Sanskrit Inscription of

Ancient Cambodia
A study in India-Cambodia Cultural Contacts form the
1st to 13rd century A.D.(proposed)
by Bhaktin Kaunteya

Cambodia: A Historal Profile

Cambodia is one of the countries of Southeast Asia, which has maintained

close relation with India since the beginning of the Christian Era. The
arrival of Indian merchants and panditas has enriched the culture of this
country. In ancient times the country was known as Kambujadesa.
Isanapura was its capital in the seventh century A.D. From the ninth to
thirteenth centuries the Angkor Empire flourished with its capital near the
present day town of Siem Reap. The capital was known
as Yasodharapura as it was founded by the King Yasovarman. This
indianized state has gradually extended from the first centuries of our era
to the thirteenth century. The Angkor Empire covered a vast area to be
known as the present day Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam and Laos. The
splendor of the Sanskrit culture still remains in these Southeast Asian
countries.
Importance of Sanskrit in Cambodia
The national language of Cambodia is Khmer, which is one of the oldest
languages in mainland of Southeast Asia. Like another languages, it has
undergone many changes. It is generally accepted that the Khmer
language could not have developed effectively without its interaction with
Sanskrit, the cultural language of the ancient times. Khmer and Sanskrit
belong to two different language families, Austro-Asiatic and Indo-

European respectively. In order to enrich its vocabulary, Khmer language

borrowed a remarkable number of Sanskrit terms.
Cambodian stone inscription are the prime evidence of the past. They are
actually the main sources for reconstructing the history of Cambodia,
especially of Angkor period from the ninth century to thirteenth century of
our era. The Cambodian inscriptions which have been discovered in a vast
area which is known as present-day Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and
Vietnam have been written in two different languages: old Khmer and
Sanskrit. The first one is the foreruner of the actual Khmer language
whereas the later was cultural language of the mainland Southeast Asia of
old time.
In the beginning of Christian era, Khmer language was only a spoken
language. In other terms, at that time, the Khmer did not know how to
write. The ancient Khmers borrowed the Indic script to record their own
language. So the modern Khmer language is written in a script, which is
borrowed from India. It is precisely the Grantha Brahmi script, which is
the mother of modern Khmer script. Cambodai has also adopted
the Devanagari script and Pallava Grantha script in order to develop its
actual alphabets. In the present day Cambodian, about seventy percent
words are borrowed from Sanskrit. Such common words
as dhanagara(bank),durasabda(telepon), bhasa(language), etc are derived
from Sanskrit.
The reason for such a high percentage of Sanskrit words in modern
Khmer language is rooted in the past cultural contacts between India and
Cambodia. In fact, Sanskrit was the court language of the Khmer Empire
for more than thousand years. All the royal orders , land transactions,
temple administration were recorded in Sanskrit. Slowly the Khmer
language shared this role in course of centuries. So after seventh century
we find inscriptions partly written in Sanskrit and partly in Khmer.
Objective of the Research
About 1250 inscriptions have been discovered from the Ancient Angkor
Empire. The majority is written in Sanskrit . The aim of the present
research is to explore various aspects of cultural relations between India
and Cambodia as presented in the epigraphic literature of this country.
Impact of Sanskrit language in the development of Khmer language would
be one of the main areas of my research. In this paper, I will explore

various phases of linguistic development in which the Khmer manipulated

words of Sanskrit origin, while maintaining autonomy over their own
language. Many new linguistic aspect of Sanskrit language have been
introduced in to Khmer such as corrrelatives, causative mode, passive
voice, etc., but they all had to obey the syntactic rules of the Old Khmer.
The study will focus on the evolution of the Khmer language's structure as
manifested in dated inscriptions from the sixth to the fourteenth century
which was the time when the Khmer was transmuted from spoken to
writen form. We divide the Sanskrit loanwords into two main groupsGrammatical and Non-grammatical. The fomer is further divided into two
subgroups- intact and modified. The intact grammatical terms were used
independently in the Khmer sentences whereas the modified ones were
attached to some Khmer words. The correlatives yavat - tavat, for instance,
appeared together in an early Khmer inscription, as it was used in
Sanskrit. But in later inscription, its last member(tavat) was dropped out
in order to adapt to the syntax of the local language. This serves as a
yardstick to measure the development of the old Khmer language. Be
another example the below table of borrowed terms of weights and
measurement from Sanskrit

Term

Sanskrit
Weight/Measure
Value
Equivalence of

Land

Comment

1 hat/haat=25
mm

hat/haat hasta
Unit of height of a 1 hat/haat=0.5
linga
m(Coedes)

vyaama byaam

Land

Still in
1 vyaama=4
practice in
hat=2 metres ( many parts
Coedes)
of Cambodia
and Siam

Use

vrah linga
dvihasta(Sdok Kok
Thom 4.16)

brah budh nibbaa[n]

may pravaen byaam
6 nu brah bihaar (K
465, Inscription of
phnom Bakheng,
1505 Saka, 1583
A.D.)

Influence of Sanskrit literature as reflected in the Cambodian inscription

is another area of my research. As early as the mid-fifth century A.D.,
some characters of the Mahabharata were exploited for the eulogy of the
ruling king in the inscription of Vat Luong Kau. Moreover, the seventh
century inscription of Veal Kantel mentioned a donation of some copies of
Ramayana and Mahabharata to a temple. I also propose to determine how
far the great classical Sanskrit poets of ancient India such as Kaalidaasa,
Bhaaravi and Maagha had influenced the Cambodia authors of these
epigraphic texts. A stanza from the inscription of Oriental Mebon, for
instance, remind us of the Raghuvamsham of Kaalidaasa. As in the
conversation between King Dilipa and the lion, the verse attempt to define
the duty of a king as following

A kavya sastriyadhyayana of the Cambodian Sanskrit inscription from

various times and places will throw light on the influence of Sanskrit
literature in the mainland Southeast Asia.
Another important point is research on the spread of various sastras,
technical treatises of ancient India in the empire of Angkor. In
fact, vyakarana sastra, dharmasastra, arthasastra, silpasastra, jyotisastra etc
spread from very early times in ancient Cambodia.
Indian mythology depicted in Cambodian inscriptions is as important as
my other two areas of research. While my research has not been extensive,
I would like to answer the question to which extent the Hindu myths has
inspired the authors of cambodian inscriptions. While the Khmer texts of
inscriptions narrate the activity of living men and women, the Sanskrit
ones prasise god and kings. While recording a genealogy of the ruling
monarch as well as giving a eulogy of the king, a Cambodian inscripstions,
likeits Indian counterpart, is inclined to refer Hindu myths. Below are two
examples extracted from the inscription of Ta Prohm of twelfth century.

( She(mother of the king) is comparable to Vaagishvaree by her abundant

speech, to Dhatri(the earth) by her firmness, to kamala by her beauty, to
Arundhatee by her conduct par excellence and by her generosity as well as
other virtues of hers she appeared to be the incarnation of Maittri.)

( If the ocean and the three worlds had been as a vast as his glory, Vishnu
would not havee been able to conquer the earth rising up from the oceans,
nor to cross the three worlds even with ten million steps.)
It is worth nothing that Ramayana, Mahabharata and Harivamsa are the
frequently cited works in Cambodia.
Sources of Research
Cambodian Sanskrit Inscriptions
Following is a brief survey of available Cambodian Sanskrit Inscriptions,
which need to be further researched for reconstructing the patterns of
Indo-Khmer culktural realtions.
The year 1879 marks the beginning of the study of Cambodian
Inscriptions. Hendrick Kern's work on Han Chey inscription stimulates
the attention of many French scholars. Hendrick Kern is the first scholar
to study Cambodian inscription.
It is difficult to underestimate the work which the French epigraphists,
such as E.Aymonier, A.Barth, A. Bergaigne, L. Finot, G. Coedes had done
in deciphering and translating both Sanskrit and Khmer inscriptions
found in various parts of Angkor Empire. Abel Bergaigne left behind his
work for his intimate colleague, August Barth, to publish posthumously.
In Inscriptions Sancrites du Cambodge in 1893, Bergaigne deciphered and
translated thirty inscriptions dating from the reign of Indravarman to that
of Suryavarman II.
Auguste Barth published his nscriptions Sancrites du Cambodge (Sanskrit
Inscriptions of Cambodia) in Notices et Extraits des Manuscrits de la

Bibliotheque Nationale, tome 27, first fascicule, Paris Imprimerie

Nationale,1885. Etienne Aymonier has also contributed a lot to the
Cambodian Epigraphic study with his valuable academic works Le
Cambodge volumes I-III (1900-1903). The study of Cambodian inscriptions
advanced to a great extent with the works of Geoge Coedes. By 1969
Coedes completed the volume eight of his Inscription du Cambodge, giving
the bibliographical detail of 1004 inscriptions. Since 1969 more than 250
new inscriptions have been found. Very few of these newly foun
inscriptions have been deciphered and published so far. To offer an
original research work on the subject that I propose, I shall use these
unpublished inscriptions.
In the second half of the twentieth century, scholarly attention was
focussed on judging the nature and extent of Indianization of ancient
Cambodia. Some scholars have listed and analyzed the Sanskrit words
borrowed by ancient Khmer language. In his article "Researches sur le
Vocabulaire des Inscriptions Sanskrites du Cambodge"(BEFEO,52,1964),
Kamleshwar Bhattacarya studied some fifty Sanskrit term used in Khmer
inscriptions. Bhattacarya has ably demonstrated how these terms signify
different shades of meaning not attested in Sanskrit literarture of ancient
India. However, he has not examined the Khmer social, economic, and
cultural contexts which were responsible for the semantic changes.
Dominique Soutif has recently written his thesis on the Sanskrit
vocabulary in Khmer language. He has examined more terms, but has not
eludicated the social contexts of the changes. Saverous Pou has devoted
herself to the study of Old Khmer phonetics and grammar and prepared a
valuable dictionary of old Khmer language dictionary. Long Seam's
dictionary of pre-Angkor inscriptions also may be cited here. These works
show the presence of Sanskrit loan words in the Old Khmer language, but
do not trace out the development of the Khmer language in course of the
last fifteen hundred years.
Proposed Layout of Research
The proposed research work is expected to result into monograph
containing the following chapters.
Introduction
Chapter One
India-Cambodia Cultural Dialogue(1st-13rd century)

Chapter Two
Overview of the Sanskrit language Inscriptions of Ancient Cambodia
Chapter Three
Influence of the Ramayana on the Sanskrit Inscription of Ancient
Cambodia
Chapter Four
The Mahabharata as reflected in the Sanskrit Inscriptions of Ancient
cambodia
Chapter Five
Indian Shastras and Ancient Cambodian Epigraphy
Chapter Six
Indian Religious Life as reflected in Cambodian Sanskrit Epigraphy
Conclusion
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