INTRODUCTION

TO THE

WA I S I I I

Richard Niolon, Ph.D.

08/05

HISTORY
This is the third edition of the WAIS, with the first edition coming out in 1955, and the
revised (WAIS-R) coming out in 1981. Before the WAIS, however, there was the
Wechsler Bellevue test (released in the 1930s and revised in the 1940s). He developed
a children's version in 1949, and the popularity of it helped increase the popularity of
the adult version, which he released again in 1955. By the 1960s, it was more popular
than the Stanford Binet. This was in part because of the standard scores that allowed
comparison across testings and ages (as we discussed when we talked about the
Stanford Binet), as well as because of what it allowed psychologists to do. It provided a
Full Scale IQ, or a one number estimate of someone's cognitive functioning. It also
provided smaller numbers that were estimates of verbal functioning and visual-motor
functioning, and differences between these numbers were helpful in detecting and
diagnosing learning disabilities.

INTRODUCTION
Basic Information
Basically it works like this. The test has 14 sections (called "subtests"). Each subtest
begins with some extremely easy questions or tasks (collectively called "items"). You
start with the hardest of the extremely easy ones which 95% of the population should
be able to answer or do correctly (or "pass"). If the client fails either of the first two,
however, you back up (the "reverse rule"), giving even easier items as a way to make
sure they know how to do the subtest. You then return to items that get progressively
harder, and you keep going until they miss a predetermined number (the "discontinue
rule"). At the end of the test, you tally the scores for their answers on each subtest
(your first set of numbers, called "raw scores"). You then convert these to a second set
of numbers (called "scaled scores"), so we can compare performance on subtests. You
then add these to come up with a third set of numbers (called "sums of scaled scores")
which represent aggregate abilities. These are converted to a fourth set of numbers
(called IQ or Index scores) that are standard scores (mean of 100 and standard
deviation of 15) and so we can compare the abilities. These are the numbers that really
tell you about a person's abilities and performance.
Improvements
The WAIS-R was revised to the WAIS III for several reasons. Even if you don't know
anything about the old test, you can still appreciate why
they would update the test:
1. it is important to update the norms, as people get
higher scores every 10 years by three points on
the Wechsler series of tests (Flynn effect)
2. the age range of the norming sample needed to
be expanded, since people live longer and get
services at later ages, and some changes to the
test itself were needed

3. the items needed to be modified to make them more

culturally up-to-date
4. the artwork needed to be changed ("the little king" is
gone because no one remembers the cartoon any more)
5. the WAIS-R was criticized due to floor and ceiling effects,
so this had to be fixed by adding more really easy items
and really hard items
6. the WAIS-R was criticized due to problems associated with the time-limit
bonuses working against older clients, so scoring was changed on to minimize
time bonuses
7. the WAIS-R was criticized due to the lack of a measure for fluid reasoning, or on
the spot reasoning processes
8. the factor analysis needed to be updated
To assess cultural bias, WAIS III items were given to 200 African-American and
Hispanic-American clients without discontinue rules; items which minorities seldom
answered correctly were thrown out.
Norms
Computation of IQ scores is now based on comparison to age groups (thus, if you are
37, you get compared to other 35 - 44 year olds), rather than a standard age sample
(like 20 - 34), like the WAIS-R. This changed because age may not matter for some
tests (more the VCI and POI), and such comparisons can hide or pathologize the normal
effects of aging (more for WMI and PSI). For example, the mean Digit Span score for
the 70-74 year old range was 5.5 as opposed to 7 for the 20-34 year old group. In fact,
Index scores (see below) start to diverge at age 30; by 45-54, POI and PSI have
dropped by 12-14 points below WMI and VCI, and by 65-69 would be 10 points apart
and span a 40 point range in the normal older adult if we still compared everyone to
20-34 year olds.
So, the sample includes 2450 adults, in 13 age groups ranging from 2 to 10 years wide
(16-17 35-44), which is a 50% increase in sample size since WAIS-R. At least 30
people were in each educational level (five of them) for each age group, and there
were an equal number males and females.
Percentages in WAIS III sample and population are below:
Age White (pop)
1617
2529
3034

White
(sam)

AA (pop)

AA
(sam)

H (pop) H (sam)

64.84

69.5

15.76

15.00

11.76

11.00

69.05v

71.5

13.47

13.00

13.46

11.50

71.83

75.5

12.67

13.00

11.93

7.00

INDEX STRUCTURE
The IQ and Index scores mentioned earlier allow you to summarize and compare large
ability areas reliably. There are actually three IQs and four Indexes we compute. The
Full Scale Intelligence Quotient (FSIQ) score is the g number. The "old way" of
analyzing the test included "dividing" the FSIQ into two factors, a Verbal IQ and a
Performance IQ. However, updates to the test and additional subtests lead to a factor
analysis resulting in four factors at the last update, and these factors form the four
Indexes: Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Organizational, Working Memory, and
Processing Speed. We will focus mostly on the FSIQ an four Indexes, but will learn a
little about the Verbal IQ and Performance IQ as well this semester. I'm thinking the
Verbal IQ and Performance IQ will disappear from the next version of the test, but you
should know the basics about it for now. Below, I discuss the Index, and the subtests
combined to make them:
Verbal Comprehension:

This is the first and most reliable Index. The Verbal Comprehension Index is a measure of general verba
verbal reasoning, and verbal knowledge. It is based on both formal and informal educational opportuni
similarities, and knowledge of general principles and social situations.

Perceptual Organization:

This is the second most reliable Index. The Perceptual Organization Index is a measure of non-verbal an
problem, draw upon visual-motor and visual-spatial skills, organize thoughts, create solutions, and then
comfort with novel and unexpected situations, or a preference to learn by doing.

Working Memory:

The Working Memory Index (WMI) assesses ability to memorize new information, hold it in short-term m
some result or reasoning processes. It is important in higher-order thinking, learning, and achievement.
as learning and ability to self-monitor. WM is similar to STM, but STM is traditionally seen as a
Working Memory is an active process (sometimes called complex span of memory).

Working Memory (WM) is a temporary storage and workspace in the brain, "the blackboard of the mind"
moment-to-moment information, archived information, and a link between them both before storing new

arithmetic skill (think "carrying" a number in complex addition)

reading ability (think holding previous words in the sentence in memory while you sound out the ne

verbal fluency (think about considering the impact of your word choice before or while you speak a

problem-solving and adapting (think monitoring progress at a problem, rating how close you are to a
if you are not succeeding, and speeding up or slowing down your work speed to finish on-time)

possibly to ADHD (think the ability to integrate some past instructions with current stimuli deemed i
unimportant)

possibly schizophrenia (think ability to take in new stimuli about the world, and compare and balanc

Working memory is thought to have three parts

the "phonological loop" which serves an auditory processing and practicing function, which seems r
development Remember Miller's famous 7+2?

the "visuospatial sketchpad" or a visual analysis and processing part that holds 3 or 4 objects, and s
solutions Remember Einstein's Theory of Relativity was largely developed in his head with complic

the "central executive" that controls these two parts, delegating work to them and receiving their an
comprehension, learning, and decision making, sometimes allowing rote habit to direct us while it w

Students that excel in reading or math process letters and numbers differently. Thus, there might be anothe
to the prefrontal cortex (the very front of the frontal lobes). It exist in monkeys too, but only after about two
which is covered and then the monkey is distracted. The monkey looks back and chooses the cover with the
There are four clear things we can say about WM:
1.

2.

3.

WM is a real construct:
o

While some have said WM is g, this is not so. WM is correlated with general intelligence, ran
but the controlled studies average .48, or 23% of the variation in general intelligence

WM seems to be an ability that can be strengthen, at least with some kinds of tasks

The WM subtests have good specificity, meaning they are more s than g

WM develops over time like other cognitive abilities:

o

Executive functions like "talking through something" in children initially are conducted aloud
finally silent modes by age 9-10

Recall for single units of spatial information (e.g., where on a screen a single dot appears) d

Recall for multiple units of spatial information (e.g., a sequence of dots tapped by the exam

Self-organized strategies (finding hidden dots with an efficient strategy) develops around 16

About 50% of the growth in fluid intelligence from age 7-19 is associated with WM, and 75%

WM seems to have a neurological underpinning:

o

4.

WM seems based in the pre-frontal cortex, and improvements in WM are associated with im
show similarities in immature and damaged cortexes, as well as repair to performance with

WM is a part of "intelligence":

PS in part determines how long it takes information to be called up from long-term memory.
deteriorates while it waits for information from long-term memory to arrives. Thus, WM has
subsystems in order to continue its work. On the other hand, faster processing (quickly matc
tables, letter and number recognition, and sequencing skills) can mean more economical pr
reading and math) is more effective.

Developments in PS support developments in WM, which support developments in Gf, altho

Processing Speed:

The last Index, The Processing Speed Index (PSI), assesses skills focusing attention and quickly scanning
information. It requires persistence and planning ability, but is sensitive to motivation, difficulty working
to reading, mathematical, and memory skills as well. Cultural factors seem to have little impact on proc

Processing Speed (PS) refers to the speed at which cognitive processes can be carried out. Faster is mor
First, WM can recall information and do more with it before it deteriorates (think about a multiplication p
stored multiplication tables). Second, WM can integrate more complex and complete concepts before st
account for much of the differences in mathematical ability (Bull and Johnston, 1997).

You might assume that a PET or MRI scan of the brain should show lots of activity for very smart people.
a bird appears on the screen), high and low IQ people perform the same. However, when you add a dec
on the screen, but not when any other color bird appears), higher IQ people have high activity which dim
works on the WAIS too - higher g loaded subtests (the more demanding ones) correlate .79 with the leve
There are four clear statements we can make about Processing Speed (PS):
1.

2.

PS is a real construct:
o

People with faster PS scores perform the tasks at faster rates (in other words, there is good

Reaction time to a novel stimulus at age 3.5 months correlates .51 with the same at 4 years

PSI subtests had good specificity in the WAIS III and WISC III and the WISC IV probably increa

PS develops over time like other cognitive abilities:

o

3.

Developmental changes in Gf correlate .53 with changes in PS (in other words, as other cogn
spatial memory, and episodic memory share 70% of their variance with PS, and age differen
PS (more good news about validity).

PS seems to have a neurological underpinning:

o

Decreases in PS are associated with deterioration of white matter and decreased GMR

Processing speed is lower in pre-term children compared to full-term children, and this differ
late as late as 11 years (Rose and Feldman, 1996). For 11 year olds, this amounts to about 6
development of normal and premature births are parallel, meaning they develop at the sam
show up in simple reaction time (as noted above), but premature children never catch up to

to need more time to process the stimuli if they are to reach equal performance. There seem
Jankowski, 2002):

4.

the loss of oxygen in the brain (especially the hippocampus, thalamus, and basal ganglia) d

the loss of special chemicals like docosahexaenic acid which builds up during the last trimes

the impact of the environment on their immature sensory system

PS is the best predictor on the WISC for severity of childhood brain damage, with a 70% hit

Processing Speed is lower in patients with multiple sclerosis, which results from the immune
around nerve axons (Demaree, DeLuca, Gaudino, and Diamond, 1999)

PS is lower in elderly drivers with accidents. Processing speed tasks actually are better pred
Intervention programs that provide training to improve processing speed have been shown

PS is lower in children with LD, reflecting problems in attention, writing, rate of learning, and
problems

Children with ADD score lower than children with ADHD, who also score below normal

Children with depression also obtain lower PS scores

PS is a part of "intelligence":
o

Reaction time to a novel stimulus at age 3.5 months correlates .37-.56 with FSIQ at age 4 ye
also quickly habituate, and thus do not mistake the stimulus as novel the next time they see

PS is related to verbal fluency, or the speed and ease with which words are generated

Children with reading problems perform at a 10-15% slower rate than good readers, and PS
relates to automated recognition of letters and words, and quickly making a decision based

FSIQ (and thus PS) account for 32% of the variance in reading comprehension and 8% of the
accounts for 20% and 39% of reading comprehension and word recognition respectively (the
words and the access to and the simultaneous integration of semantics, syntactics, and text

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

The IQs and Indexes are the most reliable numbers we generate from the WAIS III:
IQ/Index
Full Scale
Verbal IQ
Performance IQ
Verbal Comprehension

Test-Retest Reliability

SEM

.96
.96
.91
.95

2.3
2.5
3.7
3.0

Perceptual
Organization
Working Memory
Processing Speed

.88

4.0

.89
.89

3.8
5.1

As you can see above, the reliabilities are very good (1.00 would be considered
perfect), and the Standard Error of Measurement (SEM) is generally small. Most
subtests have test-retest reliabilities between .81 to .94, with a few falling lower. As to
practice effects over a one to three month time, Verbal IQ increased about 3 points,
Performance IQ about 6 or 7 points, and Full Scale IQ about 4 or 5 points. Inter-rater
reliability is also rather good.
Content Validity was established by expert judges who reviewed the
items. Criterion Validity was established by correlating WAIS-R and WAIS III. The
numbers are good, and Full Scale IQ is about three points higher on the WAIS-R, as
expected by the Flynn effect. The WAIS III is also correlated with the SB4, the WISC-III,
the WIAT, etc
Construct Validity was established using a factor analysis. Studies found that g was
supported, and that verbal subtests correlated better with each other than
performance subtests. The same was true for performance subtests verses verbal, but
not as strongly.
Other efforts to establish Construct Validity come from correlating the WAIS III with
other intelligence tests. Groth-Marnat tells us the WAIS III Performance IQ and
Perceptual Organization Index correlated with the Ravens Matrices .79 and .65
respectively. While these numbers may not seem spectacular, recall the the test-retest
reliability of the Ravens Matrices for a one to three month period is about .80, so given
the reliability of the test, the WAIS III correlates almost perfectly.
Studies of cognitive disorders revealed:
Dx
ADHD
LD

MR

Data
Working Memory is 8.3 points lower than Verbal
Comprehension, and IQ is usually average
Verbal Comprehension is 7 points higher than Working
Memory for a reading LD and 13 points for a math LD.
Perceptual Organization was 7 points higher than
Processing Speed in both LDs. 24% show a partial ACID
profile (lower Arithmetic, Coding, Information, and Digit
Span
Typically, a relatively flat and rather low profile is seen
with no real spikes or significant elevations

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

Diagnostics

ICD-9-CM

94.01

MeSH

D014888

[edit on Wikidata]

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is an intelligence test designed to

measure cognitive ability in adults and older adolescents.[1] The original WAIS (Form I) was published
in February 1955 by David Wechsler, as a revision of the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale,
released in 1939.[2] It is currently in its fourth edition (WAIS-IV) released in 2008 by Pearson, and is
the most widely used IQ test, for both adults and older adolescents, in the world.
Contents
[hide]

1History

2Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale

o

2.1The Point Scale Concept

2.2The Non-Verbal Performance Scale

3WAIS

4WAIS-R

5WAIS-III
o

5.1Verbal IQ (VIQ)

5.2Performance IQ (PIQ)

6WAIS-IV
o

6.1Indices and scales

6.2Subtests

6.3Standardization
7Other test variants and uses

8References

9Further reading

10External links

History[edit]
Wechsler's scale is founded on his definition of intelligence, which he defined as "... the global
capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his
environment."[3] He believed that intelligence was made up of specific elements that could be
isolated, defined, and subsequently measured. However, these individual elements were not entirely
independent, but were all interrelated. His argument, in other words, is that general intelligence is
composed of various specific and interrelated functions or elements that can be individually
measured.[4]
This theory differed greatly from the Binet scale which, in Wechsler's day, was generally considered
the supreme authority with regard to intelligence testing. A drastically revised new version of the
Binet scale, released in 1937, received a great deal of criticism from David Wechsler (after whom the
original Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence scale and the modern Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale IV
are named).[4]

Wechsler was a very influential advocate for the concept of non-intellective factors, and he
felt that the 1937 Binet scale did not do a good job of incorporating these factors into the scale
(non-intellective factors are variables that contribute to the overall score in intelligence, but are
not made up of intelligence-related items. These include things such as lack of confidence, fear
of failure, attitudes, etc.).
Wechsler did not agree with the idea of a single score that the Binet test gave. [4]

Wechsler argued that the Binet scale items were not valid for adult test-takers because the
items were chosen specifically for use with children.[4]

The "Binet scale's emphasis on speed, with timed tasks scattered throughout the scale,
tended to unduly handicap older adults."[4]

Wechsler believed that "mental age norms clearly did not apply to adults." [4]
Wechsler criticized the then existing Binet scale because "it did not consider that intellectual
performance could deteriorate as a person grew older." [4]

These many criticisms of the 1937 Binet test gave rise to the Wechsler-Bellevue scale that was
released in 1939. While this scale has been revised many times (resulting in the present day WAISIV), many of the original concepts Wechsler argued for have become standards in psychological
testing, including the point-scale concept and the performance-scale concept. [4]

Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale[edit]

The Wechsler-Bellevue tests were innovative in the 1930s because they:
1. gathered tasks created for nonclinical purposes for administration as a "clinical test battery", [5]

2. used the point scale concept instead of the age scale, and
3. included a non-verbal performance scale.

The Point Scale Concept[edit]

In the Binet scales (prior to the 1986 version) items were grouped according to age level. Each of
these age levels were composed of a group of tasks that could be passed by two-thirds to threequarters of the individuals in that level. This meant that items were not arranged according to
content. Additionally, an individual taking a Binet test would only receive credit if a certain amount of
the tasks were completed. This meant that falling short just one task required for the credit resulted
in no credit at all (for example, if passing three out of four tasks was required to receive credit, then
passing two yielded no credit).[4]
The point scale concept drastically changed the way testing was done by assigning credits or points
to each item. This had two large effects. First, this allowed items to be grouped according to content.
Second, participants were able to receive a set amount of points or credits for each item passed.
[6]
The result was a test that could be made up of different content areas (or subtests) with both an
overall score and a score for each content area. In turn, this allowed for an analysis to be made of
an individual's ability in a variety of content areas (as opposed to one general score). [4]

The Non-Verbal Performance Scale[edit]

The non-verbal performance scale was also a critical difference from the Binet scale. Since the
"early Binet scale had been persistently and consistently criticized for its emphasis on language and
verbal skills," [4] Wechsler made an entire scale that allowed the measurement of nonverbal
intelligence. This became known as a performance scale. Essentially, this scale required a subject to
do something (such as "copying symbols or point to a missing detail" [4]) rather than just answer
questions. This was an important development as it attempted to overcome biases that were caused
by "language, culture, and education."[4] Further, this scale also provided an opportunity to observe a
different type of behavior because something physical was required. Clinicians were able to observe
how a participant reacted to the "longer interval of sustained effort, concentration, and attention" that
the performance tasks required.[4]
While the Wechsler-Bellevue scale was the first to effectively use the performance scale (meaning
that (1) there was a "possibility of directly comparing an individual's verbal and nonverbal
intelligence",[4] and (2) that "the results of both scales were expressed in comparable units" [4]), the
idea had been around for a while. The Binet scale did have performance tasks (although they were
geared towards children) and there were entire tests that were considered supplements or
alternatives (an example of such a performance test is the Leiter International Performance Scale).[4]

WAIS[edit]
This section
requires expansionwith: WAIS vs.
WAIS-R above.(December 2009)

The WAIS was initially created as a revision of the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (WBIS),
which was a battery of tests published by Wechsler in 1939. The WBIS was composed of subtests
that could be found in various other intelligence tests of the time, such as Robert Yerkes' army
testing program and the Binet-Simon scale. The WAIS was first released in February 1955 by David
Wechsler. Because the Wechsler tests included non-verbal items (known as performance scales) as
well as verbal items for all test-takers, and because the 1960 form of Lewis Terman's Stanford-Binet
Intelligence Scales was less carefully developed than previous versions, Form I of the WAIS
surpassed the Stanford-Binet tests in popularity by the 1960s.[2]

WAIS-R[edit]
The WAIS-R, a revised form of the WAIS, was released in 1981 and consisted of six verbal and five
performance subtests. The verbal tests were: Information, Comprehension, Arithmetic, Digit Span,
Similarities, and Vocabulary. The Performance subtests were: Picture Arrangement, Picture
Completion, Block Design, Object Assembly, and Digit Symbol. A verbal IQ, performance IQ and full
scale IQ were obtained.[7]
This revised edition did not provide new validity data, but used the data from the original WAIS;
however new norms were provided, carefully stratified.[7]

WAIS-III[edit]

The WAIS-III, a subsequent revision of the WAIS and the WAIS-R, was released in 1997. It provided
scores for Verbal IQ, Performance IQ, and Full Scale IQ, along with four secondary indices (Verbal
Comprehension, Working Memory, Perceptual Organization, and Processing Speed).

Verbal IQ (VIQ)[edit]
Included seven tests and provided two subindexes; verbal comprehension and working memory.
The Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI) included the following tests:

Information

Similarities

Vocabulary

The Working Memory Index (WMI) included:

Arithmetic

Digit Span

Letter-Number Sequencing and Comprehension are not included in these indices, but are used as
substitutions for spoiled subtests within the WMI and VCI, respectively.

Performance IQ (PIQ)[edit]
Included six tests and it also provided two subindexes; perceptual organization and processing
speed.
The Perceptual Organization Index (POI) included:

Block Design

Matrix Reasoning

Picture Completion

The Processing Speed Index (PSI) included:

Digit Symbol-Coding

Symbol Search

Two tests; Picture Arrangement and Object Assembly were not included in the indexes. Object
Assembly is not included in the PIQ.

WAIS-IV[edit]
The current version of the test, the WAIS-IV, which was released in 2008, is composed of 10 core
subtests and five supplemental subtests, with the 10 core subtests comprising the Full Scale IQ.
With the new WAIS-IV, the verbal/performance subscales from previous versions were removed and
replaced by the index scores. The General Ability Index (GAI) was included, which consists of the
Similarities, Vocabulary and Information subtests from the Verbal Comprehension Index and the
Block Design, Matrix Reasoning and Visual Puzzles subtests from the Perceptual Reasoning Index.
The GAI is clinically useful because it can be used as a measure of cognitive abilities that are less
vulnerable to impairments of processing and working memory.

Indices and scales[edit]

There are four index scores representing major components of intelligence:

Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI)

Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI)

Working Memory Index (WMI)

Processing Speed Index (PSI)

Two broad scores are also generated, which can be used to summarize general intellectual abilities:

Full Scale IQ (FSIQ), based on the total combined performance of the VCI, PRI, WMI, and
PSI

General Ability Index (GAI), based only on the six subtests that the VCI and PRI comprise.

Subtests[edit]
Verbal
Comprehension

Similarities

Vocabulary

Information

Core

Description

Proposed abilities measured

Participants
are given
two words
or concepts
and have to
describe
how they
are similar.

Abstract verbal reasoning

Depending
on the
tasks,
participants
must name
objects in
pictures or
define
words
presented to
them.

The degree to which one has learned, been able to

comprehend and verbally express vocabulary

Participants
are
questioned
about their
general
knowledge

Degree of general information acquired from culture

Ability to deal with abstract social conventions, rules and

expressions

(Comprehension)

Perceptual
Reasoning

Core

Proposed abilities measured

Block Design

Spatial perception, visual abstract processing, and problem solving

Matrix Reasoning

Nonverbal abstract problem solving, inductive reasoning, spatial

reasoning

Visual Puzzles

Spatial reasoning

(Picture
Completion)

Ability to quickly perceive visual details

(Figure Weights)

Quantitative and analogical reasoning

Working Memory

Digit span forwards

Digit span
backwards

Core

Description

Proposed abilities measured

Participants
must recall
a series of
numbers in
order

learning, memory, attention, encoding, auditory

processing

Participants must recall a series of

numbers backwards

Digit span
sequencing

Arithmetic

Participants
must retain
a series of
numbers
and recall
them in
ascending
order

Concentration while manipulating

working
memory,
transformation
of
information,
mental
manipulation
and
visuospatial
imagery

mental mathematical problems

Participants
must recall
a series of
numbers in
increasing
order and
letters in
alphabetical
order

(Letter-Number
Sequencing)

Attention, concentration, mental

control

Processing
Speed

Core

Proposed abilities measured

Symbol Search

Visual perception/analysis, scanning speed

Coding

Visual-motor coordination, motor and mental speed, visual working

memory

(Cancellation)

Visual-perceptual speed

Standardization[edit]
The WAIS-IV was standardized on a sample of 2,200 people in the United States ranging in age
from 16 to 90.[8] An extension of the standardization has been conducted with 688 Canadians in the
same age range.

Other test variants and uses[edit]

The WAIS-IV measure is appropriate for use with individuals aged 1690 years. For individuals
under 16 years, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC, 616 years) and the Wechsler
Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI, 27 years, 3 months) are used.
A short, four-subtest version of the WAIS-III battery has been released, allowing clinicians to form a
validated estimate of verbal, performance and full scale IQ in a shorter amount of time. The
Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI) uses vocabulary, similarities, block design and
matrix reasoning subtests similar to those of the WAIS to provide an estimate of full scale IQ in
approximately 30 minutes.
Intelligence tests may also be utilized in populations with psychiatric illness or brain injury, in order to
assess level of cognitive functioning, though some regard this use as controversial. Rehabilitation
psychologists and neuropsychologists use the WAIS-IV and other neuropsychological tests to
assess how the brain is functioning after injury. Specific subtests provide information on a specific
cognitive function. For example, digit span may be used to get a sense of attentional difficulties.
Others employ the WAIS-R NI(Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised as a Neuropsychological
Instrument), another measure published by Harcourt. Each subtest score is tallied and calculated

with respect to neurotypical or brain-injury norms. As the WAIS is developed for the average, noninjured individual, separate norms were developed for appropriate comparison among similar
functioning individuals.