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Abstract
This paper describes the evaluation of the resistance to fracture
initiation and propagation for the high-strength, heavy-wall pipe
required for the Oman India Pipeline (OIP). It discusses the
unique aspects of this pipeline and their influence on fracture
control, reviews conventional fracture control design methods,
their limitations with regard to the pipe in question, the extent to
which they can be utilized for this project, and other approaches
being explored. Test pipe of the size and grade required for the
OIP show fracture toughness well in excess of the minimum
requirements.
Introduction
The Oman India Pipeline (OIP) will transport natural gas
approximately 1100 km from Oman to India under the Arabian
Sea, at water depths to 3525 meters. Because of the unprecedented
water depth the design requires line pipe of a size and grade never
before manufactured, much less utilized for an offshore pipeline.
The pipe will be API Specification 5L Grade X70, with an inside
diameter of 610 mm and a wall thickness ranging from 36 to
44mm. The maximum hoop stress will be 330.4 MPa (under shutin conditions) and the design temperatures are 0C minimum, 50C
maximu m.
The pipeline will be constructed with U-O-E pipe made
from low-carbon, low-sulfur, microalloyed steel plate
manufactured with thermo -mechanical process control (TMPC)
including accelerated cooling. The specified mechanical properties
are shown in Table 1. Because so much of the pipeline will be in
deep water, the hoop stress of approximately 70 percent of the
length of the pipeline will be less than 50 percent of the specified
minimum yield strength (SMYS). Therefore, for most of the
pipeline the potential for fracture will be much lower than for most
pipelines. Figure 1 shows the maximum hoop stress vs. location
along the pipeline.
Principles of Fracture Control Design
Fracture control design of pipelines requires that under the most
adverse conditions: 1) the pipe has sufficient fracture toughness to
tolerate small flaws without fracturing; 2) if the pipe ruptures from
any cause, the fracture is ductile; 3) the steel has the capacity to
absorb sufficient energy to arrest a ductile fracture, or crack
arrestors are added.
Considerable research on the behavior of pipelines
sponsored by the Pipeline Research Committee of the American
Gas Association, (1) British Gas, (2) the European Pipeline
Research Group (3) and others has resulted in analytical and test
methods to evaluate these three requirements based on the
properties of the pipe and the design of the pipeline. Evaluation of
these methods by full-scale burst tests as well as their widespread
successful application has shown them to be adequate within
certain limits of operating conditions and pipeline designs.
However, as will be discussed, some aspects of the OIP, especially
the wall thickness and design pressure are outside these limits.
Nevertheless, as will be shown, the methods can be conservatively
applied to evaluate resistance to fracture initiation and to give a
reasonable estimate of resistance to fracture propagation.
Fracture Initiation.
AGA-Battelle Equations. The resistance to the initiation
of ductile fractures can be evaluated for through-wall or partialwall flaws using Equations (A-1) and (A-2) shown in the
Appendix, which were developed by Battelle under AGA
sponsorship. These equations give the size of a critical flaw, i.e.,
one that will cause a leak or rupture, as a function of the Charpy Vnotch (CVN) toughness, the pipe size and grade, and the hoop
stress. Similar equations have been developed for high-toughness,
the pipe size and grade, and the hoop stress. Similar equations
have been developed for high-toughness pipe for which fracture
initiation is independent of the CVN toughness but Equations (A1) and (A -2) were used because the results are conservative.
As a first approach, critical flaw sizes for the OIP were
calculated assuming a CVN fracture toughness of 100 J as
specified for the longitudinal weld seam, as opposed to 200 J for
the base metal, for conservatism. For convenience only throughwall (T.W.) and 50-percent wall surface flaws are considered. The
pipeline has been divided into 17 increments by wall thickness for
design purposes. As shown in Table 2 and Figure 2, the calculated
critical flaw sizes are very large, ranging from 254 mm to more
than 1000 mm.
Equations (A-1) and (A-2) have been verified
experimentally only for wall thickness up to 21.9 mm for the OIP
and using the hoop stress based on the actual design pressure we
can calculate critical flaw sizes within the wall thickness limits for
which the equations have been verified experimentally. These
values are very conservative because the assumed wall thickness
gives a higher hoop stress than the actual hoop stress.
Table 3 and Figure 3 show the calculated hoop stresses
and critical flaw sizes based on a constant wall thickness of 21.9
mm. First consider the pipe from KP segments 3 through 15. The
flaw lengths over this portion of the pipeline are orders of
magnitude above the limits of detectability by ordinary inspection
methods. Moreover, the assumed wall thicknesses are 39.2 percent
(36.0 to 21.9 mm) to 50.2 percent (44.0 to 21.9 mm) less than the
specified wall thicknesses and the hoop stresses are 1.4 to 2.2
times the actual maximum design stresses.
Next consider the pipe in KP segments 1, 2, 16, and 17.
Even in these shallow-water areas the flaw sizes assuming a 21.9mm wall thickness are relatively large and well within the limits of
detectability. For these segments the wall thicknesses are 43.6
percent (38.8 to 21.9 mm) to 46.7 percent (41.1 to 21.9 mm) less
than the specified wall thicknesses and the hoop stresses are 1.7 to
1.8 times the design stresses.
Fracture Propagation.
The resistance to the propagation of ductile fractures can
be evaluated by comparing the fracture speed to the decompression
behavior of the gas in the pipeline. When a pipeline ruptures, gas
decompression waves at different pressure levels propagate along
the pipeline away from the opening in each direction. Under some
conditions the fracture speed is slow enough that the
decompression wave at the pressure necessary to support fracture
passes the crack tip and the fracture arrests. Under other conditions
the fracture speed is fast enough for the crack tip to always lead the
decompression wave of the pressure necessary to cause arrest and
the crack continues to propagate.
AGA-Battlle Equations. The velocities of gas
decompression and fracture propagation can be calculated using
Equations (A-3), (A-4), and (A-5) in the Appendix, which were
also developed by Battelle for the AGA. The same data can be
generated using two computer programs, GASDECOM and
DUCTOUGH, available from the AGA. (1) The programs plot
4.8
beyond the lowest temperature for 100 percent shear, which gives
a rising upper shelf. The rising upper shelf is accompanied by
through-thickness separations on the fracture surface of the CVN
or DWTT specimens. Some of the tests on OIP test pipe have
exhibited separations and a rising shelf and some have not. To
fully evaluate the fracture propagation resistance of pipe with a
rising upper shelf generally requires full-scale burst tests of several
pipe lengths welded together and pressurized with gas. This issue
relates only to the length, but not the likelihood, of a rupture and
there are other means of limiting the length of fracture should a
failure occur, such as with crack arrestors. The cost of full-scale
burst tests compared to the cost of crack arrestors justify such tests
when considering a single project such as OIP .
Properties of Trial Pipe General.
A trial production of one kilometer of 711-O.D. x 41-mm wall pipe
was produced to the OIP specification to be used for various test
purposes. The pipe was made from plate produced by two
suppliers, each supplier utilizing five different heats of steel.
Tables 5 and 6 summarize the chemical compositions and tensile
properties respectively. As shown in Table 5, the chemical
composition was similar for the two plate suppliers and the pipe
showed good weldability as measured by the IIW carbon
equivalent (CE) and the Pcm. The tensile properties were quite
satisfactory.
Vickers hardness (10-kg) surveys were made in the base metal and
weld and heat-affected zone of the longitudinal welds. All the
values met the requirement of 248 HV 10 maximum, and the large
majority of readings was well below this value.
Fracture Toughness. CVN, DWTT, and CTOD tests were made
on pipes from each heat of steel. The test temperature was -10C
and the results are summarized in Table 1. All the base metal CVN
specimens exhibited 100 percent shear with energy levels well in
excess of the specified minimum. The weld-metal CVN specimens
showed lower shear and energy values than the base metal, as
expected, but all values were well above the minimum
requirements. The heavy-wall pipe will be given a thermal aging
treatment to increase the collapse resistance. As reported
elsewhere 9 this treatment has no significant affect on the CVN
toughness.
The shear area of the DWTT specimens easily met the
requirements and the absorbed energy, reported for information
only, was quite high.
The initial requirements for weld CTOD values was 0.15
mm because pipe of this size and grade had not been previously
produced and the minimum value that could be attained
consistently was questionable. As a result of the trial run, the
minimum value was increased to 0.40 mm; only one test, the
minimum shown in Figure 7, was below 0.40 mm.
Discussion
The primary fracture control method is to design against fracture
initiation. Work completed to date shows that the
OIP pipe will have sufficient toughness to resist fracture initiation
from small flaws, with critical flaw sizes much lower than the
limits of detectability by non-destructive inspection. However,
Acknowledgements
We thank Europipe for conducting the West Jefferson tests.
References
1. Eiber, R.J., Bubenik, T. A., and Maxey, W.A., "Fracture
Control Technology for Natural Gas Pipelines," AGA,
Project PR-3-9113, NG-18 Report No. 208, Dec. 1993.
2. Fearnehough, G.D., "Crack Propagation in Pipelines,"
The Institution of Gas Engineers, March 26-27,1974.
3. Vogt, G.H., Bramante, M., Iones, D.G., Koch, F.O.,
Koglar, J., Pro, H., and Re, G., "EPRG Report on
Toughness for Crack Arrest in Gas Transmission
Pipelines," 3R Internatiof1al (1983) 22,98.
4. PD 6493, "Guidance on Methods for Assessing the
Acceptability of Flaws in Fusion-Welded Structures,"
BSI, Bulletin Box No. 15A, 1991.
5. Kanninen, M.F. and Grant, T.S., "The Development and
Validation of a Theoretical Ductile Fracture Model,"
Eighth Symposium on Line Pipe Research, AGA -Pipeline
Research Committee, Sept. 26-29,1993.
6. Demofonti, G., Kanninen, M.F., and Venzi, S., "Analysis
of Ductile Fracture Propagation in High-Pressure
Pipelines: A Review of Present-Day Prediction Theories,"
7.
8.
9.
200/150 min.*
Weld
% Shear: Base Metal
100/75 min. *
90/75 min. *
85 min.
0.40 min.
(Weld Metal)
* Avg. of 3/Any 1
Stress
% SMYS
68.5
62.9
60.5
40.2
31.6
21.9
22.4
27.8
27.7
33.1
32.4
41.8
46.2
38.6
60.0
58.7
68.5
MPa
330.6
303.6
292.0
194.0
152.5
105.7
108.1
134.2
133.7
159.8
156.4
201.7
223.0
186.3
289.6
283.3
330.6
Flaw Length, mm
T.W.
d/t = 0.5
254.0
355.6
292.1
431.8
292.1
495.3
457.2
>1000
558.8
>1000
736.6
>1000
736.6
>1000
673.1
>1000
533.4
>1000
558.8
>1000
584.2
>1000
431.8
>1000
381.0
812.8
508.0
>1000
292.1
508.0
330.2
508.0
254.0
355.6
Stress
Flaw Length, mm
Increment
KP
% SYMS
MPa
T.W.
d/t = 0.5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
0-29
29-42
42-56
56-68
68-278
278-282
282-535
535-611
611-617
617-742
742-755
755-788
788-854
854-869
869-976
976-984
984-1139
118.3
114.8
99.8
81.7
66.8
49.1
47.3
44.9
58.0
55.8
65.0
63.8
66.5
76.7
65.7
107.6
118.3
571.3
554.2
481.9
394.4
322.6
237.2
228.6
216.6
280.0
269.6
313.8
308.2
320.8
370.4
317.2
519.2
571.3
25.4
25.4
88.9
139.7
203.2
292.1
304.8
330.2
241.3
254.0
215.9
228.6
203.2
165.1
203.2
50.8
25.4
38.1
38.1
101.6
190.5
330.2
647.7
736.6
762.0
457.2
469.9
355.6
368.3
342.9
215.9
330.2
63.5
38.1
Tensile Strength
Minimum:
Maximum:
483 MPa
586 MPa
565 MPa
793 MPa
Case
Inside
Diameter
Wall
Thickness
Hoop
Stress
Net Internal
Pressure
Shallow-Water:
Deep-Water:
610 mm
610 mm
38.8 mm
44.0 m
331 MPa
106 MPa
422 barg
152 barg
Plate Mill A
Wt. %
Min.
Carbon
Silicon
Manganese
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Aluminum
Copper
Chromium
Nickel
Molybdenum
Vanadium
Titanium
Niobium
Nitrogen
C.E.
Pcm
Plate Mill B
Max.
Avg.
Min.
Max.
Avg.
0.06
0.30
1.58
0.009
0.001
0.032
0.16
0.03
0.22
0.00
0.07
0.02
0.038
0.0030
0.08
0.36
1.64
0.011
0.001
0.043
0.20
0.03
0.39
0.02
0.08
0.03
0.043
0.0050
0.07
0.34
1.62
0.010
0.001
0.039
0.17
0.03
0.28
0.01
0.08
0.03
0.041
0.0039
0.08
0.23
1.61
0.010
0.001
0.038
0.02
0.02
0.20
0.01
0.08
0.02
0.043
0.0029
0.09
0.25
1.66
0.011
0.001
0.046
0.03
0.04
0.22
0.01
0.08
0.02
0.051
0.0038
0.08
0.24
1.64
0.010
0.001
0.043
0.03
0.03
0.21
0.01
0.08
0.02
0.046
0.0034
0.37
0.17
0.40
0.20
0.39
0.19
0.39
0.18
0.41
0.20
0.40
0.19
RANGE
AVERAGE
Yield Strength,
MPa
492-536
515.8
Tensile
Strength, MPa
593-642
616.4
Weld
Elongation in
50 mm, %
53-59
56.9
Tensile
Strength, MPa
635-637
658.8
216-321
284.00
100
100
Weld
Joules
% Shear
143-181
159.00
96.7-100
98.8
RANGE
AVERAGE
Energy, KJ
% Shear
18.3-42.0
27.9
90-100
95.3
0.373-1.559
0.95
Fig. 1
1000
900
Flaw Length, mm
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Fig. 2
FLAW SIZES FOR SPECIFIED W.T.
CHARPY UPPER SHELF ENERGY = 100 J
800
Flaw Length, mm
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1
10
11
Fig. 3
12
13
14
15
16
17
SHALLOW-WATER CASE
WELD METAL
FLAW DEPTH/ WALL THICKNESS(d/t)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
100
50
350
300
250
200
150
CRITICAL FLAW LENGTH, mm
Fig. 4
DEEP-WATER CASE, WELD METAL
INTERNAL FLAW
CTOD=0.38mm
CTOD=0.68mm
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
50
100
250
200
150
CRITICAL FLAW LENGTH, mm
300
400
350
Fig. 5
CTOD=0.38mm
CTOD=0.64mm
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Fig. 6
50
100
250
200
150
CRITICAL FLAW LENGTH, mm
300
350
400
PRESSURE. BARG
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
100
200
300
400
VELOCITY, M/SEC
500
600
700
Fig. 7
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0
0
Fig. 8
100
200
300
400
500
600
VELOCITY, M/SEC
700
800
900
1000