [15], which has its
solution given by (3). Constraint (6) also restricts the problem
formulation from the use of intercell coordination by requiring
all base stations to transmit with constant powers over the whole
scheduling interval.
III. INTRACELL SCHEDULING
(3)
where
is an
identity matrix,
matrix with elements
denotes an
and
is an
vector with
gives the componentwise smallest power vector. In this notation,
the indexes may correspond to the same physical base station.
The power control algorithms in [2][4] and [15] solve (3) in a
distributed fashion.
B. Problem Definition
Assume now that there exists a specified scheduling interval,
, over which a nonreal time service user requires a
bits have to
minimum average data rate . That is, at least
be received over the scheduling interval at the quality specified
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tion is that
have
, it implies that
and we
(13)
and all users in cell can be scheduled
Hence
within .
Proposition 1 says that capacity is not lost for scheduling
, we can
the nonreal time services. In fact, since
choose either to increase the transmission rates or admit more
nonreal time service users. Alternatively, the transmit power
can be lowered so that more of the base stations power is left
for other services, e.g., real time traffic like voice. Given a
rate vector , to determine if it is instantaneously achievable
is rather difficult with limited information of the link gains.
applies,
However, in the case where the assumption
the following proposition gives a necessary condition.
, a necessary condition
Proposition 2: If
to be instantaneously achievable is
for a rate vector
for all cells .
, then the power can be solved from
Proof: Let
(1) and (2)
(11)
and therefore
denotes the intracell-to-intercell interference ratio
where
for user . We can then prove the following proposition.
is instantaProposition 1: If
neously achievable, it is achievable in average by one-by-one
scheduling.
Proof: We prove the proposition by showing the achievability of one-by-one scheduling when the total power that is
used for all the users in the cell is instead assigned to one single
user at a time in the cell. Consider an arbitrary cell . When
to one single user in cell , the
assigning the total power
generated intercell interference remains the same as if the cell
power were divided on several users. Thus other cells are not
influenced by the intracell scheduling in cell . Therefore, it is
sufficient to prove the proposition for one single cell. For the
proposition to be true, there must exist s such that for every
user
(12)
Clearly the total power must be positive and limited in all cells,
from which the condition follows.
A more conservative condition applicable to a single cell
can be found by including the maximum power constraint
. Following the proof above, this can equivalently be expressed as
(14)
Therefore, if and the maximum achievable signal-to-interfer, can be measured for all users
ence ratio,
in the cell, (14) can serve as an admission criteria in cell for a
.
given intercell interference level
A. Energy Efficiency
where
Then the proposition is true for cell if the average rate can
be achieved for all users in the cell within the interval by
. Since our assumpone-by-one scheduling, i.e.,
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IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 19, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2001
and ,
and that the sum power of the
is
users is . Then the proof of Proposition 1 gives that if
assigned to one single user in the cell, the same data amount
can be delivered in
units by
transmitted in
one-by-one scheduling. Since the energy consumption in
of one-by-one scheduling is
, simultaneous
transmissions cannot minimize the consumed energy.
Corollary 1 says that if no coordination between cells is considered, which by constraint (6) is our assumption, one-by-one
scheduling is necessary in all cells for minimizing the energy
consumption. In other words, the solution of (4)(8) will use
time division within the cells. The energy consumed in a cell
when we assign
by one-by-one scheduling is
to a single user. For a single cell , let us define the relative
energy efficiency of one-by-one scheduling compared to continuous transmission
This means that the whole system will use relatively less energy
, from the defias will every user in it. Assuming that
, the relative energy efficiency is approximately
nition of
. This can intuitively
given by
be understood as follows: If there is much intracell interference
high) and less intercell interference (
low),
(
there is a large possible gain from one-by-one scheduling in
terms of improved energy efficiency.
, it is possible to lower the transmission
Since
power and compensate the lower data rate by prolonging the
duration of the transmission so that users are scheduled over
the whole interval . For that purpose, we may normalize the
s such that
which gives
.
with , we must consequently
From (12), when replacing
for maintaining the same
adjust the power to
average data rate. Therefore
and the energy consumption remains the same, thus and
are unchanged. This is exemplified in Fig. 1.
for all
cells. With
tion system in
Proceeding in the same manner for the other rows, we can write
the problem in matrix form as
(15)
identity matrix,
where is an
matrix with elements
and
is a
in an
iteration
vector with
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given by
which is the solution to
.
Remark: It is also possible to prove convergence of
by
verifying that it is a standard interference function [3], which in
addition guarantees its asynchronous convergence.
It should be also pointed out that the algorithm will converge
to a fixed point even if is not achievable on average. In that
.
case, at least one cell will use the maximum power
This phenomenon could be utilized as an incentive for congestion control by disconnecting users or decreasing some users
data rates. The power control algorithm (17) also exhibits the
property that if all cells are supported, the powers decrease monotonously and all cells stay supported. This is stated below
denotes the value at iteration .
where
where
Corollary 3: If there exists an iteration
for all cells , then
and
Taking into account the power constraint, let us define the mapping
(17)
operator works componentwise. The following
where the
result guarantees that the optimal power allocation will be
found.
, the mapping
Proposition 3: For any initial
converges with geometric rate to a power vector that supports
for all cells , if such a power allocation is feasible.
Proof: Consider the weighted maximum norm
and the consistent weighted matrix norm
where
is a nonsingular matrix. It can be
shown that is irreducible and nonnegative and therefore has
. By
a positive real eigenvalue equal to its spectral radius
[16, Th. 3.7], a necessary condition for a feasible solution of (15)
. Let
be the PerronFrobeto exist is that
and choose
nius eigenvector of , that is
, then
Therefore
so if
and the fixed point is within the feasible power
range, is a pseudo-contraction mapping with respect to the
weighted maximum norm and converges to a unique fixed point
Let
and assume that
which gives
cell we have
in all cells ,
for all . Therefore, for any
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IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 19, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2001
we have that
with equality only if there exists
exactly one user per cell. This is due to [17, Th. 2.1-16], which
states that the spectral radius becomes larger when the magnitude of the matrix elements increases. The matrix can be interpreted as the iteration matrix of a problem where no intracell
interference exists, for example by fully orthogonal spreading
sequences at the receiver but it is also useful for describing intracell time division. We can relate its spectral properties to
by the following proposition.
Proposition 4: The spectral radius fulfills
where the inequality becomes equality only if there is exiff is instanactly one user per cell. In particular,
taneously achievable.
be an eigenvector such that
.
Proof: Let
Then for any
(18)
Define a vector
with
(19)
so that with
, (18) becomes
So, if
for all cells , the corollary
follows.
It should be pointed out that Corollary 4 could be very con. This is likely to occur when
servative, especially if
is large, implying that Corollary 4 has its practical applicability limited to low values of .
Fig. 2.
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The relative system energy efficiency for different orthogonality factors as function of the user data rate.
as a distance-dependent path loss of fourth power and independent log-normal shadowing with a standard deviation of 8
dB. The spreading bandwidth is set to
MHz and
the required bit-energy-to-noise-spectral-density ratio
dB for all users. The same data rate
is used by all
users. In Fig. 2, the result of 1000 independently generated
matrices is depicted for different orthogonality factors . The
figure shows the overall system relative energy efficiency of the
suggested power control and scheduling concept for the cases
where the rates are instantaneously achievable. That is, we plot
, where
is the power vector
for supporting instantaneously, which can be solved for from
.
(3). The base station powers are given by
The plot shows that for high data rates and orthogonality factors,
the same amount of data can be delivered with approximately
four times less energy if we are to use the proposed transmission
scheme. For high data rates, the gain strongly varies with the orthogonality factor. Fig. 3 shows the rate of convergence for the
power control algorithm, measured as the normalized Euclidean
, in
distance to the fixed point,
each iteration for two different data rates. The initial power
and
vector is chosen from a uniform distribution,
is set to 5 W. It is seen, for example, that for
kb/s at 20
iterations, the normalized distance is about 10 , which in turn
shows that the algorithm converges fast and suggests that it is
able to quickly react to changes in interference. As the data rate
is decreased by half to 5 kb/s, the convergence is faster, which
is expected since the spectral radius of the iteration matrix decreases by the same portion. The capacity increase is illustrated
is plotted as function of the orby Fig. 4 where
thogonality factor. The relation seems highly linear with a maximum gain of approximately 2.7 times when the orthogonality
factor is unity. If all users have the same quality targets and
data rates, the linear behavior can quantitatively be explained
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IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 19, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2001
Fig. 3.
The convergence rate measured as normalized Euclidean distance to the fixed point for the two cases of R = 10 and 5 kb/s.
Fig. 4.
SIR
SIR
DS-CDMA system. It is observed that having a quality of service constraint based on an average rather than an instantaneous
data rate opens possibilities of flexible transmission scheduling.
We proposed a form of combined intracell scheduling and
power control, where only one user in the cell is allowed to
transmit at a time. With such a scheduling, we showed that
the same amount of data can be delivered with less energy.
For the purpose of supporting the average data rate with as
low transmit powers as possible, we combined the scheduling
with a suggested convergent distributed power control algorithm adjusting cell-site powers. The power control problem
was reduced to a linear equation system. By comparing the
different spectral radii of the iteration matrices, it was found
that the system capacity was increased from the proposed
scheduling/power control scheme as compared to the normal
power control problem. This is due to a lower spectral radius
of the matrix describing the scheduled system, which also
means that the power control can converge faster. Numerical
results indicate that with the proposed concept the transmit
powers can be significantly decreased. This leaves more power
resources free, which opens possibilities for supporting more
nonreal time traffic. The issue of determining the order in
which intracell transmissions should be performed was not
addressed here. In addition, it is expected that there will be
gains which are not captured in this work. Preferably one could
start transmitting to users with good channels. For example,
in each cell , if the users are scheduled in the order of the
, it is likely that if is sufficiently long, a
factors
time-varying channel may improve the channel conditions of
the worst mobiles. Future work includes other models than (2),
e.g., the nonlinear relations described in [13] and also intercell
coordination considerations. Further, upper bounds on the data
rates, discrete time scale, and powers should be investigated.
APPENDIX
Lemma 1:
has less than or equal to
distinct eigenvalues.
. As
Proof: Consider the transposed matrix
in
are equal for a given it implies that
all rows
distinct nonzero eigenvalues. Using the
it can have up to
well-known property that shares the same set of eigenvalues
, the Lemma follows.
as of
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their
helpful and constructive comments.
REFERENCES
[1] E. Dahlman, P. Beming, J. Knutsson, F. Ovesj, M. Persson, and C.
Roobol, WCDMAThe radio interface for future mobile multimedia
communications, IEEE Trans. Vehic. Technol., vol. 47, pp. 11051118,
1998.
[2] R. Jntti and S.-L. Kim, Second-order power control with asymptotically fast convergence, IEEE J. Selected Areas Commun., vol. 18, pp.
447457, Mar. 2000.
[3] R. D. Yates, A framework for uplink power control in cellular radio
systems, IEEE J. Selected Areas Commun., vol. 13, pp. 13411347,
July 1995.
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Seong-Lyun Kim (S93M95) received the B.S. degree in economics from Seoul National University in
1988 and the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in operations research (with application to wireless communications)
from KAIST in 1990 and 1994, respectively.
He has been with Information and Communications University (ICU), Korea, since September,
2000, heading the Radio Resource Management and
Optimization Laboratory. Before joining ICU, he
was a Faculty Member at the Radio Communication
Systems Group, Department of Signals, Sensors
and Systems, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Stockholm, Sweden.
His research and education focus include radio resource management and
economics of wireless multimedia. He has recently coauthored a book (with
J. Zander) Radio Resource Management in Wireless Networks (New York:
Artech, 2001).
Dr. Kim is currently an Associate Editor for the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON
VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY.
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IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 19, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2001
Riku Jntti received the M.Sc. degree (with distinction) in electrical engineering and D.Sc. degree in automation and systems technology from Helsinki University of Technology (HUT), Finland, in 1997 and
2001, respectively.
From 1998 to 1999, he was with the Radio
Communication Systems Group, Royal Institute of
Technology (KTH), Stockholm, Sweden, as a guest
postgraduate student. He is currently working as an
Acting Professor of Communications Engineering
in the University of Vaasa, Finland, and as a
Researcher at HUT. His research interests include transmitter power control
and multiquality of service radio resource management.