International Journal of Fatigue 27 (2005) 14411452

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijfatigue

The importance of compressive stresses on fatigue crack propagation rate

F.S. Silva*
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minho, Azurem, 4800-058 Guimaraes, Portugal
Available online 1 September 2005

Abstract
This paper is concerned with the importance of compressive stresses on crack propagation rate. In a previous paper, namely Crack Closure
Inadequacy at Negative Stress Ratios, Int. Journal of Fatigue, 26, 2004, pp. 241252, was demonstrated the inadequacy of the crack closure
concept and DKeff, at a negative stress ratio, RZK1, to predict crack propagation rate. It that paper was verified that, at negative stress ratios,
crack closure changes with Pmax, for the same R ratio. The main conclusion was about plastic properties and mainly cyclic plastic properties,
the Bauschinger effect included, on crack propagation when compressive stresses exist. It was then suggested that in the place of the crack
closure concept, another concept based on plasticity should be used to explain fatigue crack propagation.
In this paper, instead of working with the same negative R ratio (RZK1), a study on the behavior of crack propagation rate as a function of
R ratio, from negative to positive stress ratios, is made. Both the effect of Pmax and of R ratio is taken into consideration. Measurements of
roughness and of crack opening loads are made, in order to verify their influence on crack propagation rate. Different materials, in order to
cover different cyclic plastic properties and different sensitivities to roughness are studied (Ck45-cyclic hardening; Ti6Al4V-cyclic softening,
and aluminum, Al 7175-cyclically neutral) are studied. Aluminium alloys and titanium alloys are considered to be sensitive to roughness
induced crack closure (RICC) while steels are more dependent on plastic properties (PICC).
In this study it is emphasized the importance of the compressive part of the cycle, and of cyclic plastic properties, on crack propagation
rate. It is reassessed the inadequacy of crack closure concept and DKeff to describe crack propagation rate, at negative stress ratios. It is also
verified that models based solely on extrinsic properties of materials, like da/dNKDK or da/dNKDK (Kmax) should also incorporate intrinsic
properties of the materials in order to properly correlate fatigue crack growth.
q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Fatigue crack growth; Crack closure; Cyclic plasticity; Negative stress ratios

1. Introduction
The compressive load part of fatigue is not taken into
consideration on most of fatigue codes. It is not included in
the calculation of the stress intensity factor range, DK. The
ASTM recommendation E 647-95a is that for negative
stress ratios, the negative loading part of the cycle should be
neglected. Thus, at negative stress ratios, R%0, DK is
considered equal to Kmax. As a fact, it is assumed that when
the load is negative the crack is closed and there is no
growth of the crack when it is not open.
Notwithstanding this assumption, different authors over
the last 40 years highlighted that the negative portion of the
loading cycle (at negative stress ratios) have some

* Tel.: C351 253 510220; fax: C351 253 516007.

E-mail address: fsamuel@dem.uminho.pt.

0142-1123/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2005.07.003

importance on fatigue crack growth. It has even been

reported that from fully compressive loadings cracks can
nucleate and grow till a certain crack length.
The effect of the compressive part of the loading cycle
has been traditionally analyzed in three different cases:
1. Fully compressive tests
2. Effect of underloads (compressive overloads)
3. Tensioncompression tests
Although this work is only devoted to the importance of
compressive stresses on fatigue propagation tests under
tensioncompression, some considerations are made about
fully compressive tests and the effect of compressive
overloads.
1.1. Fully compressive tests
Among others, Fleck [1], Suresh [2], Pippan [3], in the
eighties, and more recently, Hermann [4] and Kasaba [5]

1442

F.S. Silva / International Journal of Fatigue 27 (2005) 14411452

reported the nucleation and growth of cracks in specimens

under fully compressive loadings. These cracks may grow
with a decreasing growth rate till a certain crack length until
complete crack arrest occurs. The reason to such phenomena has been attributed to the existence of a tensile residual
stress field.
1.2. Effect of underloads (compressive overloads)
Transient effects such as overloads and underloads
perturb steady state fatigue crack growth and affect the
growth rates by retarding or accelerating the growth.
Quantification of these effects has been the subject on
intensive study for more than 30 years.
While it is accepted that overloads produce retardation
and underloads produce acceleration, and combined overload-underloads have mixed effects depending on the
sequence, the dominant mechanisms involved are not
agreed among the fatigue community. Furthermore it must
be said that almost all performed tests were under positive R
ratios. The effect of overloads and underloads under
negative stress ratios were not extensively investigated.
It is interesting to observe that at negative stress ratios,
maybe the accepted behaviour of overloads and underloads
is not the one accepted by the fatigue research community.
While Dabayeh [6] reported the same accepted behaviour
for positive and negative stress ratios, Halliday [7], reported
that overloads do not have any influence on crack growth at
RZK1 while it has a retardation effect at RZ0.05. And
Makabe [8] recently reported that in the case of a negative
baseline stress ratio, fatigue crack growth rate can actually
accelerate after a tensile overload.
The important aspect to retain from points 1-Fully
compressive tests, and 2-Effect of underloads (compressive
overloads), is that under negative stress ratios there are
particular and important features that become dominant
with the presence of negative loads. These features are not
present or at least are not influent at positive R ratios.
1.3. Tensioncompression tests
Tensioncompression tests are the issue of this paper.
There are different concepts to correlate crack growth for
different R-ratios. The most used and accepted is the crack
closure concept, formulated by Elber [9], with crack closure
equations for different materials and stress ratios, proposed
by Newman [10]. There are also partial crack closure
models [11], and models based on DKKKmax [12]
parameters, among others based on residual stresses and
environmental factors. Almost all of them neglect the
negative loading part of the cycle.
Notwithstanding the overall acceptance of this concept, it
has been reported during the last decades that the
compression part of the loading, under tensioncompression
tests (negative R ratios), may have a substantial influence on
the behavior of long cracks [1320].

Yu et al. [13] presented test results on an aluminium

alloy 2024-T351. They found that crack growth curves shift
to lower threshold values and greater crack growth rates as
the minimum stress became more compressive. The R value
and the DK did not provide a correlation with the crack
growth behaviour.
Kemper et al. [14] studied the response of three different
alloys to the negative loading and they observed that they
differed significantly. They related that behaviour to closure
effects.
Tack and Beevers [15], working with three different
steels, for stress ratios between 0,1 and K2.5 observed that,
for a given DK, the crack growth rate was greater for the
negative R ratio then for RZ0.1 tests and exhibited little
increase for more negative stress ratios. This suggests that
compressive stresses play an important role on crack
propagation but also that the compressive effects may be
subject to a saturation phenomenon.
Carlson and Kardomateas [16] presented results of a
work made with three alloys. Crack growth was measured
for tests in which constant values of maximum stress and
minimum stress, for a positive R ratio were applied. The
tests were then interrupted and, although the maximum
stress was maintained, the minimum stress was reduced to a
negative R ratio. After an interval, the initial loading was
reassumed. It was clear that the crack growth rate was
higher for RZK2 than for RZ0.1. This behaviour
was attributed to closure changes.
The different previous authors used the closure phenomena, either roughness induced closure and plastic induced
closure, to explain this particular behaviour observed for
negative stress ratios.
Pommier et al. [17], on a study with a N18 base
superalloy evidenced the strong detrimental effect of the
compressive part of the cycle. She also found negative
opening loads at negative stress ratios. Recently, Pommier
[18], also shown how can a compressive load be detrimental
in certain materials. The crack growth rate increased by a
factor of five in a test with a negative load part in relation to
a test without negative loading, for the same Kmax. This
behaviour was attributed to plastic properties of the
material, and in particular the amount of Kinematic
hardening of the alloys.
Silva [19], working with four different materials reported
the detrimental influence of the negative part of the loading
cycle on crack propagation rate. It is also clear from that work
that, when negative loads exist in a cycle, plastic properties,
and mainly cyclic plastic properties increase its importance
on crack growth rate (in relation to tests at positive R ratios)
and roughness properties do not seem to be relevant. He also
observed and concluded that negative loads, besides the
detrimental effect on crack propagation, brings into evidence
some difficulties of crack closure models.
On another work Romeiro et al. [17], on a study with
a normalized medium carbon steel, ck45, made crack
closure measurements at different negative stress ratios,

F.S. Silva / International Journal of Fatigue 27 (2005) 14411452

from RZ0.7 to K3. They observed negative open loads Pop

for negative stress ratios. They also found that for the same
negative R ratio, crack opening loads decreased with the
increase in Pmax level. This is not in accordance with crack
closure concept neither is accounted on Newmans
Equations [10]. Unfortunately they did not take conclusions
about crack propagation rates for those conditions.
Chen and Lawrence [21], on their crack closure model
have predicted the effect of R ratio, from RZK1 to 0.7, on
plastic induced crack closure, PICC and on roughness
induced crack closure, RICC. They concluded that RICC
may be as relevant as PICC for positive R ratios, RZ0.5 and
0.1, but RICC is not a relevant mechanism for RZK1.
PICC is dominant at RZK1.
It is becoming more and more clear that negative loads
may play a significant role on crack growth, both on
initiation and propagation stages, and can not be neglected.
They play a significant role on some different ways, namely:
they affect crack closure; they interfere on plastic properties
of the material at the crack tip; they interfere on roughness
characteristics; etc.
There is still a challenge to understand the mechanisms
through which negative loadings interfere on crack growth
and model it.
This work is concerned with three main aspects:
A. to assess the importance of the negative loading part of
the cycle on crack propagation on tensioncompression
tests;
B. to understand the mechanisms (ahead and/or behind the
crack tip), under which negative loads affect crack
growth;
C. to establish predictive guidelines for future crack
propagation modeling of tensile-compressive fatigue
tests.
A. To achieve the first purpose different. Combinations of
loads, with different R ratios, were used for tests. These
combinations are explained on the experimental methods
chapter.
B. In order to understand the mechanisms. That affect
crack propagation at negative R, three different materials
were studied-a Ck45 mild steel; an high strength aluminum
alloy, Al 7175, and a titanium alloy, Ti6Al4V. These alloys
were chosen in order to cover different cyclic plastic
properties. The Ck45 alloy is a cyclic hardening alloy; the
Ti6Al4V alloy is a cyclic softening alloy, and the aluminum,
Al 7175 alloy, is cyclically neutral. They were also chosen
to cover the range of the alloys with different sensitivities to
roughness. Generally, aluminium alloys and titanium alloys
are considered to be sensitive to roughness induced crack
closure (RICC) while steels are more dependent on plastic
properties (PICC).
The option for these criteria is based on the fact that
previous explanations for the effect of negative loading are
based on both roughness aspects (flattening of roughness

1443

asperities, etc) and on plastic effects (cyclic properties,

isotropic hardening, Bauschinger effect, etc)
C. Finally, and based on the previous. Points, some
predictive guidelines will be made, in order to properly
predict crack growth under tensioncompression loading. In
particular, the da/dNKDK concept, da/dNKDKeff (closure
concept), and da/dNKDKKKmax concept will be assessed.
It will be shown that the crack closure model experiences
some difficulties under tensile-compressive tests. It will also
be shown on this paper that da/dNK(DKKKmax) models
may not provide also a solution to crack growth modelling
when negative loads exist, because they do not account for
DKK. On DK is only included the positive part, DKC.
It will be concluded that in order to provide good
correlations to fatigue crack growth, at negative stress
ratios, the negative loading part of the cycle must be taken
into account. It will also be concluded that plastic properties
play a dominant role at negative stress ratios. Intrinsic
properties of the materials, namely the Bauschinger effect,
must take place at the models, and extrinsic properties do
not seem to be adequate to properly describe crack growth.

2. Experimental methods and materials

2.1. Materials
Materials used in this work were chosen in order to cover
the range of cyclic plastic properties and fatigue crack
surface characteristics, namely: a low carbon steel, Ck45-a
cyclic hardening alloy; an high strength aluminium alloy Al
7175-a cyclically neutral alloy; and a titanium alloy,
Ti6Al4V-a cyclic softening alloy. Generally, aluminium
alloys and titanium alloys are considered to be sensitive to
roughness induced crack closure (RICC) while steels are
mode dependent on plastic properties.
Mechanical properties and monotonic and cyclic properties are listed on Table 1.
2.2. Test procedures
Fatigue tests were performed on a Dartec servo-hydraulic
testing machine. Tests were conducted in laboratory air
(z50%RH), ambient air temperature, 20 8C, using a
Table 1
Mechanical and monotonic and cyclic properties
Mech. Propert/Material

Ti6Al4V

Al7175

Ck 45

sys(0.2%) MPa
suts (MPa)
E (MPa)
3r (%)
n
K
n0
K0

989
1055
1.15!105
16.1
0.1067
1733.1
0.0650
1185.0

461
535
0.74!105
13.8
0.1177
768.4
0.0870
740.9

499
793
2.00!105
23.5
0.2452
1551.8
0.2340
1740.8

1444

F.S. Silva / International Journal of Fatigue 27 (2005) 14411452

R = 0.5

R = 0.11

R = -0.23

R = -1

(a)

Table 2
Testing conditions
R ratio

R= -1

R=0

(b)

R = -1

R = -1

R = -1

R = -0.6 R = -1.5

(c)

Fig. 1. Loading testing conditions: (a) Different R ratios; (b) Effect of

negative loading; (c) quantitative effect of positive/negative loading.

sinusoidal loading, under loading control at a frequency of

8 Hz.
Low cycle fatigue tests were performed under strain
control, at a frequency of 0.2 Hz, in laboratory air.
Fracture surface examinations were made using an
optical microscope. A Pulsed DCPD system was used to
measure crack growth.
For each material different loading conditions were used.
Fig. 1(a)(c) illustrates the loading conditions. On
Table 2, their values are registered.

Ti6Al4V

Al 7175

ck45

Smin/Smax(KN)

Smin/Smax(KN)

Smin/Smax(KN)

(a) Different R ratios

RZ0,5
46.5/93
22/44
RZ0,11
10/90
4.8/43.8
RZK0,23
K15/65
K7.4/31.7
RZK1
K40/40
K19/19
(b) Effect of compressive loads
RZ0
0/60
0/29
RZK1
K60/60
K29/29
(c) Effect of compressive loads. Other studies
zRZK0,66
K40/60
K19/29
zRZK1.5
K60/40
K29/19
RZK1
K60/60
K29/29
RZK1
K50/50
K24/24
RZK1
K40/40
K19/19

26/52
5.5/49.5
K11.5/49.5
K31/31
0/40
K40/40
K31/40
K40/31
K40/40
K34/34
K31/31

traditionally used for pure Mode I crack closure measurements [22]. A strain gauge, with 1!1.5 mm size was fixed
on the specimen surface. After the crack reached approx.
2.5 mm depth, in each specimen, tests were stopped, and
crack closure was measured. The strain gauges are located
2 mm above or below the crack, in order to avoid the free
surface effects in the measurements as shown on Fig. 2.
Tests were performed at ambient temperature. A cycle was
performed at the loading machine and strain values were
measured with an HBM MGC-plus equipment.
On Fig. 3 there is an example of a result of the crack
opening load of the Ti6Al4V alloy.

2.3. Specimens

3. Results

Notched solid round specimens, all with the same

dimensions, according to ASTM E 606-80 were used in
this investigation [19].

Figs. 46 present the results for da/dNKDK and for

da/dNKDKC or Kmax for the three materials reported in this
paper. On graphs (a) (from Figs. 46) DK includes the
negative loading part of the cycle. On graphs (b)(d) of

2.4. Roughness measurement

(a)

The fatigue crack surface morphology is very different

on the different alloys, and its characteristics are reported on
Figs. 36. Roughness measurements were made on the
radial direction, two measurements for each specimen,
along the crack propagation direction, and the value Ra is the
arithmetic mean of the mean average value of each
measurement1. Measurements were made according to
standard DIN 4768 on a Mahr Perthen S5P equipment.

(b)

2.5. Crack closure measurement

In this study, the near tip strain gauge method is used for
the crack closure measurement. This technique has been
1

Ra l=lm

lm ydx; lm,

reference length.

Fig. 2. (a) Schematic illustration of strain gauge alignment; and (b)

specimen with strain gauge.

F.S. Silva / International Journal of Fatigue 27 (2005) 14411452

(a) 1,E-02

50
Ti6Al4V
(40)60KN

Cyclic Load (KN)

0
0

1000

10

da/dN (mm/cycle)

Pop

10
1000

100

Ti6Al4V

20

2000

10

40
30

3000

1445

20

1,E-03

1,E-04

R = 0.1
R = 0.23

1,E-05

R = 1[(40)40KN]
R = 0.5

30
40

1,E-06

K (MPa*m^1/2)

50
Raw Strain (mv)

(b) 1,E-02

With an increase in R ratio there exist an acceleration of

crack propagation rate da/dNKDK for all materials, as
expected. (Graphs a) from Figs. 36);
For zero or negative R ratios the ck45 steel alloy exhibits
a changing in crack propagation rate da/dNKDKC or
Kmax (graph b), (d) and (e) from Fig. 6) while the other
three materials do not exhibit such a changing. (graphs b)
and (c) from Figs. 4 and 5).
Results from Figs. 79 can be summarized as follows
(a further detailed analysis will be made on the discussion
stage):

100

Ti6Al4V
da/dN (mm/cycle)

1,E-03

1,E-04
( 40)40KN
( 60)40KN
( 40)60KN

1,E-05

( 50)50KN
( 60)60KN

1,E-06

(c) 1,E-02

K+ or (Kmax) (MPa*m^1/2)
10

100

Ti6Al4V

da/dN (mm/cycle)

the same figs da/dN is plotted against the positive part of the
cycle (DKC). On tests with negative or zero R ratio the
nomenclature may be considered DKC or Kmax because they
mean the same value.
Results of graphs from Figs. 46, can be summarized as
follows (a further detailed analysis will be made on the
discussion stage):

10

Fig. 3. Reading of crack opening load with strain gauge. Example with
Ti6Al4V alloy. DSZ(K40)60 KN.

1,E-03

1,E-04

1,E-05
( 60)60KN

Crack opening loads, Pop, have a general tendency to

increase with R ratio for all materials (arrow a);
Crack opening loads, Pop, change with Kmax for the same
negative R ratio (RZK1) (arrow b);
Crack opening loads, Pop, become negative for some
materials, and for negative R ratios, particularly with an
high Kmin(ellipse c);
Crack opening loads, Pop, seem to follow the minimum
load, Pmin(ellipse d)
Results from Figs. 1012 can be summarized as follows
(a further detailed analysis will be made on the discussion
stage):
While Ti6Al4V and cK45 alloys show a general
tendency of roughness to increase with R ratio, the
opposite occurs for the aluminium alloy (Fig. 10);

(0)60KN

1,E-06

K + or (Kmax) (MPa*m^1/2)

Fig. 4. Fatigue crack growth data for different R ratios of Ti6Al4V alloy as a
function of: (a) DK; (b and c) DKC or Kmax.

Roughness values in tests with a compressive load

(RZK1), in relation to tests with the same Kmax, but
without compression (RZ0), have the following
tendency: Ra value decrease for the Ti6Al4V alloy,
increase for the Al7175 alloy, and has no substantial
influence on cK45 alloy;
For the same negative R ratio (RZK1) there is a
tendency of roughness to increase with an increase in
Smax and Smin, simultaneously, for all materials
(Fig. 11).

1446

F.S. Silva / International Journal of Fatigue 27 (2005) 14411452

(a) 1,0E-02
1

Al 7175

10

100

C. to establish predictive guidelines for future crack

propagation modeling of tensile-compressive fatigue
tests.

da/dN (mm/cycle)

1,0E-03

4.1. The importance of the negative loading part of the cycle

on crack propagation

1,0E-04

R = 0.1
R = 1[(19)19KN]

1,0E-05

R = 0.5
R = 0.23

1,0E-06

K (MPa*m^1/2)

(b) 1,0E-02
1

Al 7175

10

100

da/dN (mm/cycle)

1,0E-03

1,0E-04
(19)19KN
(29)19KN

1,0E-05

(19)29KN
(29)29KN
(24)24KN

1,0E-06

K + or Kmax (MPa*m^1/2)

(c) 1,0E-02

da/dN (mm/cycle)

Al 7175

10

100

1,0E-03

1,0E-04

1,0E-05
(29)29KN
(0)29KN

1,0E-06
K + or Kmax (MPa*m^1/2)
Fig. 5. Fatigue crack growth data for different R ratios of ck45 alloy as a
function of: (a) DK; (b and c) DKC or Kmax.

4. Discussion
The discussion will take place keeping in mind the three
main targets of this study, namely:
A. to assess the importance of the negative loading part of
the cycle on crack propagation;
B. to understand the mechanisms (ahead and behind the crack
tip), under which negative loads affect crack growth;

From Fig. 6(c) it becomes clear that the compressive

part of the cycle play an important role on crack
propagation rate. We observe that da/dN increases about
ten times, for the same Kmax value, when a compressive
loading part exists (equal to the tensile loading part). On
Fig. 6(d) it is compared the influence of an increase of an
amount of load, both in tension and in compression,
separately. And it can be seen that they have
approximately the same detrimental influence. This
means that an increase of a certain amount of DP, in
compression may be as detrimental as the same increase
in tension. Furthermore, on Fig. 6(e) it can be seen that
for the same R ratio, an increase in Kmax and in Kmin
simultaneously produces a substantial acceleration on
crack growth. This effect does not exist (or at least is not
relevant) at positive stress ratios and this is the reason
why it is accepted by the scientific community that crack
propagation rates do not change for the same R ratio. (At
the end of this study it may be concluded that the same
mechanisms that are responsible for the different crack
propagation rates at negative stress ratios are also present
at positive stress ratios but are not so relevant under that
conditions).
These results are in accordance with results obtained by
other researchers. Yu et al. [13] presented test results on an
aluminum alloy 2024-T351. They found greater crack
growth rates as the minimum stress became more
compressive. Tack and Beevers [15], working with three
different steels, for ratios between 0,1 and K2.5 observed
that, for a given DK, the crack growth rate was greater for
the negative R ratio then for RZ0.1 tests. Pommier et al.
[17], on a study with a N18 base superalloy evidenced the
strong detrimental effect of the compressive part of the
cycle. Pommier [18], has recently also shown how can a
compressive load be detrimental in certain materials. The
crack growth rate increased by a factor of five in a test with a
negative load part in relation to a test without negative
loading, for the same Kmax.
However, a look to the other materials, on this study,
makes clear that not all the materials show this detrimental
effect of the compressive loading portion of the cycle. On
Figs. 4(c) and 5(c) it can be observed that the introduction of
a compressive loading does not introduce any substantial
difference in crack growth rate. Maybe these apparently
contradictory results are the reason why there d yet a
consensus on whether to include the negative loading part of
the cycle on fatigue crack growth modulation, or not. These
contradictory results bring into evidence the need for

F.S. Silva / International Journal of Fatigue 27 (2005) 14411452

(a)

1,E-02

(b) 1,E-02
1

10

100

cK 45

10

1,E-03

1,E-03

1,E-04

R = 1[( 31)31KN]

1,E-05

1,E-04
( 40)40 KN
( 34)34KN

1,E-05

( 31)31KN

R = 0.23
R = 0.11
R = 0.0

( 40)31KN
(31)40KN

1,E-06

1,E-06

K (MPa*m^1/2)
(c) 1,E-02

K+ or K max (MPa*m ^1/2)

(d) 1,E-02
1

cK 45

10

100

1,E-03

10

cK 45

100

1,E-03
da/dN (mm/cycle)

da/dN (mm/cycle)

100

ck 45

da/dN (mm/cycle)

da/dN (mm/cycle)

1447

1,E-04

1,E-05

1,E-04

(40) 40KN

1,E-05

( 31) 31KN

(40)40KN

(40) 31KN

(0)40KN

( 31)40 KN

1,E-06

1,E-06

Kmax or K+ (MPa*m ^1/2)

K max or K+ (MPa*m ^1/2)

(e) 1,E-02
1

10

100

ck 45

da/dN (mm/cycle)

1,E-03

1,E-04

1,E-05

( 40)40KN
( 34)34KN
( 31)31KN

1,E-06

K+ or K max (MPa*m ^1/2)

Fig. 6. Fatigue crack growth data for different R ratios of Al7175 alloy as a function of: (a) DK; (be) DKC or Kmax.

a better comprehension of the mechanisms underlying these

effects.
For this purpose different tests were made, according to
the different reasons attributed by different authors along the
time, for the influence of the compressive loadings. Most of
the authors attributed the detrimental effect of the
compressive loading part of the cycle to closure effects
[1318], both RICC-Roughness Induced Crack Closure and

PICC-Plastic Induced Crack Closure. Some attributed the

responsibility to flattening of asperities under compressive
loading while others such as Pommier pointed out that
plastic closure and mainly cyclic plastic properties may be
relevant on the effect of the loading part of the cycle. In
order to bring some light into the dominant mechanisms at
negative stress ratios, Silva [19], on a previous study made
some experimental tests that will be used on this study,

1448

F.S. Silva / International Journal of Fatigue 27 (2005) 14411452

160

10
0

ck45

Ti6Al4V
140

50

c)

100

Pop (MPa)

Pop (MPa)

a)

a)

120

b)

80

(40)40KN

60

0
2

1.5

0.5

c)

( 40)31KN

150

(40)60KN

( 31)40KN

d)

(0)60KN

200

0
2

1.5

0.5

( 31)31KN

( 40)40KN

b)

(60)40KN

20

0.5

( 34)34KN

(60)60KN

d)

50

100

(50)50KN

40

0.5

(0)40KN

Fig. 9. Crack opening loads of cK 45 alloy for different load conditions.

Fig. 7. Crack opening loads of Ti6Al4V alloy for different load conditions.

along with other complementary tests, namely: roughness

measurement values were taken for different loading
conditions; and monotonic and cyclic plastic properties,
with particular emphasis in the Bauschinger effect (BAU)
was determined.
An assessment of the influence of each of these
mechanisms will be consecutively made.
4.2. Understanding the mechanisms (ahead and behind the
crack tip), under which negative loads affect crack growth
4.2.1. Roughness Induced Crack Closure, RICC
Results from 10 to 12 show some interesting aspects
about roughness in different materials. It is important to
highlight that roughness measurements were made in radial
direction (the crack propagation direction).
It can be seen that with R ratio the Ti6Al4V and ck45
alloys show an increase in Ra values (Fig. 10). However the
aluminium alloy shows a drastic reduction in roughness
60
50
40

Al7175

(19)19KN
(24)24KN

(29)29KN

a)

(29)19KN

20

c)

(0)29KN

10

0
2
10

(19)29KN

Ra (m)

Pop (Mpa)

30

b)
1.5

0.5

0.5

20
30

values with R ratio. These results show that roughness is a

material dependent extrinsic property. They do not depend
solely on the R value but it is also dependent on the material.
On Fig. 11 it is shown that an introduction of a
compressive load on a cycle does not necessarily mean
that the roughness values will decrease, it is to say that there
exists a flattening of the asperities. As a fact the cK45 alloy
almost does not change the Ra values, while Ti6Al4V and
Al7175 decreases the roughness values. Again it seems that
there is a material dependence of roughness response to
compression loads.
For the same negative R ratio (Fig. 12) all the materials
show an increase in roughness values. However, it should be
highlighted that the resulting roughness values, for negative
stress ratios, is a sum of two competing mechanisms:
variation in roughness with smax and the opposite variation
in roughness due to flattening with smin. A study on the
relative influence of each competing mechanism is not
provided yet.
If roughness were the mechanism responsible for the
negative loading detrimental effect it would be expected a
substantial decrease in crack growth rate for the aluminium

d)

4
3
2

Ti6Al4V

Al 7175

0
1.5

ck45

0.5

0.5

40
R
Fig. 8. Crack opening loads of Al7175 alloy for different load conditions.

Fig. 10. Radial roughness values as a function of R ratio for the three
materials. (In this graph. Values used for RZK1 were an average of the Ra
values for different Kmax obtained for the different materials (see Fig. 12).

F.S. Silva / International Journal of Fatigue 27 (2005) 14411452

7
6
Ra (m)

5
4
3
2
Ti6Al4V
Al 7175
ck45

1
0
1.5

0.5
R

0.5

Fig. 11. Roughness values for tests with (RZK1) and without compression
(RZ0) for the same Kmax.

alloy between tests with RZ0 and RZK1 for the same
Kmax (because Ra values increase substantially-Fig. 11a),
and it does not occur (see Fig. 5c). And it would also be
expected an increase in da/dN for the Ti6Al4V alloy,
between tests with RZ0 and RZK1, for the same Kmax,
(because Ra values decrease substantially for RZK1
Fig. 11a and b), and it does not occur either (see Fig. 4c).
The ck45 alloy should not have any difference in da/dN
values because Ra is not very sensitive to the introduction of
a compressive load (see Fig. 11a and b). However crack
propagation rate increases substantially due to the
compressive load (see Fig. 6c). Furthermore the aluminum
and the titanium alloys are considered very sensitive to
RICC while steel alloys are considered less dependent on
RICC, and more dependent on PICC. Thus it would be
expected crack propagation changes on roughness dependent alloys, namely a huge crack deceleration with the
introduction of the loading part for the aluminum alloy
(Fig. 5c) and an acceleration on the titanium alloy (Fig. 4c)
due to the same reason. This is also true for tests with the
same negative R ratio (RZK1) and again it is not what
occurs. All the materials show an increase in Ra with Kmax
(Fig. 11) and none of them show a reduction on crack
growth rate (Figs. 4b, 5b, and 6e).

7
6
Ra (m)

5
4
3
2

Ti6Al4V
Al 7175

ck45

0
0

200
400
max (R =1)

600

Fig. 12. Radial roughness values for RZK1 as a function of Kmax for the
three materials.

1449

Thus, as a previous conclusion it does not seem to exist a

dependence of crack propagation rate on roughness values,
due to the negative loading part of the cycle, mainly for
those materials (aluminum and titanium) considered very
dependent on RICC. From these considerations it seems that
when negative loads exist, roughness effect is not the
dominant mechanism on crack closure. Chen and Lawrence
[21] have drawn the same conclusion. As we go down, from
positive to negative stress ratios, the roughness induced
crack closure become less important and the plastic induced
crack closure become more important.
Thus it can not be attributed the effect of compressive
stresses to flattening of the asperities, as argued by some
authors.
4.2.2. Plastic induced crack closure, PICC
It roughness is not the main mechanism acting on crack
closure, under compressive loadings, the other main
mechanism that is acting on da/dN is plastic induced
closure. Thus, crack opening loads should be mainly
dependent on plastic induced closure, as argued by some
other authors [17,21]
According to the crack closure concept:
DKeff Z Kmax KKop ;

(1)

Thus, if roughness is not a relevant mechanism at

negative stress ratios, Kop would be due essentially to plastic
features and it would be reasonable to compare da/dN
curves with the use of Pop loads (opening loads) on Kop, for
the different loading conditions.
Figs. 7 to 9 show the opening loads for different testing
conditions. Three important features, regarding opening
loads should be highlighted:
I. It is clear that there is a general tendency to an increase
in Pop with R ratio for all materials.
This is an expected result and already taken into
consideration on closure equations (see for example [10]);
II. Pop becomes negative for negative stress ratios, for
some materials.
This effect has been also reported on other studies. While
Pommier [17,18] detected this effect for a Nickel and a steel
alloy, Romeiro [20] found the same behavior for a ck45
alloy, and Fonte and Tschegg [23] reported the same
behavior for an aluminum alloy.
This aspect shows the importance of the compressive
loads and Kmin on Pop.
This aspect also brings a new way of regarding to crack
closure. As a fact, instead of having a premature closing of
the crack tip (accepted idea based on which the crack
closure concept has been developed), we actually have a
premature opening of the crack tip. As a fact, even when the
whole crack should be closed (for negative loadings) the
crack tip is already open. An explanation for this behavior is
not intended to be provided in this paper. However, it is

1450

F.S. Silva / International Journal of Fatigue 27 (2005) 14411452

worth to point out this important aspect on crack closure

concept.
III. It seems that there is a dependence of the opening
load, Pop, on the minimum stress intensity factor, Kmin,
rather then on the maximum stress intensity factor, Kmax, or
on the plastic zone size, for the same negative R ratio
When for the same negative R ratio (RZK1) both the
maximum load and the minimum load are increased (in
absolute value) crack opening loads decrease for all
materials (Fig. 79). This means that the effect of Kmin
seems to be more important on Pop then Kmax.
This effect is also confirmed by Pop values for tests
without compressive loading (RZ0 60/0KN) in comparison
to tests with compressive loading (RZK1, 60/K60 KN),
for the same Kmax (Fig. 79). Pop substantially increases
being positive for all materials when there is not a negative
loading.
This aspect is also confirmed by Pop values when small
changes on Pmax and Pmin, around RZK1, are made
(RZK0.7 approx. and RZK1.3). It is observed that Pop is
always closer for tests with the same Kmin, then for tests with
the same Kmax value. This also confirms the importance of
the negative loads on Pop.
Furthermore, it is important to notice that these opening
loads do not correlate with crack propagation rates.
As a fact, if Kmin has a different importance on Pop then
Kmax, when both values are changed (for the same R ratio)
Pop value also changes and a different da/dN curve is
expected. And this is exactly what happens for some
materials. In Fig. 6e are shown different da/dNKKmax
curves with the same negative R ratio for ck45 alloy.
However this behaviour is not the same for all materials. It
does not happen for the Ti and Al alloys on this study. On
Fig. 7 and 8 is shown that although Pop values change for the
same R ratio (RZK1) this does not affect da/dNKKmax
curves (Figs. 4b and 5b).
The same behaviour is observed for tests with and
without negative loading. Introducing negative loading
there is a decrease in Pop. (Fig. 79) However there is not a
consequent acceleration on crack propagation rate for all
materials (Figs. 4c, 5c and 6c).
This behaviour puts in evidence that when the crack is
open the analysis based on plasticity effects seems to be
quite different then when the crack is closed (under negative
loading).
Previous point III, along with point II bring new insights
to crack closure concept, namely the fact that the crack tip
may be open even when the crack is closed and perhaps
even more important is that the fact that the crack tip is open
is not sufficient to say that it is promoting crack advance.
The obvious conclusion from this reasoning is that is not
the occurrence of the crack to be open that is important to
crack growth. What seem to be really important are the
stresses at the crack tip. The crack tip may be open but under
compressive stresses. This is possible if there are high
residual compressive stresses at the crack tip. Or may be

closed but under tensile stresses. This is contradictory with

the closure concept, but is in accordance with other authors
who say that crack growth should be understood based on
stresses ahead of the crack tip [2426].
Based on the previous discussion, it is clear that crack
propagation can not be explained, either, based on plastic
induced crack closure. Thus, it seems that there is a need for
a better understanding on the mechanisms under which the
negative loads interfere on fatigue crack growth. An
analysis on possible explanations for crack propagation
rate at negative stress ratios is made in [19]. They seem to
explain quite good the results of this work too. Some of the
main conclusions on that study are:
Roughness induced closure mechanism does not seem to
be relevant at negative stress ratios;
Plasticity and cyclic plasticity seem to be the dominant
feature controlling fatigue crack growth at RZK1;
Crack closure concept, either roughness induced or
plastic induced, is not adequate to explain fatigue crack
growth at negative stress ratios;
There is a correlation between cyclic plastic properties
and Bauschinger effect, and fatigue crack propagation;
Damage accumulation principles or residual stresses
concept seem to be more adequate to explain crack
propagation than the crack closure concept;
These conclusions, from [19], are perfectly adequate to
explain the results of this work, too. It seems that there is a
perfect correlation between cyclic plastic properties of the
materials and mainly the Bauschinger effect and crack
propagation rate. The material that exhibits cyclic hardening
and a high Bauschinger effect (ck45) is strongly affected by
negative stresses while the materials that are cyclic
softening (Ti6Al4V) or cyclically neutral (Al7175), and
both with low Bauschinger effect (Ti6Al4V and Al7175) are
almost insensitive to negative loadings. These plastic effects
are active both ahead and behind the crack tip [19], affecting
the stress state.
Based on previous considerations and on the results on
the present work, some predictive guidelines for crack
propagation modelling will be consecutively done.
4.3. C. Some predictive guidelines for crack propagation
modeling of tensile-compressive fatigue tests
One of the most interesting features found in this work
are related to the most used models for crack propagation
rate, namely the crack closure model and the DKKKmax
models. Other modelling concepts were briefly discussed on
a previous paper [19].
4.3.1. Closure concept and da/dNKKeff models
From the matching of results on Figs. 46, (crack
propagation rates), and on Figs. 79 (Pop loads) it is clearly
shown that there is not a correlation between crack closure

F.S. Silva / International Journal of Fatigue 27 (2005) 14411452

concept and crack propagation rates. The most evident

example is the one where, for the same R ratio (RZK1)
there are different crack propagation rates (Fig. 6e).
It seems also clear from this work that whether the crack
is open or closed is not the feature that may say that the
crack is growing or not growing.
Thus, a better understanding of the closure effect on
crack growth is need under negative loading.
4.3.2. da/dNK-(DKCKKmax) propagation models
Models based on both DK and Kmax, although not new,
are gaining a new acceptance by the scientific community
[2627]. They seem to properly predict crack propagation,
even when compressive loads exist [27].
However, most of them neglect the negative loading part
of the cycle. As a fact those are (DKCKKmax).
These models may properly predict crack growth for
those materials for which the negative loads do not
substantially interfere in crack propagation, such those in
this study (Al 7175 and Ti6Al4V-Figs. 4c and 5c). However,
for materials where the loading part substantially changes
crack propagation (such as ck45- Fig. 6c) these models are
not adequate because they just neglect the negative loading
portion of the cycle.

1451

size. For the same Kmax, the cyclic plastic zone size
increases exponentially when we go into negative stress
ratios [19,28]. The contribution of (DKK) to the cyclic
plastic zone size is much bigger then an equivalent
(DKC).
Thus, models based on extrinsic quantities, such as those
based on (Kmax and DKC) or on (Kmax and DK) do not seem
to properly correlate crack propagation. These models take
in consideration only extrinsic properties like applied loads
or crack length.
From the results on this study, and based on other
previous results on the same subject [19] it seems that the
negative loading part of the cycle is active mainly by
changing the intrinsic properties of the materials (mainly
cyclic plastic properties). Thus, it seems that there is a need
for the incorporation of intrinsic properties of the materials
on crack propagation models.
If, for example, intrinsic properties were taken into
consideration on DK, these models would maybe become
mode adequate to correlate the whole range of R ratios.

5. Conclusion
4.3.3. da/dNK(DKKKmax ) propagation models
Models who incorporate the whole DK (both the positive
and the negative loading part of the cycle), and Kmax, are not
also able to properly correlate crack propagation.
The reason is quite similar to the previous one. As a fact,
the whole DK does not discriminate the behaviour of the
material under negative loadings. It introduces the negative
loading as if it has the same importance for all materials and
the same importance of the positive loading part.
One of the main conclusions of this work is that the
negative loading part of the cycle has an important influence
on crack propagation and its influence is different from one
material to other and also different from the positive part of
the cycle. The same way it is not possible to neglect the
negative DK it is not also possible to introduce the negative
loading portion of the cycle along with the positive one in
DK.
The negative portion of DK has some differences in
relation to the positive one, namely:
During (DKC) the crack is assumed to be open and there
exists opening stress acting on it, while during the
(DKK), the crack tip is assumed to be closed. The
negative (DKK) would only be active by changing
the intrinsic properties of the material, namely its cyclic
properties, and consequently the stress state at the crack
tip;
Knowing that at the crack tip there is plastic deformation
and that plasticity and cyclic plastic properties play there
a significant role [19], a huge difference that exists
between (DKC) and (DKK) is the cyclic plastic zone

The main conclusions of this work are the following:

The negative loading part of the cycle play a significant
role on crack propagation rates;
The influence of the negative loadings are different from
one material to the other;
The closure concept is not adequate to properly describe
crack growth at R!;0;
The da/dNK(DKKKmax) or da/dNK(DKCKKmax)
propagation models do not seem also adequate to
describe crack growth at R!0.
It seems that there is a need for the incorporation of
intrinsic properties of the materials into the previous
models.

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