KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

DAR ES SALAAM CENTRE, TANZANIA

MBA
MODULE 9: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

NAME OF STUDENT: M.S.K.TULA

REG. # MBA/0003/83/DT
APRIL 2010

1. What are the two major steps in the research process?

The research process consists of 2 major stages each generating a tangible outpu
t:
1. Planning/design stage - generating a research proposal
• Identification of the researchable area/topic/issue
• Statement of the research problem and objectives of the study
• Clarification of the goals/purpose and objectives of the study
• Determination of the type of information needed and what form it will ta
ke
• Determination of the sources of each type of information (the target pop
ulation; sample size and sampling procedures)
• Selection and development of the information gathering techniques to be
used
• Designing the procedure for data collection
2. Field implementation stage - generating a research report
• Data collection
• Data analysis and interpretation
• Report writing
1. The Planning/Design Stage
Planning is critical. Just as you would plan an important journey before setting
out, you must plan your research, or you will wander off track, waste time and
money, or abandon the project. The research design is the overall plan that tell
s you what information you need to collect, what techniques to use, and where to
get the information. Whatever research paradigm, perspective, or approach you t
ake, you must have a plan. The planning stage which often takes place on your de
sk usually takes a significant proportion of the total time of the research proj
ect. Never be tempted to rush to the field before being clear on the entire desi
gn of the project. Ideally, you should not proceed to the implementation stage b
efore your supervisor has endorsed the proposal.
Let us now go into some detail with regard to the individual steps you will carr
y out at the planning/design stage:
Identification of the researchable area/topic/issue
• Start by identifying the subject of your research project –a broad area
that you want to study. This could be purely theoretical obtained from studying
existing literature. This source is normally used by experienced researchers who
are knowledgeable in a particular field and may want to test theories, findings
, techniques of previous research for purposes of validation or application in n
ew contexts. However, in many cases, beginning researchers identify researchable
areas from their observations in the work place or general environment. Your pr
oject in this degree programme will likely be carried out in an existing organiz
ation where you work or are associated with in some manner. The subject of your
research will therefore focus on a problem concerning the organization. Your res
earch project is supposed to contribute to solving that problem.
• Recognize that the broad area/subject you have selected is part of a wid
er context e.g. the organization where the research will take place. At this sta
ge, you should get as much information as possible about relevant aspects of thi
s context. You could read published literature on the subject, organization docu
ments, talk to experts familiar with the subject, people within the organization
. This information helps you to understand the context and the associated proble
ms a bit better so that you can determine what aspect your research will target
and to refine and focus it.
• The next step is to isolate a part or aspect of the target as an objecti
ve of your research project. Essentially, this means refining your research idea
by narrowing it down to what is doable/ manageable.
• Avoid two important problems when developing and refining your research
problem.
1. Choosing a problem that is too big/broad
2. Choosing a problem that is too narrow/insignificant
A key point to bear in mind as you zero in on a specific problem to study: Choo
se a subject that you can handle; i.e. one that corresponds with:
1. your competences
2. your interests
3. Resources available to you—time, money etc.
Statement of the research problem
The research problem is a clear statement that points out the gap in knowledge t
hat the study will address. In other words, what don’t we know now that your stu
dy will help us know? Characteristics of properly stated research problems:
• Start by summarizing a few known facts that build a case for the gap in
knowledge.
• The problem should be consistent with known fact
• Identify the variables (characteristics) being investigated
• Indicate the relationships between variables (characteristics) that are
being investigated (if applicable)
• Identify the target population
• Stated in the simplest form possible, preferably as a question
• Limited in scope, can be solved in a reasonable period of time
Clarification of the goals/purpose and objectives of the study
At this stage you ask yourself the following questions: Why are you doing resear
ch? What is your overall aim? The answer to this question has a part to play in
shaping the type of your research.
How and when the information is generated going to be used? The answer to this q
uestion guides you in determining whether you are doing basic or applied researc
h.
• Basic research is to advance human knowledge with no particular applicat
ion in mind. It is usually done by the academia, who want to contribute to devel
opment and refinement of theories.
• Applied research by contrast addresses a practical problem. Why aren’t f
armers adopting a new technology? Why are women not attending training \meetings
? Why is there malnutrition of children in this community and what can be done t
o improve the situation? In the social sciences, common examples of applied rese
arch include evaluation research and action research.
• Evaluation research can be used to assess a problem or a programme or pr
oject at its completion or monitor it as it proceeds.
• Action research is done to get enough information to solve a problem. Pe
ople involved in the situation are involved as active participants in the resear
ch and the findings generated are used as a basis for action aimed at addressing
the problem.
Will the research describe, explain or predict phenomena?
• Descriptive research includes: 1. Exploratory research to get a picture
of the situation, behaviour, or attitudes before planning further research 2. An
y research that presents a picture of a situation, place, activity, behaviour, e
vent. The basic question you are asking is, what? For example, what is happening
? What happened? What do people think?
• Explanatory research—is research that shows relationships after the fact
. How does socio-economic status affect participation in the programme? How did
reduction of school fees affect enrollment?
• Predictive research states what will happen or how it will happen before
the event. You are asking why or how. What effect will the training programme h
ave on villagers’ attitudes towards the technology? For studies seeking to under
stand cause-effect relationships two or more variables, an experimental design i
s usually used.
Determination of the type of information needed and what form it will take
What type of information?
Now that you know the general topic you want to study, at this stage you break i
t down into sub-topics so that you know the specific information you need to col
lect. The easiest way to do this is to identify the variables/characteristics/ph
rases of interest about which information should be collected to address the res
earch problem. (Review the definition of these two concepts above).
You therefore have to look at the problem statement critically to identify these
variables/characteristics/phrases. Let us take the sample topic we have been us
ing. Below is an excerpt from the research problem statement.
Let us list the characteristics/phrases about which information should be collec
ted:
1. Description of the new approach/methodologies
2. Performance of the new approach/methodologies
• Achievement of the anticipated objectives
• Achievement of anticipated outcomes
3. Factors explaining the performance of the new approach/methodologies
This is your research outline. Depending on what information you have available
at this stage from the various sources (e.g. published literature, organization
documents, your experience etc…), you can break down the outline more and more w
ith sub-sub-topics under each of the sub-topics. For example, under sub-topic 1,
if you know the various aspects/types of methodologies that have been used, you
can list them; under 2, you can list the anticipated outcomes and objectives; u
nder 3, you can list the various factors that could explain performance.
• What form will the information take?
• For each of the information to be collected, decide whether you want it
as numbers
(quantitative data) or as description/words (qualitative data).
Determination of the sources of each type of information
At this stage you address the following questions: Which information will come f
rom where? i.e. People? Records? Professional literature? You may probably use a
combination of these. What type of people, who in particular? How many people f
rom each category (sampling methods and sample size)?
You need to answer these questions for each sub-topic in the outline of informat
ion to be collected.
Selection and development of the information gathering techniques to be used
You now have to decide how you will get the information. There is a variety of w
ays to go about this. You could use a structured, semi-structured or unstructure
d questionnaire; you can use an interview schedule; you can get information from
records; or from observation of on-going processes. Each of these data collecti
on tools will be covered in depth in a subsequent section.
At this stage you have what is called a research design which constitutes of the
outline of the information needed to address the objectives of the study; sourc
es of information and data collection techniques.
Designing the procedure for data collection
Data collection procedures refer to the step-by-step process that will be follow
ed in using the data collection tools in the field. If it is a questionnaire for
example, who will administer it? When? To who? How will they handle people who
refuse to participate? Will people answer the questions as individuals, as a hou
sehold, as a couple, as a group?
2. Field Implementation Stage
All the above research design activities take place on the desk. At this stage,
you are ready to begin implementing the project in the field. Major activities i
nclude data collection, analysis and interpretation; and report writing. Each of
these will be covered in detail in subsequent sections of this module. However,
let us now look at what constitutes a research proposal in a nutshell.

2. Summarise the key elements in a research proposal.

Elements of a research proposal
There are various formats of research proposals. Different organizations and ind
ividuals have their preferences. What is presented below is just an example.
I. Cover page
II. Table of contents
III Chapter 1: Introduction
• Background and setting
• Statement of the problem
• Objectives of the study
• Definition of terms
• Limitations of the study
• Basic assumptions
• Significance of the problem
IV Chapter 2: Literature review
V Chapter 3: Procedures/Methodology
• Research design
• Population and sampling
• Instruments/data collection tools
• Data collection procedures
• Data analysis
VI Budget and time schedule
Cover Page
• The cover page usually consists of the title of the study, the author‘s
name and institutional affiliation, a statement that this is a research proposal
and the date (month and year).
• Follow the style prescribed by the style manual suggested by the univers
ity, department, supervisor or the organization being targeted by the proposal.
• The title should contain key words or phrases to give a clear and concis
e description of the scope and nature of the study. Key words should allow bibli
ographers to index the study in proper categories.
• Indicate major variables
• Indicate nature of research
• Indicate target population
• Avoid words like:
A study of ………………………
• An investigation of ………………
• A survey of ………………………
They are redundant because it is obvious that any research is a
 study, it is an
investigation.
Table Of Contents
• This section lists the headings of sections in the document and the page
where they are located
• Again follow the appropriate style
• Be thorough so that people can find what they want in the document
Chapter One: Introduction
Background and setting:
• This section provides the necessary background and setting to put the pr
oblem in proper context. Usually a detailed background of the problem is develo
ped in the section on literature review. In the introduction mention only those
studies/information that will provide a logical lead into a clear and concise s
tatement of the problem. If the problem has arisen from the author’s experience
, explain this briefly in this section.
• Include a brief indication of the potential significance of the study. L
et the reader see the basis for the study; convince him/her that the study is ne
eded.
Two common errors to watch out for are:
1. Beginning the introduction with an elaborate presentation of the backgro
und to a problem before the problem itself has been clearly stated.
2. Concentrating too much on a justification for the study at this point.
Avoid the temptation to sell the importance of the problem before stating it. S
trive for balance.
• Note that the introduction is your “sales pitch”. Write the first parag
raphs with extreme care so as to promote the reader’s interest in the problem.
• Be as factual as possible. Statements, opinions and points-of-view shou
ld be documented (this means, cite the source, be it published literature or org
anization documents).
Statement of the problem
• Clearly describe the problem to be researched as explained in an earlier
section.
Research objectives/questions
• Indicate the general or overall objective of the study as well as the sp
ecific objectives.
Significance of the problem
• Significance can be presented in the “background and setting” section. H
owever, some people prefer to address it in a separate section.
• Specify who (what individuals or groups) can use this new knowledge or i
nformation yielded by the research to change or improve the present situation?
How will the study contribute to the improvement of the profession?
• Indicate how results can be generalized beyond the bounds of the study.
• You can use the arguments of others (expert opinion) who call for an inv
estigation of the problem.
Chapter Two: Literature Review
• Literature review means critically reading/reviewing whatever relevant d
ocumented information is available to you and can be used to inform the design a
nd implementation of your study.
• This chapter presents what is so far known about the research problem
• It should be organized and written in reference to the specific objectiv
es of the study
• It indicates the theory on which the study is based. Critique and weigh
studies as the theory is built.
• Organize literature by topic so that the reader can see what is known ab
out various aspects of the study. Don’t present studies as a series of abstract
s, one per paragraph. Rather, organize by topic and point out how the studies p
resented relate to the objectives of the study.
• Not all related studies need to be discussed in detail. In reviewing si
milar studies, you can describe the most important one, then simply state that t
he results were confirmed in similar studies that are listed but not described i
n detail.
• Include theories and research results contrary to the stated hypotheses
as well as those in agreement with them.
• Conclude this section with a discussion of the findings and their implic
ations. Summarise the insights gained from the review of the literature and poi
nt out gaps presently existing in what is known about the topic.
• Proposals generally do not include as complete a review of literature as
the final report.
Chapter Three: Procedures/Methodology
In this chapter the researcher shows how the study will be set up in order to an
swer the research questions/objectives. It includes all steps which will be tak
en.
Replication is a key word to keep in mind when writing this chapter. Researcher
s must provide accurate detailed descriptions of how the research was done so th
at it can be replicated (redone) by others, i.e. another researcher can reproduc
e the exact conditions of the original study. The various component section of t
his chapter are explained below.
Research design
• Describe the type of research i.e. is it a survey, case study, or action
research design or another type?
• Describe how you will set up your research to study the variables/charac
teristics of interest. Outline the information you will collect, the sources of
information and data collection techniques to be used.
• If a study involves more than one purpose, clearly indicate which design
is to address each objective
• Graphic diagrams/tables often aid in understanding the design. Define t
he symbols you use.
Population and sampling procedures
• State the target population and explain why this population is appropria
te for this study.
• Describe how a sampling frame (list of elements in the population) will
be developed.
• Is frame error likely? If yes, explain how you will control it. Frame
error occurs when there is a discrepancy between the intended target population
and the actual population from which the sample is drawn.
• Note any discrepancies between the accessible population and the target
population (if applicable).
• Describe the sampling procedure. If stratifying variables are used, give
reasons for selecting them. State the size of the sample and how it was determi
ne i.e. give the rationale for the sample size.
• Data describing the characteristics of the study participants that are r
elevant to the study should be provided; and if available data from the populati
on to enable the reader judge the representativeness of the sample.
• Describe what will be done with people that refuse to participate, drop
out or do not participate in all parts of the study, in other words, what will b
e done about non-respondents?
Instrumentation (data collection tools)
• Instruments are the operational ways of measuring the variables/characte
ristics to be studied. They can be questionnaires, checklists or interview sched
ules.
• If the researcher is developing the instruments he/she should describe t
he instrument development procedure including procedures for testing the validit
y, and suitability of the instruments.
• Validity – does the instrument measure what it purports to measure with
this group?
• Suitability-is the instrument suitable to this group?
• Never set out to develop an instrument of your own when you can find one
already developed. If well known instruments are used, you can generally descr
ibe them, their reliability and suitability and refer the reader through citatio
n to references where more thorough detailed discussions can be found.
• In this section, provide a description of what the instruments will look
like and if possible appendix a copy of the instruments to the proposal.
• If interviewers or observers are to be used explain how they will be tra
ined, and criteria for their selection.
Data collection procedures
• Describe when where and under what conditions the data will be gathered
and the time allotted for the data collection.
• Describe the verbal and written directions to be provided to the respond
ents. Will incentives be used to encourage response?
• Monitor events during the actual data gathering so that they can be expl
ained to the reader of the report.
Data analysis
• Explain how the data will be analysed indicating the statistics to be us
ed for quantitative data. Select statistics that answer the questions involved i
n the study. Don’t use complicated statistics when there are simple ones to do
the same job. Specify what analysis will be used for each objective.
• You may find it beneficial to provide as an appendix sample skeletons of
the tables and figures that will be generated by the analysis proposal readers
find this beneficial in conceptualizing what will be produced by these analysis
techniques.
• Specify why each method of analysis was employed.
• For each statistical method used present evidence indicating that the ba
sic assumptions underlying its use have been met.
• Describe the procedures for analyzing qualitative data (if applicable)
Budget and time schedule
Budget:
• List the personnel, equipment, space and time required for the project.
• Attach a cost to each one of them.
Time schedule
Prepare a realistic schedule for completing the research.
3. List ten important things an interviewer should remember when carrying o
ut interviews.
Tips for successful individual interviews
1. Before the formal interview starts, introduce yourself, engage responden
t in small talk for a few minutes to help him relax and to establish rapport.
2. Share with the respondents the purpose of the study: asure them of confi
dentiality of data.
3. Impress on the respondents the importance of the interview. In some ins
tances you may use the name of a respectable person to impress respondents e.g.
a statement like this one can be used” I am doing this study in collaboration wi
th Dr………. at the University to find out ………………………”
4. During the interview, listen attentively, probe for more information. Af
ter the respondent has completed an answer, you can sometimes elicit more inform
ation by pausing before asking the next question or by saying “Tell me more abou
t that”.
5. Note body language.
Tips for effective facilitation of group interviews/discussions
Be an active listener
Good facilitators show interest in what people have to say. They listen close en
ough to:
• summarize or paraphrase what is said
• pick up on the direction of the discussion
• detect underlying attitudes or judgments
Active listening is key to all facilitation skills.
Be observant
Good facilitators are observant in order to:
• Notice group dynamics
• Moderator dominant individuals while encouraging quiet ones
• Understand how different groups of people interact
• Understand how and when different methods must be used to ensure that ev
eryone has the opportunity to participate.
Ask questions: Good facilitators use questions to start, focus and deepen the le
arning of the participants. A simple “WHY’ is often enough to move a discussion
to a deeper level. Who? What? When? Where? And How? Are all good questions to br
ing out details.
Be flexible: A good facilitator responds to the needs of the participants and is
willing to adapt or change methods, tools and questions in order to do so.
Be organized: All necessary materials and logistics should be prepared in advanc
e so that people do not lose time and become frustrated. The facilitator keeps t
he overall research purpose in mind throughout the entire process.
Be knowledgeable but clear: Good facilitators are knowledgeable about developmen
t, but they are also able to communicate in simple statements and to ask focused
questions. Use plain language and avoid use of fancy words or jargon.
Be assertive but not controlling: The facilitator should know when to intervene
during discussions and when to stay quiet. Facilitators focus on mobilizing know
ledge of the participants and on providing guidance when the tasks are unclear o
r when the discussion starts losing focus.
4. Why is it important for a researcher to be ‘ethical’?
We are going to look at established research ethics in three broad areas, namely
, the relationship between the researcher and people who participate in the stud
y; the expectations of professional colleagues from the researcher; and the rela
tionship between the researcher and animals used in the study.
Researcher-respondent relationship
Broad principles that govern the ethical conduct of researchers with respondents
/human beings participating in their study are as follows (Mark, 1996):
Respect for persons
• Researchers must treat participants as autonomous persons and must respe
ct their decisions, including the decision not to participate.
• The less powerful groups of participants such as children, the mentally
ill need special protection.
Beneficence
• The researcher has the obligation to cause no harm to the respondent. He
/she should be concerned about the welfare of the respondent including mental, p
hysical health, safety and take all precautions to avoid injury.
• The researcher should avoid questions or issues that may cause embarrass
ment, guilt, discomfort or risks. Where such questions are inevitable, they shou
ld be asked in a sensitive manner with due respect and the respondent should be
informed accordingly at the outset of the study. In any case where harm to respo
ndents is possible, the researcher must work to maximize benefits to the individ
ual and society and minimize harm to participants.
Justice
• It is unjust for the powerless groups of society (e.g. the poor, racial
and ethnic minorities, prisoners) to be subjected to risky research studies beca
use of their powerless position.
The Principle Of Informed Consent
Research participants must be competent to give informed consent. Researchers mu
st provide sufficient information about the study to allow potential participant
s to decide for or against their participation. Individuals’ consent to particip
ate must be truly voluntary-it must not be coerced in any way. Social researcher
s must provide the following information to all potential research participants:
1. Proper identity of the researcher and sponsor of the study. The research
er should identify him/herself to the respondent and avoid giving false impressi
ons of the researcher or the project sponsor.
2. The purpose of the research, the procedures that will be followed and an
estimate of the amount of time that will be required.
3. Procedures that will be used by the researcher to ensure that their part
icipation and responses will be kept confidential.
4. A statement that their participation is completely voluntary. Participan
ts must be told that they can withdraw at any time without consequences. In addi
tion, their refusal to participate will not affect any benefits they may be enti
tled to. For example, if the research takes place in an organization where the p
otential participant is receiving a service, that service will in no way be affe
cted by the participant’s decision to refuse or withdraw from participation in
the study.
5. If the research involves more than “minimal risk”—that is risk greater t
han what one would encounter in normal life—the informed consent procedure must
also include an explanation as to whether any compensation or treatment is avail
able in the event of an injury and where the participant may obtain this.
6. Methods to be used to record their responses—writing down notes, tape or
video recording, still pictures. In case of recording and photographs, permissi
on should be sought from the respondent prior to data collection. It is unethica
l to hide the currently available small easily concealable recorders in your poc
ket and use it without the participants’ knowledge.
7. The right to privacy. Researchers should respect respondents’ privacy an
d when asking questions should allow respondents to leave unanswered questions f
or which they do not want to provide information.
This information should ideally be provided to potential participants in writing
for literate audiences. It usually forms part of the background or introduction
of a survey questionnaire or interview schedule. For illiterate respondents, th
e information should be read to them by the interviewer.
It is important to note that it may not always be possible to provide all these
elements of informed consent to participants. Researchers may justify omission o
f some of this information in certain research situations if there is no more th
an minimal risk to participants; if withholding this information will not violat
e the rights of participants; and if the study would be impractical or impossibl
e if all this information were provided. In these types of studies, the research
ers must show that these conditions are true.
Anonymity and Confidentiality
Individuals who participate in a study have a right to know that all information
about them will be treated in a responsible manner. The researcher should ensur
e that data is handled in a way that does not harm the participants. There are t
wo issues to consider here. Should you promise the respondents anonymity or conf
identiality as a way of safeguarding their identity? These two concepts are diff
erent and whichever you choose to use depends on the nature of your study.
Anonymity is particularly important for studying sensitive information such as H
IV status, students’ evaluation of their instructors.
Under these circumstances, the researcher records the particulars of the respond
ent such as the name, village etc. for purposes such as follow-up but adheres to
 the following guidelines to ensure confidentiality:
• Solicit and record only information necessary to achieve the purpose of
the study
• All information that could reveal a participant’s identity should be sto
red in a safe place. Only the researcher or study staff should have access to it
.
• Questionnaires, interview schedules, field notes having participants’ na
mes or identifying information attached to them should be coded as soon as possi
ble after the data has been collected; after which participants’ identifying inf
ormation should be removed if possible.
• After data analysis has been completed, the original data should be dest
royed or put in a safe place for long-term storage if necessary.
• Data should be reported in such a way that it cannot be linked to indivi
dual people in the study sample.
Professional Practice
Below are some ethical standards in professional practice
• Accuracy in data collection and processing. Researchers are expected to
plan, collect and process data by employing high professional standards using s
ystematic and acceptable procedures.
• Relevant research methodology. Methods and techniques should be chosen a
s required by the research objective not for any other reasons.
• Appropriate interpretation of data. The researcher is expected to interp
ret data according to acceptable methodological standards.
• Accurate reporting. Researchers are expected to accurately report the fi
ndings of the study without any bias and also to explain the methods used in the
collection and analysis of the data. Research problems, errors or distortions k
nown to the researcher should be stated in the report.
• Fabrication of data is misconduct. Researchers should not publish findin
gs on data they did not collect.
• Falsification of data is misconduct. Researchers should not falsify data
or even change words.
• Misleading ascription of authorship. Researchers should not list authors
in their reports without their permission; should not attribute work to persons
who have not contributed and should attribute adequately work completed by stud
ents, trainees or associates.
• Plagiarism. This can also be referred to as “intellectual theft”. It mea
ns reporting other people’s work as though it is yours without appropriate ackno
wledgement. Researchers should abstain from this.
1. Explain each of the four types of measurement scales: nominal, ordinal,
interval, and ratio.
There are 4 types of scales—nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.

Nominal scale
Numbers are assigned as category labels to distinguish between clusters of respo
ndents’ views, objects, groups or any other item being studied. Numbers do not i
ndicate order or magnitude (size).
In this example the variable sex has a scale of two levels 1 and 2 which is nomi
nal or categorical. The variable Political party has a similar scale of 1 to 3.
Ordinal scale: Numbers order people, objects, events, clusters of views along a
continuum. Numbers indicate order only; they do not indicate equal intervals bet
ween numbers. For example, on a scale of 1 to 20, the distance between 10 and 15
points is not necessarily the same as the distance between 15 and 20.
Interval scale: Numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal distanc
e on the property being measured. For example, the thermometer scale where a 10
point difference has the same meaning anywhere along the scale. The interval sca
le also satisfies some of the properties of the preceding scales. As for the nom
inal scale, numbers are assigned as labels for categories; and like the ordinal
scale, numbers order observations or objects measured along a continuum. The sca
le has no absolute zero; it has an arbitrary zero which does not necessarily rep
resent total absence of the property being measured. You cannot speak about rati
os e.g. we can’t say 40 degrees Centigrade is half as hot as 80 degrees or half
as hot as 20 degrees.
Ratio scale: Possesses the characteristics of interval scale and all other prece
ding scales. In addition to these, it has an absolute or true zero point and thi
s means that we can talk about ratios. A true zero point is the point correspond
ing to the absence of the thing being measured. We can say for example that 10 s
econds is twice as long as 5 seconds.
2. How can a researcher measure variables?
Measures of Variability
Measures of the centre of a distribution or an average value (whether a mode, me
dian, mean) do not describe the data fully. Another measure is needed to indicat
e the degree to which individual observations are clustered about or deviate fro
m that average value. In general, how different the observations are from each o
ther. For example, on an exam, students can either receive approximately the sam
e grade (low variability) or scores can range from excellent to very poor (high
variability).
• Measures which bring out differences in situations of this nature are ca
lled variability or dispersion measures.
• Researchers usually refer to variability around the mean (although varia
bility around other measures of central tendency can also be computed)
Types of measures of variability
1. Range
2. Variance
3. Standard deviation
Range
• Range is the difference between the largest and smallest observations.
• Limitations of the range as a measure of variability in a data set:
• It ignores almost all the observations in the distribution and is calcul
ated from the extreme values.
• It is influenced by sample size. The more values/observations you have,
the further apart the largest and smallest of those values are likely to be.
• The inter-quartile range: is obtained by discarding the upper and lower
25% of the distribution and taking the range of what remains. The aim is to redu
ce the problem of the range being heavily dependent on extreme scores which may
not be representative of the entire data set.
• Please note that you do not always have to eliminate 25%. You can elimin
ate any percentage as long as you can justify what you are doing. The purpose i
s to eliminate those scores that you think are likely to be accidents, without e
liminating the variability you are seeking to study.
Variance
• Sample variance denoted by s2 and population variance denoted by σ2.
• Population variance i equal to the um of the quared deviation from t
he mean divided by the number of ob ervation in the population N.
Standard deviation
• Variance i in quared unit which are awkward to interpret and report.
• Standard deviation (denoted by σ) which i the quare root of variance i
therefore more commonly u ed. The tandard deviation i ba ically a mea ure of
the average of the deviation of each core from the mean.

3. Explain the difference between a longitudinal tudy and a cro - ection

al tudy.
1. What i meant by a ‘key informant interview’?
Informant Interview are qualitative, in-depth interview of 15 to 35 people e
lected for their fir t-hand knowledge about a topic of intere t. The interview
are loo ely tructured, relying on the li t of i ue to be di cu ed. Key Infor
mant Interview re emble a conver ation among acquaintance , allowing a free fl
ow of idea and information. Interviewer frame que tion pontaneou ly, probe f
or information and take note , which are elaborated on later.
When are key Informant Interview Appropriate?
Thi method i u eful in all pha e of development re earch ranging from identif
ication, planning, implementation and evaluation. Specifically it i important i
n the following ituation :
• When qualitative, de criptive information i in ufficient for deci ion-m
aking.
• When the main purpo e i to generate recommendation . Key informant can
 help formulate recommendation that can improve a project’ performance.
• When quantitative data collected through other method need to be interp
reted. Key informant interview can provide the how and why of what happened. If
, for example, a ample urvey howed farmer were failing to make loan repayme
nt , key informant hould uncover the rea on .
• When preliminary information i needed to de ign a comprehen ive quantit
ative tudy. Key informant interview can help frame the i ue before the urv
ey i undertaken.

2. What are the advantage and limitation of key informant interview ?

Advantage
• They provide information directly from knowledgeable people
• They provide flexibility to explore new idea and i ue not anticipated
during planning.
• They are inexpen ive and imple to conduct.
Di advantage
• They are not appropriate if qualitative data i needed
• They may be bia ed if informant were not carefully elected
• It may be difficult to prove the validity of the finding .

3. What are the tep in conducting key informant interview ?

Step 1. Formulate the tudy que tion( ): The e relate to pecific concern of t
he tudy. The tudy que tion hould be generally limited to at lea t five.
Step 2. Prepare a hort interview guide: Key Informant interview do not u e rig
id que tionnaire , which inhibit di cu ion . However interviewer hould have
idea of what que tion to a k. The guide hould li t major topic and i ue to
be covered under each tudy que tion.
Step 3. Select Key Informant : Key Informant hould be elected for their peci
alized knowledge and unique per pective on a topic. Care hould be taken to el
ect informant with variou point of view. Selection hould con i t of two ta k
:
• Identify the group and organization from which key informant hould b
e drawn. For example, project implementing group and beneficiarie . It i be t
to include all major takeholder o that divergent intere t and perception ca
n be captured.
• Select a few people from each category after con ulting with them people
familiar with the group under con ideration. In addition, each informant may b
e a ked to ugge t other people who may be interviewed.
Step 4. Conduct Interview
E tabli h Rapport: Begin with an explanation of the purpo e of the interview, th
e intended u e of the information and a urance of confidentiality. Often the i
nformant will want a urance that the interview ha been approved by relevant
official . When interviewing technical expert , que tion hould avoid jargon .
Sequence Que tion : Start with factual que tion . Que tion requiring opinion a
nd judgment hould follow. In general, begin with the pre ent and move to que t
ion about the pa t or future.
Phra e Que tion Carefully to elicit detailed information. Avoid que tion that
can be an wered by a imple ye or no. For example, que tion uch a “Plea e te
ll me about the banana project?” are better than “Do you know about the banana p
roject?”
U e Probing Technique : Encourage informant to detail the ba i for their concl
u ion and recommendation . For example, an informant comment uch a “The wate
r project ha really changed thing around here,” can be probed for more detail
, uch a “ What change have you noticed?” “Who eem to have benefited mo t?”
“Can you give ome pecific example ?”
Maintain Neutral Attitude: Interviewer hould be ympathetic li tener and avoi
d giving the impre ion of having trong view on the ubject under di cu ion.
Neutrality i e ential becau e ome informant , trying to be polite, will ay w
hat they think the interviewer want to hear.
Minimi e Tran lation Difficultie : Sometime it nece ary to u e a tran lator,
which can change the dynamic and may al o add difficultie . For example, differ
ence in tatu between the tran lator and informant may inhibit the conver atio
n. Often information i lo t during tran lation. Difference can be minimized by
u ing a tran lator who i not known to informant , briefing tran lator on the
purpo e of the tudy to reduce mi under tanding.

Step 5. Take Adequate Note : Interviewer hould take note and develop them imm
ediately after each interview to en ure accuracy. U e a et of common ubheading
for interview text , thi will ea y data analy i .
Step 6. Analy e Interview Data: At the end of each interview, ummary heet red
ucing the information to manageable theme , i ue and recommendation hould be
drawn. Each ummary hould provide information about the key informant’ po iti
on, rea on for inclu ion in the li t of informant , main point made, implicati
on of the e ob ervation , and any in ight or idea the interviewer had during
the interview. De criptive code can help organize re pon e . The e can cover ke
y theme , concept que tion , or idea uch a u tainability, impact on income
and participation of women. The data collected can then be pre ented in a clear
format in form of table , boxe , etc.
4. What are focu group di cu ion ?
Focu group di cu ion are in-depth qualitative interview with a mall number
of carefully elected people brought together to di cu a ho t of topic in the
area of tudy of the re earcher. Unlike one-way flow of information in a one-to
-one interview, focu group di cu ion generate data through the give and take
of group di cu ion. Li tening a people hare and compare their different point
of view provide a wealth of information not ju t about what they think, but w
hy they think the way they do.
Unlike urvey in which a repre entative ample of the population i elected to
tudy, a planned ample i cho en for focu group di cu ion . The compo ition
of a focu group di cu ion i u ually ba ed on the homogeneity or imilarity of
the group member . To bring people with common intere t or experience make it
ea ier for them to carry on productive di cu ion.
Who conduct FGD?
Generally, FGD are conducted by trained moderator who are killed in maintainin
g good group dynamic . Depending on the purpo e of the FGD, the moderator may al
o be a peciali t in a given topic area. The moderator’ job i to keep the gro
up focu ed. He or he ha the goal of helping the group to generate a lively and
productive di cu ion of the topic at hand.
It i imperative that a moderator under tand the underlying objective of the
tudy. Much of the data quality in FGD depend on how effectively the moderator a
k the que tion and how well thi per on keep the di cu ion targeted on the
re earch objective .
What type of que tion hould be a ked in a FGD?
Que tion hould be open-ended o that there are many po ible re pon e
. Short-an wer que tion , uch a tho e that can be an wered “Ye ” or “No” houl
d be avoided.
It i al o important to avoid leading que tion that ugge t the moderat
or’ opinion or an wer that he or he hope to receive.
Que tion hould be clearly formulated and ea ily under tood.
Que tion hould be neutral o that the formulation doe not influence t
he an wer.
Carefully equenced with ea ier, general proceeding more difficult one
.
Ordered o that le intimate topic precede the more per onal que tion
.
FGD are not a form of group interview . Ideally the moderator place the que tio
n or i ue or topic before the group. They then di cu it among them elve - tal
king to each other, a king each other que tion about what they hear, and genera
lly reacting to each other. It i totally different dynamic from an interview.
What i the ideal ize of FGD?
The ideal ize for a focu group i generally between ix and twelve people. Thi
ize encourage participant to contribute their idea . Too mall group are e
a ily dominated by one or two member , or they fall flat if too few people have
nothing much to contribute. On the other hand, too large group lack cohe ion an
d may break up into ide conver ation , or people may get fru trated if they hav
e to wait for their turn to re pond or get involved.
What i a typical FGD like?
Prior to FGD, participant are u ually recruited by phone, letter of invitation
, etc. Care need to be taken to en ure that people who know each other are not
recruited in the ame e ion. People are generally more open and le guarded w
ith people they don’t know. Do not put together people who are in the ame chain
of command.
When being recruited, potential participant receive a brief de cription of what
the group will be about, a well a a urance that their participation i entir
ely voluntary and that their confidentiality will be protected.
During the FGD it elf, the moderator begin with introduction that hould includ
e the following:
• Explain the purpo e of the FGD.
• Lay down ome ba ic ground rule to encourage everyone to participate in
the di cu ion.
• State the purpo e of the note taking and recording.
The moderator typically begin the di cu ion with ice breaking, giving particip
ant a chance to introduce them elve to the group. Once the introduction are c
omplete, the moderator guide the di cu ion, u ing an outline of que tion , to
explore variou a pect of the purpo e of the di cu ion. A the group re pond
to each que tion, the moderator can probe for more information and a k follow-up
que tion to elicit more di cu ion.
FGD e ion are frequently cheduled to la t two hour , with the di cu ion ta
king 90 minute . Once the que tion have been a ked, the moderator may conclude
by giving a ummary of the major point in the di cu ion and a king the group f
or feedback. Or, the moderator may have each participant think back over what wa
di cu ed and then have each one choo e what he or he felt wa the mo t impor
tant point. Another good way of concluding i to a k participant if there are a
ny que tion about a particular topic, which were not a ked but hould have been
a ked.
How Do You Keep Track of What i Said During FGD?
The mo t popular technique for capturing data from FGD include:
• Video recording: thi technique capture both verbal and none verbal inf
ormation.
• Audio recording: with thi method you can capture verbal information
• Note taking: thi involve writing down all what i being di cu ed.
• Multiple method : thi i the combination of all the method de cribed ab
ove, definitely it i worthwhile.
Advantage of FGD
Among the advantage of FGD are the following:
• A wide range of information can be gathered in a relatively hort time:
• The moderator can explore related but unanticipated topic a they ari e
in the di cu ion
• FGD do not require complex ampling technique .
Di advantage of FGD
There i al o a et of accompanying di advantage :
• The ample i neither randomly elected nor repre entative of a target p
opulation, o the re ult cannot be generalized or treated tati tically.
• The quality of the data i influenced by the kill and motivation of th
e moderator.
• FGD lend them elve to a different kind of analy i than would be carrie
d out with other re earch method like urvey.
The focu group di cu ion analy i i qualitative. In report writing the actual
word and behaviour of the participant are u ed rather than counting re pon e
option .
1 Briefly de cribe the element a re earch report?
Title: It i important that the title of your tudy hould be both brief and de
criptive. Reader make quick deci ion a to whether they are going to inve t th
e time to read your di ertation largely ba ed on the title. Thu , the title ho
uld not contain jargon or vernacular. Rather, the title hould be hort (general
ly 20 word or le ) and clearly indicate what the tudy i about. If in doubt,
try to pecify the cau e and effect relation hip in your key point. The title pa
ge hould contain the title of the report, author’ name ( ), in titutional affi
liation and data.
Declaration: thi i a pronouncement by the candidate that hi /her tudy i orig
inal and that it ha not been publi hed or ubmitted for other degree award to a
ny other univer ity before and it mu t be igned by the re earcher. In many acad
emic in titution , thi page i al o igned by the di ertation or the i uperv
i or( ).
Dedication: Here the name( ) of people to whom the re earch ha been dedicated a
re mentioned. However, the dedication i optional.
Acknowledgement: thi involve the recognition of mentor , college , individual
, pon or and in titution , which upported the tudy.
Table of content : thi i the li t of the heading ; ubheading and their corre
ponding page number .
Li t of table : thi i the li t of table u ed in the report and their corre po
nding page .
Li t of Illu tration : thi i the li t of figure and plate (picture ) u ed in
the report and their corre ponding page .
Li t of abbreviation : refer to the li t of the abbreviation u ed in the tudy
other than the one under tood univer ally.
Ab tract: The ab tract erve two major purpo e : it help a per on decide wheth
er to read the paper, and it provide the reader with a framework for under tand
ing the paper if they decide to read it. Thu , your ab tract hould de cribe the
mo t important a pect of the tudy within the word-limit provided by the unive
r ity guideline . A appropriate for your re earch, try to include a tatement o
f the problem, the people you tudied, the dependent and independent variable ,
the in trument , the de ign, major finding , and conclu ion . If pre ed for pa
ce, concentrate on the problem the finding and recommendation .
The Main Text
Introduction: Thi tate the rationale of the tudy. It provide evidence and b
riefly explain the exi ting condition nece ary for inve tigation of that part
icular i ue. Thi ection contain the background, tatement of the problem, pu
rpo e/aim, objective and the ignificance of the tudy.
Review of the literature: The introduction i u ually followed by a review of th
e literature. The literature review how how your re earch build on prior know
ledge by pre enting and evaluating what i already known about your re earch pro
blem. You hould alway a ume that your reader po e a broad knowledge of th
e field, but not the cited article , book and paper . Di cu the finding of w
ork that are pertinent to your pecific i ue.
The goal of the introduction and literature review i to demon trate "the logica
l continuity between previou and pre ent work" (APA, 1994). Thi doe not mean
you need to provide an exhau tive hi torical review. Analy e the relation hip a
mong the related tudie in tead of pre enting a erie of eemingly unrelated a
b tract or annotation . The introduction hould motivate the tudy. The reader
hould under tand why the problem wa re earched and why the tudy repre ent a
contribution to exi ting knowledge. Unle the tudy i an evaluation of a progr
am, it i generally inappropriate to attempt to motivate the tudy ba ed on it
ocial importance.
Re earch Methodology: The methodology ection include eparate de cription of
the ample, the material , and the procedure u ed to collect the required data
for your tudy. Plea e ee the unit two on re earch propo al.
Pre entation of the Re ult : Pre ent a ummary of what you found in the re ult
ection. Here you hould de cribe the technique that you u ed, each analy i an
d the re ult of each analy i .
Start with a de cription of any complication , uch a protocol violation and m
i ing data that may have occurred. Examine your data for anomalie , uch a out
lier , point of high influence, mi coded data, and illogical re pon e . U e you
r common en e to evaluate the quality of your data and make adju tment if need
be. De cribe the proce that you u ed in order to a ure your reader that you
r editing wa appropriate and purified rather than kewed your re ult .
With today’ availability of tati tical package , it i fairly ea y to u e very
ophi ticated technique to analy e your data. Under tand the technique you ar
e u ing and the tati tic that you are reporting. Try to u e the imple t, appr
opriate technique for which you can meet the underlying a umption .
If you are going to u e inferential tati tic , you hould determine the power a
priori ba ed on your anticipated di tribution, de ign, and definition of practi
cal ignificance. Thi information mu t tem from your related literature and no
t the data that you collected. If you fail to reach tati tical ignificance, th
en thi analy i can be u ed to how that the finding doe not tem from low pow
er.
Where appropriate, compute and report effect ize or, at a minimum, be ure you
provide enough information o effect ize can be computed. Effect ize provid
e a common metric for evaluating re ult acro tudie and aid in the de ign of
future tudie . They will be needed by anyone who attempt a quantitative ynth
e i of your tudy along with the other in your area of re earch.
For mo t re earch report , the re ult hould provide the ummary detail about
what you found rather than an exhau tive li ting of every po ible analy i and
every data point. U e carefully planned table and graph . While table and grap
h hould be elf-explanatory, do not include a table or graph unle it i di c
u ed in the report. Limit them to tho e that help the reader under tand your da
ta a they relate to the inve tigated problem.
Di cu ion of the re ult : At thi point, you are the expert on your data et an
d an authority on the problem you addre ed. In thi ection, di cu and interp
ret your data for the reader, tell the reader of the implication of your findin
g and make recommendation . Do not be afraid to tate your opinion .
Many author cho e to begin the di cu ion ection by highlighting key re ult .
Return to the pecific problem you inve tigated and tell the reader what you now
think and why. Relate your finding to tho e of previou tudie , by explaining
relation hip and upporting or di agreeing with what other have found. De cri
be your logic and draw your conclu ion . Be careful, however, not to over genera
lize your re ult . Your conclu ion hould be warranted by your tudy and your d
ata.
Be ure to recognize the limitation of your tudy. Try to anticipate the que ti
on a reader will have and ugge t what problem hould be re earched next in or
der to extend your finding into new area .
Bibliography: Thi i a li t work cited in the text. The element of the refere
nce differ according to the type of publication.
Appendice : The e compri e of in trument , map , introduction and re earch appro
val letter , etc

2 What trategie for improving the writing of your re earch report do you
mo t need to take note of?
3 What hould be con idered when di eminating a re earch report?
In order for your report to have an impact, you need to plan a di emination tr
ategy, which an wer the following que tion :
• Who are my potential u er of the finding tudy?
• Which particular finding will be of intere t to the potential u er ?
• What are the be t media channel to reach the potential u er ?
Remember to produce your re earch finding on time o that it may be valuable fo
r deci ion maker . If a deci ion ha to be made in a given timeframe and the re
earch information i produced late, the data will have no value. Thi mean timi
ng of information i very important in development re earch.