Earth Fault Distance Protection (DOCUMENTO)

Earth Fault Distance Protection
Dissertation
Institute for Electrical Power Systems

Graz University of Technology
Supervisor:
Univ.-Prof. DI Dr.techn. Lothar Fickert
Author:
DI Georg Achleitner
Reviewer: Univ.-Prof. DI Dr.techn. Lothar Fickert

Graz University of Technology
Reviewer: Professor Matti Lehtonen

Helsinki University of Technology
Head of Institute: Univ.-Prof. DI Dr.techn. Lothar Fickert

A - 8010 Graz, Inffeldgasse 18-I
Phone: (+43 316) 873 - 7551
Fax: (+43 316) 873 - 7553
http://www.ifea.tugraz.at
http://www.tugraz.at
Graz / July - 2008
Acknowledgement
This thesis was written as part of my work as an assistant at the Institute for Electric
Power Systems at Graz University of Technology.
Many people assisted me in doing the work and writing this thesis. I especially would
like to thank the following persons:
Prof. Lothar Fickert has been my main supervisor and mentor. He gave me the first
idea about this topic. Over the years he helped me with ideas, worldly wisdoms and as
a very humanly head of the institute. Very often he just listened to me, gave me an idea
and brought me back on track of my work. He inspired me to try new approaches and
also allowed me to do this, without interrupting and correcting all the time.
Many thanks to Prof. Matti Lethonen, who accepted to review my thesis. I had the
chance to meet him on a conference in Estonia and he gave me some very important and
essential hints for this thesis.
Prof. Manfred Sakulin helped me with my first papers, gave me the ideas and discussed
the topics for hours. He helped me to understand earth faults better and better. Prof.
Herwig Renner, who often asked me only questions, which gave me new ideas to finish
this thesis.
Clemens Obkircher was a perfect colleague and a good friend. We worked together on
the same research areas and we visited a few conferences together. Discussing with him
was all the time very creative and productive. Together we made the first steps in the
area of patents and publications.
Many thanks also to Beti Trajanoski who was the quiet pole of the institute. She helped
me a lot at the institute with her intuition and also to finish the work.
Many thanks to Jasmine, our secretary. She was all the time cheerful and happy. She
helped me a lot in the first days at the institute and afterwards she was a real good
friend.
I want to thank the staff of the institute, specially Herbert for his assistance with electronics and computers, Erich for his help with everything which has to do with handcraft
work, for the office, for teachings, for experiments. Many thanks to Ulrike Mayer for
correcting my thesis.
Many thanks to all the other scientific staff who helped me during the years in my research as well as in lectures.
Many thanks to my friends, who helped me to free my mind after some very busy days.
Special thanks to Christian, Karli, Eniko, Elisabeth, Eva, Karin, Judith and the rest
from the sauna group. Without them it would have been very boring and lonesome in
Graz. Thank you.
Thanks to Paul, one of my oldest and best friends in Linz. Every time at home we met
it was great fun and diversified.
I also say thanks to my family for supporting me over the years and who gave me the
opportunity to study and who encouraged me to go abroad to get to know also other
countries and people. They also gave me the necessary peace and help to write this
thesis during several weekends.
ii
Abstract
Earth fault compensated networks improve power reliability, due to the reason that most
of the earth faults extinguish without interferences to the grid operation, thus allowing
uninterrupted power supply during the fault situation. However, this type of neutral
treatment implicates problems in the localization of earth faults. Finding the fault point
is from high interest also in combination with network expansion. Up to now, distance
protection relays measuring the distance between the point of their installation and fault
location are available only for direct grounded networks.
In this thesis it is shown that the classic algorithm of the distance protection relays
principally can be used also for compensated networks, however, the accuracy of the
distance calculation strongly depends on the network conditions. The main influence
parameters are described and investigated.
A new improved algorithm was developed and is shown in this thesis. To improve the
classic algorithm the fault transition impedance, the fault current and the grounding
impedance of the measurement station are included. For this purpose an exact 3-phase
mathematical simulation model of the investigated network is used and provided herein.
The simulations show, that this improved distance calculation provides good results up
to earth fault transitions impedances of 1 kOhm.
Furthermore, it is shown, that the classic algorithm can also be used in 2-phase networks.
With the improvements the algorithm can again be used up to earth fault transitions
impedances of 1 kOhm.
At the end the simulation results are validated with real test data of high and medium
voltage networks to verify the usability of this improved algorithm.
Keywords: Earth fault, distance protection, earth fault compensated networks, fault location, localization of earth faults, high ohmic earth faults
Kurzfassung
Geloschte Netze erhohen die Versorgungssicherheit weil ein Groteil der Erdschl
usse ohne
Auswirkungen auf den Netzbetrieb von selbst verloschen. Diese Art der Sternpunktsbehandlung birgt jedoch Schwierigkeiten bei der Erdschlusssuche. Die Fehlersuche ist
jedoch von grotem Interesse in Kombination mit Netzausbauten.
Bisher wurden Distanzschutzrelais, welche die Entfernung zwischen dem Messpunkt und
dem Fehlerort bestimmen nur in niederohmig oder starr geerdeten Netzen eingesetzt.
In dieser Arbeit wird gezeigt, dass der klassische Distanzschutzalgorithmus prinzipiell
auch f
ur geloschte Netze verwendet werden kann, jedoch ist die Genauigkeit der Distanzberechnung stark von den Netzwerkparametern abhangig. In dieser Arbeit werden
die wichtigsten Einflussparameter beschrieben und untersucht.
Eine Erweiterung des klassischen Algorithmus wird vorgestellt. Diese Erweiterung bein
haltet die Fehlerimpedanz, den Fehlerstrom und den Ubergangswiderstand
der Messstation. F
ur die Simulation wurde ein exaktes dreiphasiges Modell des untersuchten Netzes
aufgestellt.
Die Simulationen zeigen, dass es moglich ist, die Fehlerdistanz bis zu Fehlerwiderstanden
von 1 kOhm zu ermitteln.
Weiters wird die Anwendbarkeit des klassischen Algorithmus in zweiphasen Netzen
gezeigt. Mit den oben angef
uhrten Erweiterungen konnen ebenfalls Fehlerentfernungen
bei Fehlerwiderstanden bis zu 1 kOhm ermitteln werden.
Am Ende dieser Arbeit werden die Simulationen durch Erdschlussversuche in Hoch- und
Mittelspannungsnetzen verifiziert und die Anwendbarkeit des erweiterten Algorithmus
gezeigt.
Keywords: Erdschluss, Distanzschutz, geloschtes Netz, Fehlerlokalisierung, hochohmige
Erdschl
usse
Contents
List of Abbreviations
xi
1 Introduction
1.1 Research Theses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
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3
2 General
2.1 General Network Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Isolated Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 Earth Fault Compensated Network . . . . . . .
2.1.3 Low Impedance Grounded Networks . . . . . .
2.1.4 Transient Middle Ohmic Compensated Network
2.2 Characteristic Parameters for Earth Faults . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Displacement Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Zero Sequence Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Zero Sequence Admittance . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4 Higher Harmonic for Detecting the faulty Line .
2.2.5 Transients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Earth Fault Transition Impedances . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 High ohmic earth faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3 Earth Fault Location Methods

3.1 Location Methods Based on Low Frequency Signals . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 Distance Calculation Based on Fundamental Frequency . . . . . .
3.1.2 Distance Calculation Using a Delta Calculation . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3 Distance Calculation Using an Improved Distance Calculation .
3.1.4 Distance Calculation Using Inter-Harmonic Frequency Signals . .
3.1.5 Distance Calculation in Isolated Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.6 Distance Calculation by Determining the Network Parameters . .
3.2 Location Methods Based on Transient Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Differential Equation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 Wavelet Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Transition Fault Impedance Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 Transition Fault Impedance Estimation Based on a Delta Method
3.3.2 Transition Fault Impedance Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4 Simulation of Earth Faults
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Contents
4.1
4.2
Three Phase Symmetrical Networks . . . . . . . .

4.1.1 Earth fault - Symmetrical Components . .
4.1.2 Different Simulation Models . . . . . . . .
4.1.3 Used Simulation Environment of the Earth
4.1.4 Reference Model 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Two Phase Symmetrical Networks . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Earth Fault - Symmetrical Components . .
4.2.2 Different Simulation Models . . . . . . . .
4.2.3 Used Simulation Environment of the Earth
4.2.4 Reference Model 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Fault
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5 Basis of Earth Fault Distance Protection
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6 Classic Algorithm in Classic Distance Protection Relays

6.1 Laboratory Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Simulations Based on Laboratory Network Model . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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7 Improved Distance Protection

7.1 Increasing the Accuracy of the Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.1 Estimation of the Fault Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.2 Estimation of the Fault Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.3 Neutral Point Current of the Transformer and Grounding Impedance
7.2 Improved Earth Fault Distance Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Distributed Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.1 Simulation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.2 Comparison of Networks with Other Neutral Point Treatment . .
7.3.3 Correction of the Influence of Distributed Loads . . . . . . . . . .
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8 Comparison of the Classic and Improved Algorithm

8.1 Sensitivity Analysis of the Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.1 Linearization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.2 Measurement Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.3 Influences of Wrong Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.4 Influences of Parameters of the Electrical Grid . . . . . . . . .
8.1.5 Comparison of Networks with Other Neutral Point Treatment
8.2 Fault Distance Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 Compensated Cable Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1 Increasing of the Installed Cable Proportion in a Network . . .
8.4 Solidly Grounded Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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9 Earth Fault Distance Protection in a Two-Phase Network

9.1 Considerations on Earth Fault Distance Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 Laboratory Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3 Testing of Two-Phase Distance Protection Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
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viii
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Contents
9.4
9.5
Improved Algorithm for Two-Phase Networks . . .

9.4.1 Derivation of the Improved Algorithm . . .
Comparison of the Classic and Improved Algorithm
9.5.1 Sensitivity Analysis of the Algorithm . . . .
9.5.2 Fault Distance Variation . . . . . . . . . . .
10 Earth Fault Field Tests

10.1 Tests in a 110-kV-Network . . . . . . .
10.2 Tests in a 20-kV-Network . . . . . . .
10.2.1 Water Resistor for Test Purpose
10.2.2 Earth Fault Tests . . . . . . . .
10.2.3 Test Results . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.4 Discussion of the Results . . . .
10.3 Tests in a Two-Phase 110-kV-Network
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11 Analyses of Earth Fault Tests with the Improved Algorithm

11.1 Earth Fault Test in a 30-kV Network . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Earth Fault Test in a 20-kV Network . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Earth Fault Tests in a 10-kV-Network . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 Earth Fault Tests in a Low Impedance Grounded Network
11.5 Discussion of the Earth Fault Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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12 Conclusion
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Bibliography
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A Simulation Environment
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B Simulation Environment Two-Phase Network
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C Comparison of the Classic and Improved Algorithm

C.1 Simulation of Different Percentages of Cable/Overhead Lines
C.1.1 Overhead Line Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C.1.2 Cable Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C.1.3 Mixed Network, Cable at Beginning of the Feeder . .
C.1.4 Mixed Network, Cable at the End of the Feeder . . .
C.2 Simulation of a Network with Distributed Loads . . . . . . .
C.2.1 Compensated Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C.2.2 Solidly Grounded Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C.2.3 Middle Ohmic Grounded Network . . . . . . . . . . .
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ix
List of Abbreviations
...................
...................
I 0ZE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I 1P , I 2P , I 0P . . . . . . . . . . .
I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I c1,c2,c3,c4 . . . . . . . . . . . .
I cap1,cap2,cap3,cap4,cap5 .
I ih . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I L1 , I L2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I 1load , I 2load , I 0load . . . . .
ITR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
k0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
k 0 2phase . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U 0measreal . . . . . . . . . . . .
U 1, U 2, U 0 . . . . . . . . . .
U0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U 1F , U 2F , U 0F . . . . . . . . .
U ih . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U L1E , U L2E . . . . . . . . .
U net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U NE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U 0ZE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Z 0sys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0
0
0
z1 , z2 , z0 . . . . . . . . . .
Z 1sys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ZF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ZL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Z 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Z add . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Z Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ZE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Z F loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Z 1line , Z 2line , Z 0line . . . .
permeability constant
angular frequency
zero current over the grounding impedance
positive, negative and zero sequence current at the measuring
point
residual current at the measuring point
distributed line capacitive currents
capacitive current from feeder 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
current of the inter-harmonic signal
current in phase L1, L2
load current
positive, negative and zero sequence load current
neutral point current of the transformer
earth return path factor
earth return path factor for a two-phase network
real measured displacement voltage
positive, negative and zero sequence voltage at the measuring
point
displacement voltage
positive, negative and zero sequence voltage at the fault point
voltage of the inter-harmonic signal
line-to-earth voltage of phase L1, L2
network source voltage
grounding impedance voltage
impedance of the zero sequence system
specific positive, negative and zero sequence impedance per km
impedance of the positive sequence system
fault impedance
line impedance
coupling Impedance
additional impedance
alternate earth impedance
grounding impedance of the measuring station
impedance of the failure loop
positive, negative and zero sequence line impedance
Contents
Z 1T R , Z 2T R , Z 0T R . . . . . .
Z xx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ax , Bx , Cx , Dx . . . . . .
AR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0
2
1
.....
, Cline
, Cline
Cline
0
2
1
......
, Cnet
, Cnet
Cnet
coef fxy . . . . . . . . . . . . .
coef fx . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
distx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E ...................
f ...................
GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H ..................
I ...................
i(t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iarc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
KX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L ...................
l ....................
larc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
lcalculated . . . . . . . . . . . .
N ..................
Rf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rarc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RStp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S ...................
T ...................
t ....................
Uw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UL1Enominal . . . . . . . . .
V ...................
v(t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Xarc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Xcoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XkON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xii
positive, negative and zero sequence transformer impedance

impedances of the network
loads in % of the total line load
automatic reclosure
line-to-earth capacitances
positive, negative and zero sequence capacitance of the feeder
current
positive, negative and zero sequence capacitance of the residual
network
correction coefficients y at busbar x
correction coefficient at busbar x
aberration in % of the nominal distance
earth
frequency
global information systems
magnetic field density
current
current of the transient
current sample
wavelet coefficient for current
arc current in Ampere
capacitive earth fault current
smelting constant
inductance
fault distance
length in meter of the arc
distance calculated by using the improved algorithm
neutral point
resistance of the ground return circuit
arc resistance
grounding impedance of the neutral point
transformation matrix
inverse transformation matrix
time
wavelet coefficient for voltage
nominal line-to-earth voltage
integration volume
voltage of the transient
voltage sample
reactance of a transformer
arc reactance
inductance of an arc suppressing coil
real arc furnace oven short circuit reactance including the whole
network
Contents
Z S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . symmetrical impedance matrix

0
0
0
L1 , L2 , L0 . . . . . . . . . specific positive, negative and zero sequence inductance per km
0
0
0
x1 , x2 , x0 . . . . . . . . . specific positive, negative and zero sequence reactance per km
xiii
1 Introduction
Earth fault compensated networks are a commonly used technology for operating medium
and high voltage grids. This kind of network has the advantage that earth fault currents
are quite small and influence (ohmic, inductive) problems can be minimised and danger,
especially for humans, can be reduced. Earth faults cause problems in networks with
overhead lines, such as faults like a broken line, trees falling into the line, because the
faults are sometimes difficult to locate. Due to the reason that the network mentioned
above can be operated during an earth fault without any interruption for customers,
the fault point has to be cleared as soon as possible. Therefore earth fault detection
methods are necessary and are being developed.
In this thesis earth faults are single line-to-earth faults. No cross country faults or double
line faults with ground contact are investigated.
In chapter 2 of the thesis in hand, general facts due to line-to-earth faults will be described and possible detection methods will be discussed.
In chapter 3 different earth fault localization methods will be presented. They are
based firstly on fundamental frequency and secondly on transients. Different existing
methods will be described.
Furthermore different algorithms for calculating the fault transition impedance will be
explained.
In chapter 4 the necessary basis for the simulation will be described and the simulation model will be presented.
In chapter 5 the basis of the earth fault distance protection, based on the simulation
model presented in chapter 4 will be explained and the algorithm for distance protection
is derived.
In chapter 6 the classic distance protection algorithm is derived and it will be shown that
this algorithm can also be used in compensated networks. Simulations and laboratory
tests, which have been done in the first stage of the investigations, will be presented and
described.
In chapter 7 a new improved distance protection algorithm which will be based on
the classic distance protection algorithm (see chapter 5), will be presented and it will be
shown that an estimation of the fault current at the fault point and the fault impedance
is possible and with the use of these both the accuracy of the distance protection can be
1 Introduction
increased.
Furthermore load distribution along a line will be simulated and the results of the improved distance protection algorithm will be presented. From that a method for correcting the aberrations will be derived.
In chapter 8 a sensitivity analysis and an investigation on influencing parameters will be
demonstrated. Different parameters such as the grounding impedance at the measuring
point, the fault transition impedance, the load factor, which are influencing the algorithm will be investigated and the results will be presented and the classic and improved
algorithm will be compared to each other.
In chapter 9 the distance protection in a two-phase network will be presented. It will
be shown that the classic and the improved algorithm (see chapter 5, 7, 8) can be used
in this kind of network. Additionally a sensitivity analysis will be done as presented in
chapter 8.
In chapter 10 the result of various earth fault tests will be presented. These tests have
been carried out in a compensated 110-kV-network, in several compensated medium
voltage networks (20-/30-kV-networks) and in a low ohmic grounded network.
In chapter 11 the results from applying the improved distance protection algorithm
will be presented. The results show that the algorithm gives very accurate and good
results even in the case of high ohmic earth faults and show the usability of the presented
approach.
1.1 Research Theses
Table 1.1: Research theses
Theorem 1 It is possible to use a classic distance protection relay for earth fault
distance protection in compensated networks.
Theorem 2 It is possible to estimate the fault impedance at the fault point.
Theorem 3 It is possible to estimate the fault current at the fault point.
Theorem 4 It is possible to reduce the influence of the grounding impedance at
the measuring station
Theorem 5 With Theorem 1 to 4 it is possible to get very high accurate results
even at high ohmic earth faults.
1.2 Research Questions
1.2 Research Questions

Table 1.2: Research questions
Question
Is it possible to calculate the fault impedance
with classic distance protection relays?
What are the influences on a classic distance
protection relay?
Can the fault transition impedance be determined?
Can the fault current be determined?
Can the influence of the grounding
impedance of the measuring station be
minimized?
Can the accuracy of the algorithm presented
in chapter 5 be increased?
What are the influences of loads along a line?
Can the accuracy still be high even if there
are loads along the line?
Can the algorithm also be used in a twophase network (railway)?
Chapter Title
5
Basis of Earth Fault Distance
Protection
8.1
Sensitivity Analysis of the Algorithm
7.1.1
Estimation
of
the
Fault
Impedance
7.1.2
Estimation of the Fault Current
7.2
Improved Earth Fault Distance
Algorithm
7.2
7.3
7.3.3
9
Improved Earth Fault Distance

Algorithm
Distributed Loads
Correction of the Influence of Distributed Loads
Earth Fault Distance Protection
in a Two-Phase Network
2 General
In this chapter different network types with their advantages and disadvantages will be
described. Furthermore the basic earth fault detection methods and detection possibilities will be explained.
At the end of the chapter a short essay about the influence of the fault impedance and
the neutral point treatment regarding earth fault with higher fault transition impedances
will be added.
2.1 General Network Types

This section is based on [FAOT07] [Obk04].
2.1.1 Isolated Networks
Figure 2.1: Principle scheme of an isolated network
ZL
XT
N
U NE
CE
E
line impedance
neutral point
earth
In figure 2.1 the principle scheme of an isolated network is presented. The neutral point
of the transformer is isolated from the earth. In an ideal network without asymmetry,
2 General
the neutral point does not have any voltage against earth (neutral point displacement
voltage). Isolated networks are used in medium voltage networks of small expansion,
since a larger expansion of the networks causes higher capacitive fault currents. The
limit is not determined by the length of the lines, but by their current contribution to
the residual (uncompensated) ground fault current. Overhead lines have ten times lower
earth fault currents than cables.
In isolated networks the residual earth fault current depends on the phase-to-ground
capacities of the network. This means that networks with larger system lengths and
the use of cables instead of overhead lines lead to larger ground fault currents.
During
a continuous earth fault the voltage of the fault-free conductors increases by 3. In
overhead line networks self extinction of the arc can be expected, if the capacitive earth
fault current ICE is small([OVE76]).
Usage:
In medium voltage overhead line networks with small expansion
In small cable systems (e.g. networks for own needs, self supply power
plants, industrial networks)
Advantages:
Simple realization
Self-extinguishing of the lightning arc
Simple ground fault detection in the sin-phi-procedure in the zero sequence system is possible, if it can be guaranteed that sufficient zero
sequence current for the current measurement of the protection device is
available.
Disadvantages:
Inclination to intermittent ground faults
Increased overvoltage danger, in particular in the context of intermittent
ground faults
Continuous ground faults and thus danger of double earth faults
Fast reaching of the expansion limit given by too high earth fault currents
Economic remarks:
When exceeding the self extinguishing limits of the residual current the
network must be examined with regard to double earth faults and touch
voltages, and measures (network separation, rearrangement of the neutral
point treatment,...) will become necessary.
2.1.2 Earth Fault Compensated Network
Figure 2.2: Principle scheme of an earth fault compensated network
ZL
XT
N
U NE
CE
E
Xcoil
line impedance
neutral point
earth
In 1916 Waldemar Petersen [Pet16] [Pet18] had the idea to connect a coil between the
transformer neutral point and the grounding system, to add an inductive component to
capacitive earth fault currents in case of a single line-to-earth fault.
In compensated networks one or more transformer neutral points or earthing transformers are grounded via one of those earth fault compensation coils, which inductivity is
adjustable. If the coil is perfectly adjusted to the line-to-earth capacitances of the network, the rest of the compensated current appears at the earth fault point (residual
current as ohmic, harmonics and detuning currents) [Obk04]. The fundamental harmonic earth fault current depends mainly on the size of the network, however a total
compensation by passive components is not possible because of the ohmic component.
The earth fault compensation reduces the fault current at the fault point to such a
degree that an electric arc extinguishes by itself even if the network is large. Because
of the slower recovering voltage of the faulty phase after the clearance of the fault in
the compensated network in contrast to an isolated network, the limit value of self
extinguishing current is set higher than in isolated networks [OVE76].

The earth fault compensated network can be operated for a longer time adherent to the
technical conditions with an existing ground fault. With a
continuous ground fault the
voltage in the fault-free conductors increase by a factor of 3.
The main advantage of a thus constituted neutral point treatment is the increased power
supply security, since ground faults do not lead directly to a disconnection of the faulty
2 General
sections, and over 95% (according to the statistical data of the network carriers) of the
ground faults extinguish automatically, whereas the remaining 5% are persisting ground
faults. In the consequence these continuous ground faults can lead to double ground
faults or short-circuits, because the increase of the line-to-earth voltages in the fault-free
phases are a stress to the high-voltage equipment.
Usage:
In medium and high-voltage transmission networks of larger expansion
Advantages (selection):
During single phase faults the network can be temporarily further operated (no necessity of forced interruption of customers power supply)
Over 95 % of all ground faults they extinguish automatically (according
to the statistical data of the network operators [VDE91][VDE99])
Ground fault residual currents are small compared to rated currents
The recurring voltage rises substantially slower than in isolated networks
Disadvantages:
Increased insulation demand of the fault-free phases

Limitation of the network expansion by the residual ground fault current
Continuous ground faults and thus the danger of double earth faults
High demand concerning protection devices
Necessary
insulation has to withstand up to phase voltage time a factor
of 3
Protection and operation:

Difficult selective ground fault localization
Continuous ground faults and thus the danger of double earth faults
Appropriate instrumentation is necessary
Economic remarks:
Additional effort by installation and regulation of the arc suppression
coils
Limitation of the network expansion by the ground fault residual current
Concerned transformer neutral points must be appropriate
voltages, and measures (network separation, rearrangement of the neutral
point treatment,...) will become necessary.
2.1.3 Low Impedance Grounded Networks
Figure 2.3: Principle scheme of a low impedance network
ZL
XT
N
U NE
CE
E
RStp
line impedance
neutral point
earth
grounding impedance of the neutral point
A low impedance grounded network is a network in which the neutral point of one ore
more transformers, neutral point builder or generators are grounded over current limiters
or low impedances.
With this kind of neutral point treatment the earth fault currents are limited essentially
through resistances. Thus the touch voltage and influences become smaller than during
solidly grounding. Voltage drops with magnitudes as with the solid grounding (see below)
cannot be observed. With low impedance grounding the earth fault currents are limited
2 General
to the range of 50 - 1000 A, and they can be switched off on the basis of a relatively
simple overcurrent time protection relay on zero sequence current bases [Pol88]. Voltage
drops, as they appear in solidly grounded networks will not be observed.
A special kind of low impedance grounded networks is the solidly grounded network. In
this case the neutral point of the transformer is solidly grounded. During an earth fault,
the voltages in the fault-free phases do not increase, on the contrary, for customers this
type of neutral point treatment leads to a voltage dip. Furthermore the fault currents
are rising to several kA, depending on the network. These currents can be detected by
protection devices and thus the line will be switched off. With an automatic reclosure
the line can be reconnected after the clearance of the fault.
Usage:
High-voltage transmission systems of larger expansion when the allowed
maximum residual earth fault currents are already exceeded.
Networks with predominant cables
Advantages:
Simple construction
In low impedance grounded networks smaller earth fault currents than
with solidly grounding
Almost no net expansion limit; if there occur adjusting difficulties things
can be put right with coordinated overcurrent zero sequence protection
relays
Slighter, but no significant voltage dips for the customers than with
solidly grounding
Transients in connection with a ground fault situation are damped
Touch voltages and influences are clearly smaller than with solidly
grounding, however they must be controlled.
Simple protection schemes
Disadvantages:
No self extinguishing, therefore automatic reclosure (AR )
Brief current flow in a necessary magnitude over earth (influence)
Higher fault currents at the earth fault point than in earth fault compensated networks and thus problems with the keeping of permissible touch
voltages, if the faulty line is not switched off fast enough.
Capacitive current contribution of long lines (cables), may require directional overcurrent zero sequence protection
10

Simple selective ground fault detection by phase overcurrent relays or
overcurrent indicators, if the fault current reaches a minimum level of
two times the load current.
Through a defined earth fault current earth fault detection is possible.
With correct adjusting of zero sequence overcurrent relays these relays are
triggered off and their information can be used for ground fault detection
or even if necessary for disconnecting of the faulty line.
If grading is necessary because of selectivity and line operation, then it is
to be considered that a first and a second grading stage may be possible.
Grading with more stages can not be realized if keeping short switch off
times is necessary.
Appropriate network control technology is necessary.
Economic remarks:
Resistor or reactance is necessary
Necessary improvement of a large number of local grounding systems
Transformer neutral points must be able to carry the expected currents
2.1.4 Transient Middle Ohmic Compensated Network
Figure 2.4: Principle scheme of a middle ohmic grounded network
ZL
XT
N
U NE
CE
line impedance
neutral point
11
2 General
E
Xcoil
Z add
earth
Figure 2.4 shows the combination of earth fault compensated networks and middle ohmic
grounding. One has both the advantages of the earth fault extinction (the capacitive
currents are compensated by the arc suppressing currents) and the advantage of an
improved ground fault detection by an additionally (passive), short time injected earth
fault current [FAO07][Neu04]. The additional current is in the same level as the load
currents and does not reach
This network will in the following only be called middle ohmic network, instead of
Transient middle ohmic compensated network.
It must always be proven that the touch voltages are kept.
If the residual currents are high then the maximum allowed touch voltages ([CEN99])
can not be guaranteed. Therefor a permanent additional resistor in parallel to the arc
suppression coil is necessary. The advantages of this system are again smaller earth
currents than with solidly or low impedance grounding and possible selective earth fault
detection. Due to possible short switch off times the allowed touch voltages can be
guaranteed.
Advantages:
In the transitional phase earth faults usually extinguish themselves.
Fault currents in the network are in the range of load currents.
When injecting an earth fault current an improved ground fault detection is possible.
Touch voltages and influences are smaller than with low impedance neutral point treatment.
With appropriate adjustments, zero sequence over current relays can be
used for ground fault detection (section or branch detection).
With the use of appropriate distance protection relays a fault location is
possible.
Transients at the beginning of earth faults are damped.
Disadvantages:
An additional resistor is necessary.
Local grounding systems have to be examined and if necessary improved.
Higher earth fault currents than in earth fault compensated networks,
since additional earth fault currents will develop, which could result in
possible problems with the keeping of permissible touch voltages.
12

With appropriate adjustments, zero sequence overcurrent relays can be
used for ground fault detection (section or branch detection)
With the use of appropriate distance protection relays fault location is
possible.
Networks can be operated further.
With the injected earth fault current an improved ground fault detection is possible .
It can be operated through the combination and scaling of remote protection devices and overcurrent protection improvement of the protection
of medium voltage networks.
Economic remarks:
An additional resistor is necessary
An additional circuit breaker is necessary for transient adding to the
resistor.
Training courses for the operating personal are necessary
voltages, and measures (network separation, rearrangement of the neutral point treatment, permanent additional resistor,...) will become necessary.
Technical remarks:
It is generally assumed that the existing lightning protections and
groundings already satisfy the safety requirements.
The requirements to for common 50 Hz / lightning grounding resistance
do not deteriorate the requirements concerning lightning protection.
It is perhaps necessary due to 50 Hz considerations to reduce the 50 Hz
grounding resistance: This may improve the lightning protection.
Earth fault compensated grids are favoured by many European grid operators, because
of their high reliability of supply. More than 90% of occurring faults in overhead line
networks are line-to-earth faults, which have no influences on power supply in these grids.
So the grid operators want to keep their hitherto existing reliability when changing the
neutral point treatment. One solution could be the use of the middle ohmic grounded
network. The idea is to be prepared for the future when the limits are exceeded through
upgrading the protective system in combination with additional resistances parallel to
the compensation coils. These resistances cause slightly higher earth fault currents which
can be detected more easily. Then the earth faults have to be switched off within short
13
2 General
time (defined by standards and dependent on magnitude). As a result it is possible to

fulfil safety standards and to avoid endangerments. To be able to clear the fault rapidly
it is necessary to establish reliable earth fault localization.
14
2.2 Characteristic Parameters for Earth Faults
2.2 Characteristic Parameters for Earth Faults

There exist different detection methods [Ebe04]
the faulty line.
to detect an earth fault and to find
2.2.1 Displacement Voltage

The zero sequence voltage influences the whole network, additional the displacement
voltage increases due to any unsymmetrical construction in the network. A three phase
network is never totally symmetrical. Therefore the line-to-earth capacitances are not
equal in all three phases which leads to a natural displacement voltage. To reduce this
voltage it is necessary to detune the of the arc suppression coil . ([OSFR08]). In some
network the displacement voltage is 10 or more percent of the line-to-earth voltage due
to a capacitive coupling of two neighbouring systems. If the capacitive coupling is so
dominant that displacement voltage under normal operation condition already reaches
a limit it makes it difficult to detect earth faults with high transition impedances.
From a significant increase of the displacement voltage it can be deduced that an earth
fault has occurred. The detection of this voltage can be carried out easily by using the
open broken delta winding arrangement of a voltage instrument transformer.
As shown in [LH96] [Ebe04] the displacement voltage can be problematic in case of high
ohmic earth faults, because it decreases fast with the increase of the earth fault transition
impedance.
The displacement voltage can be used as a trigger for all other earth fault detection
algorithms and methods. If the displacement voltage is below a certain limit it can be
assumed that the network is devoid of an earth fault, or a fault has occurred which would
be signalised. To find the faulty line switching actions can be done in the network. This
leads to short interruptions in the power supply.
2.2.2 Zero Sequence Current

The zero sequence current is the geometrical sum of the three phase currents to obtain
the zero sequence current. The comparison of the zero sequence current phasors in
different substations can be used to detect a faulty line, however, it is necessary to have
communication between the substations to compare the measured data [Fic04] [Dru95b].
In the control centre, where all the data is collected, the fault path can be analyzed and
the faulty feeder can be switched off.
Furthermore, if the earth fault still remains or the faulty line is not switched off, the
method of low impedance (chapter 2.1.3) or innovative impedance grounding (chapter
2.1.4) can be used to detect this faulty line. The zero sequence current will be increased to
reach a secure starter level for residual current overcurrent relay or even more advanced
technologies, which can detect the fault and actions can be set.
Advanced technologies are for example:
1
[Ebe04]p. 13f
15
2 General
based on the measurement of the magnetic field [nor08]

based on optical current measurement sensors [ibm08]
detecting the faulty phase by measuring the phase- and zero sequence currents
[hor08].
2.2.3 Zero Sequence Admittance

Besides the comparison of the zero sequence phasors there are various methods to detect
a faulty line by measuring the admittance of the zero sequence system [Dru95a]. The
admittance of the network and each feeder is measured continuously and if an earth fault
occurs, the change of the admittance will be detected and the fault detection relay will
signal the faulty feeder.
2.2.4 Higher Harmonic for Detecting the faulty Line

During an earth fault, harmonics in the zero sequence current are increasing. In most of
the cases, harmonics are dominant [OAFS06] [Obk08]. Therefore, harmonics of the zero
sequence current can be used for detecting the faulty line, especially the 5th harmonic
is commonly used [Gut70] [Dru02]. Such earth fault detection systems using harmonics
are already in use.
2.2.5 Transients
Fault transients of the voltage or current can be used to detect earth faults. As presented
in chapter 3, several detection algorithms, such as the differential equation method, the
wavelet algorithm or an artificial neural networks methods can be used.
Transients are used by transient earth-fault protection relays to detect transient or continuous earth faults.
2.3 Earth Fault Transition Impedances

Earth fault transition impedances are the problematic influence on earth fault distance
computation. There are several discussions up to which impedance an algorithm has to
work correctly, however, it is important to know that a fault is existing, because even
very high impedance earth faults can cause an arc and therefore are prone to damage
(fire,...) [Elk07].
The value of the earth fault transition impedance depends on the type of fault. A tree
which has fallen into a line can have impedances from 2 k to 30 k, whereas a broken
overhead line touching the ground can reach values up to 200 k, depending on the
surface [AJ96] [BM03]. However, it has to be said that investigations have shown that
the majority of faults are in the range of either around 200 or around 2 k [HL98].
Faults above 10 k are rare.
16
2.4 High ohmic earth faults
From an operation point of view upon certain fault transition impedances the displacement voltage during an earth fault is under the starting level of the relays and the earth
fault will never be recognized. By using other detection methods, higher ohmic earth
faults can be detected up to several k [DB07] [Elk07].
The neutral zero sequence currents diminish with higher earth fault transition impedances,
therefore it is difficult to detect them, even if the transformer neutral point is solidly
grounded (see figure 2.5). Therefore solidly grounding is not the solution for all earth
fault problems despite common opinion.
For the simulation in figure 2.5 the simulation model in chapter 4.1.4 is used. The
nominal voltage for the simulation is 20-kV.
800
direct grounded network
middle ohmic grounded network
compensated grounded network
zero sequence current in Ampere
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
200
400
600
transition impedance in Ohm
800
1000
Figure 2.5: Zero sequence current at different transition impedances
2.4 High ohmic earth faults

As shown in chapter 2.3 earth fault transition impedances can vary from few to some
k. The definition of high ohmic earth faults is done in different ways. In [BM03] high
ohmic earth faults are defined by the fault current in a solidly grounded network lower
than 100 Ampere.
Another possibility is the definition using the displacement voltage. In isolated or compensated networks the displacement voltage decreases with the increase the of the fault
impedance.
U0
UL1Enominal
U0
UL1Enominal
> 0.3
(2.1)
17
2 General
Common detection and alarm levels are set to 30% of the maximum displacement voltage.
Voltage levels lower than 30% are seen as high ohmic fault.
For the simulation in figure 2.6 the simulation model in chapter 4.1.4 is used. The
nominal voltage for the simulation is 20-kV.
100
compensated network
displacement voltage in % of the nominal voltage
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
100
200
300
400
500
600
transitions impedance ZF in Ohm
700
800
900
Figure 2.6: Displacement voltage at different transition impedances
The following equation 2.2 describes a possible approach for high ohmic earth faults,
independent of the network system.
UF
UL1Enominal
UF
UL1Enominal
18
> 10%
(2.2)
voltage of faulty phase at fault point

In this chapter different earth fault localization methods will be described. They are
based firstly on the fundamental frequency analysis and secondly on the analysis of the
transient phenomenon during an earth fault. Furthermore, different existing algorithms
for fault impedance calculation will be presented.
A classification of the earth fault methods can be done as described in [Imr06] 1 :
Fault locators using fault generated signals
Conventional fault locators
Transient fault locators
Travelling wave fault locators
Fault locators using external signal sources
In this chapter these methods will be divided into two groups:
Fault locators based on low frequency signals
Fault locators based on transient signals
3.1 Location Methods Based on Low Frequency Signals

In this section fault location methods based on low frequency signals will be described.
3.1.1 Distance Calculation Based on Fundamental Frequency

Earth fault distance calculation (equation (3.1)) based on fundamental frequency is used
in distance protection relays. [Sie03][ABB03][ALS02].
Z 1Line =
Z 1Line
U L1
I L1
k0
I
1
[Imr06] p. 9f
U L1
I L1 + k 0 I
positive sequence line impedance, fault distance impedance
line-to-earth voltage of phase L1
current in phase L1
(3.1)
This algorithm is the classic algorithm for line-to-earth faults in low impedance grounded
systems [Tra02][Fog00]. In these networks and for fault transition impedances up to
several 100 this algorithm works well.
3.1.2 Distance Calculation Using a Delta Calculation

In [Ebe04] a method using a delta technique is described. By detuning the arc suppression coil during an earth fault or adding a capacitance in parallel to the arc suppression
coil, two measurements at different moments can be carried out. Using these different measurement points and calculating the difference, an exact earth fault distance
protection can be achieved (delta-method) [SE03].
imag
l=

imag
(I 1 +I 2 )
I F
U 1, U 2, U 0
I1, I2, I0
Z 1sys
Z 0sys
IF
l
1sys
U 1 +U 2 +U 0
I F

+ imag

1+
I 0
2I F
0sys
(3.2)
positive, negative and zero sequence voltage at the measuring point

positive, negative and zero sequence current at the measuring point
fault current
fault distance
The above algorithm can calculate the distance of earth faults up to fault transition
impedances of 1000 in networks with overhead lines, and up to 50 in cable networks.
The reason for this difference is that the algorithm does not consider the distribution
of the capacitances. In cable networks this distribution is of importance because of the
high capacitances in comparison to overhead lines.
3.1.3 Distance Calculation Using an Improved Distance

Calculation
In [Imr06] an adapted method for distance calculation based on the standard distance
algorithm is presented. This algorithm is more accurate than the normal distance calculation as shown in chapter 3.1.1. It is important to mention that the ratio between the
load and fault current has a strong influence on the accuracy of the calculated distance.
The necessary load current can be estimated from prefault values.
imag
l=
imag
U L1
IF
Rf
20
1
3
U L1
IF
Rf
(z 00 + z 10 + z 20 ) +
imag
I Load 10
z
IF
=
1
3
U L1
IF
(x00 + x10 + x20 ) + imag

fault current
resistance of the ground return circuit
I Load 10
z
IF
(3.3)
3.1 Location Methods Based on Low Frequency Signals
z1 , z2 , z0
0
0
0
x1 , x2 , x0
I Load
l
specific positive, negative and zero sequence impedance per km

specific positive, negative and zero sequence reactance per km
load current
fault distance
3.1.4 Distance Calculation Using Inter-Harmonic Frequency Signals

In [TP08] a method for calculating the fault distance by using a inter-harmonic signal is
proposed. This method injected additional inter-harmonic signals via ancillary suppression coils into the zero sequence system of the network. By measuring the inter-harmonic
voltages and the currents of the zero sequence system the fault loop impedance can be
calculated.
Z F loop =
Z F loop
U ih
I ih
U ih
I ih
(3.4)
impedance of the failure loop
voltage of the inter-harmonic signal
current of the inter-harmonic signal
If only the imaginary part of the calculated fault loop impedance, the influence of the
fault impedance can be reduced. With the knowledge of the line parameters the fault
distance can be estimated. The influence of the line-to-earth capacitances is neglected.
3.1.5 Distance Calculation in Isolated Networks

In [AW07] a new algorithm for isolated networks is presented. Two assumptions are
necessary for this algorithm: On one hand the load is located behind the fault, and on
the other hand that the fault is located behind the load. So the algorithm calculates
two fault distances By calculating a feasibility where the fault could be, based on the
measured values and including the voltage drop on the line and comparing the results
with the precalculated values from the two cases, the fault point can be estimated.
However this method is still under investigation.
3.1.6 Distance Calculation by Determining the Network Parameters

In [LO07] a new method for earth fault distance calculation is described. This finger
print method is based on a very detailed network model, which includes all network
parameters, such as exact line length, correct line, cable types, etc. After the occurrence
of an earth fault, the algorithm tries to recalculate the fault recordings by varying the
fault in the network. If the calculated fault scenario matches the real fault, it can be
assumed, that the fault point has been found. This method also works in cable networks.
21
3.2 Location Methods Based on Transient Signals

The following chapter will describe various fault detection methods based on fault transients.
In order to do that the fault path inductance L will be used for calculating the fault distance. This inductance L is proportional to the fault distance according to the following
equation.
1
0
0
0
L = (L1 + L2 + L0 ) l
3
0
L1 , L2 , L0
L
l
(3.5)
specific positive, negative and zero sequence inductance per km

inductance of the fault path
fault distance
In [Imr06] a fault location program is proposed which includes different fault location
techniques as differential equation method, the wavelet algorithm and the extended
algorithm for detecting the earth fault.
For transient methods the transfer behaviour of the current and voltage transformers
have to be considered. If the transformers can not transfer higher frequencies, transient
methods may get into trouble with calculating the correct distance.
3.2.1 Differential Equation Method

The differential equation algorithm calculates the fault distance by numerical solving
the differential equation that describes the fault circuit2 .
v(t) = RF i + L
v(t)
i(t)
RF
L
t
di(t)
dt
(3.6)
voltage of the transient

current of the transient
fault resistance
time
The equation can be solved with a numerical integration and the inductance of the fault
path can be calculated if three equally spaced pairs of phase currents and voltage samples
are available3 :

t (ik+1 + ik )(vk+2 + vk+1 ) (ik+2 + ik+1 )(vk+1 + vk )
L=
2 (ik+1 + ik )(ik+2 ik+1 ) (ik+2 + ik+1 )(ik+1 ik )
L
ik
vk
t
2
3
[Imr06] p. 14
[H
an01] p. 57
22

current sample
voltage sample
time
(3.7)
3.2 Location Methods Based on Transient Signals
3.2.2 Wavelet Algorithm

The algorithm presented in equation (3.8) uses the wavelet transformation to calculate
the fault distance. [Han01]

Uw (kt, f )
1
(3.8)
L = imag
Iw (kt, f )
L
Uw
Iw
l
f
angular frequency
wavelet coefficient for voltage
wavelet coefficient for current
fault distance
frequency
The algorithm first determines the maximum wavelet coefficient of the current including the amplitude, frequency and location of the wavelet. Using this frequency with
different time translations, the equivalent fault inductances can be calculated. The 2
ms inductance interval, corresponding to 10 subestimates, is then determined with the
smallest standard deviation. The mean value of the inductance, which is calculated in
this interval, is finally used to determine the fault distance.4
[H
an01] p. 59
23
3.3 Transition Fault Impedance Estimation

The transition fault impedance is the parameter which influences the rest of the network. Unfortunately, this impedance is an unknown factor in those networks. In this
chapter two different estimation algorithms, which can be used for determining the fault
impedance will be described.
3.3.1 Transition Fault Impedance Estimation Based on a Delta

Method
As described in [SE03][Ebe04] the fault transition impedance can be calculated as shown
in equation (3.9). This method is based on the delta-method, presented in chapter 3.1.2.
1
RF =
3
U 1, U 2, U 0
I1, I2, I0
Z 1sys
Z 0sys
IF
RF
l

real
U 1 + U 2 + U 0
I F
!

I 1 + I 2
real
Z 1sys l
I F

I 0
0sys
real
1+
Z
l
(3.9)
2 I F

fault current
fault resistance
fault distance
For the calculation of the fault impedance it is necessary to know Z 1sys and Z 0sys from
the faulty line, which can be taken from measurements. The fault distance l can be
calculated by using equation (3.2).
3.3.2 Transition Fault Impedance Estimation

As stated in [HL99], the fault impedance can be calculated as presented in equation
(3.10).

U L1
ZF =
1 Z 0sys
(3.10)
U0
ZF
U L1
U0
Z 0sys
fault impedance
phase-to-ground voltage
Therefore, it is necessary to know the zero impedance Z 0sys which can be determined by
calculating the equivalent circuit. This algorithm can be used to detect earth faults up
to 200 k.
24

The mathematical simulation model is designed for simulating an earth fault in a radial
network. It is used for varying different parameters. The results are applied to different
earth fault distance algorithms, which are tested for their usability.
4.1 Three Phase Symmetrical Networks

4.1.1 Earth fault - Symmetrical Components
The symmetrical components are easy to use if the network is symmetrical [For18]
[And07] [OO04], because in that case the positive, negative and zero sequence systems
are independent from each other. Otherwise, if the network is not symmetrical, the advantage of simplifying the matrices cannot be used and it is the same effort as calculating
directly with phase values.
In figure 4.1 an earth fault in symmetrical components is shown. The positive, negative
and zero sequence system have to be connected serially at the fault point [Fic06][Muc78].
Figure 4.1: Earth Fault in Symmetrical Components
4.1.2 Different Simulation Models

Different simulation models can be used for calculating single line-to-earth faults. The
simulation environments can be divided into two groups:
Static network matrices
Differential equation
Programs which use the network matrices often convert the network into symmetrical
components. Simulation environments for symmetrical components are all load flow
programs such as NEPLAN, Integral, SIMULINK (if the settings are set in symmetrical
components).
Other approaches are programs which use phase values, such as SIMULINK and EMTP.
These programs are based on solving the differential equations of the system components
in the time domain. These programs can be used for transient as well as for steady state
simulations.
4.1.3 Used Simulation Environment of the Earth Fault

For simulating earth faults a model based on symmetrical components is used. This
type of simulation is chosen, because if an earth fault in a compensated network does
not distinguish automatically, it is enough time to analyze the signal and it is already
in a steady state condition.
Figure 4.2: Simulation model
For the simulation of earth faults in a radial network, a detailed model (figure 4.3) based
on figure 4.2 is developed. This model is used for simulations and the algorithms in the
following chapters are applied to the results.
The lines are modeled as a -equivalent network. The residual network is set into
the simulation as capacitance in the positive, negative and zero system; the load is
26
simulated as impedances. The impedance of the feeding network can be included into
the transformer impedance.
In figure 4.3 the simulation model is shown. Z E is the grounding impedance of the
measurement station. The reason for introducing this impedance Z E is that the lineto-earth voltages are measured to the grounding system of the measurement station.
Normally influence of the grounding system is negligible. In case of an earth fault, the
residual current causes a voltage drop at this grounding impedance which may lead to
inaccurate voltage measurement results (for example in mountain areas).
Z F is the transition impedance at the fault location. In this impedance also the grounding impedance of the fault point is included, because in reality it cannot be separated
[Fre07][Bre07].
Z add is the additional impedance, in parallel to the arc suppressing coil. The additional current increases the line current which makes it easier to detect the fault, the
trigger level is increased and the influence of the fault current is reduced (see chapter
2.1.4)[Imr06].
The line is divided into three sections (line1, line2, line3) for simulation purposes.
No loads were placed between the protection device and the fault in this simulation
model. For simulations with distributed loads along the line another model presented in
chapter 7.3 is used.
27
Figure 4.3 shows figure 4.2 in symmetrical components.

positive sequence system
ZTR
Unet1
Zline11
IP1
UP1
Cline1 /2 Cline1 /2
Cnet
Zline21
1
Cline2 /2
Zline31
ILoad
1
Cline2 /2
UF1
Cline3 /2
Zload
Zload2
Cline3 /2
Znet1
negative sequence system
ZTR2
Zline12
2
P
I
2
Up
Cline1 /2 Cline1 /2
Zline22
2
Cline2 /2
Zline32
ILoad
2
Cline2 /2
UF2
Cline3 /2
Cline3 /2
IF0
2
Cnet
ZTR0
3Zpet
zero sequence system

Zline10
Zline20
ITR
IP
3Zadd
Znet2
Up
Cline1 /2 Cline10/2
Cline2 /2
Cline2 /2
3ZF
UF
Zline30
ILoad
UF0
Cline3 /2
Cline3 /2
3ZE
0
Cnet
station
rest of the
network
line1
line2
fault
line3 + load
Figure 4.3: Simulations model in symmetrical components
1 , C2 , C0
Cnet
net
net
1
2
0
Cline
, Cline
, Cline
1
2
Z line , Z line , Z 0line
Z 1T R , Z 2T R , Z 0T R
I 1P , I 2P , I 0P
U 1, U 2, U 0
U 1F , U 2F , U 0F
I 1load , I 2load , I 0load
IT R
IF
Z add
Z pet
ZF
ZE
U net
positive, negative and zero sequence capacitance of the residual network

positive, negative and zero sequence capacitance of the feeder current
positive, negative and zero sequence transformer impedance
positive, negative and zero sequence load current
fault current
arc suppressing coil
fault impedance
The detailed description of the simulation model is described in appendix A.
28
4.1.4 Reference Model 1

In table 4.1 the values for the simulation model are presented.
Table 4.1: Simulation data
Network
Frequency
Transformer
Line length
Line Z1 / Z0 per km
Line cap C1 / C0 per km
Fault distance
Load
arc suppression coil
Additional resistance
Capacitive current of the Network
Load of the of the Network
20-kV / overhead lines

50 Hz
15 Mvar, uk =10,8%, Z1 =j0.96 , Z0 =j0.96
20 km, ZLine1 +ZLine2
0.306 +j0.355 / 1.071 +j1.2425
10 nF / 6 nF
15 km, ZLine1 =10 km, ZLine2 =5 km
4 MW / 100 , 0 Mvar
5 + j 142
100
80 A
10 MW / 40
These values of this reference network are chosen to investigate earth faults in a typical
medium voltage network. In middle ohmic networks earth faults are the most frequently
faults.
The nominal voltage of typical networks is between 10 and 30 kV.
Typical feeding transformers are assumed between 10 and 60 Mvar.
Maximum line lengths are up to 30 km.
A network with overhead lines is chosen because earth faults are problematic especially
in these kinds of networks. The line impedances are taken from the tables [FMR+ 05].
The additional resistance is chosen as 100 . This resistance adds around 100 Ampere
to the fault current during an earth fault. If the activation is kept sufficiently short,
additional 100 Ampere are no problem due to the standard HD637 [CEN99] and offer
the possibility for more secure fault detection.
The load is chosen with 100 0 because the load can be assumed as ohmic.
29
4.2 Two Phase Symmetrical Networks

4.2.1 Earth Fault - Symmetrical Components
As described in chapter 4.1 the symmetrical components can be used for calculating an
earth fault. The high voltage transmission grid for transaction purpose in Austria, Germany and Switzerland is a two-phase symmetrical network. In this case the symmetrical
components have to be adapted [OO04] [Bra97] [Ede56] [Wan36].
Z11
IL1
IL2
Z12
Z21
Z22
UL1E
UL2E
Figure 4.4: Two-phase network
The values in figure 4.4 can be described using the following equations:

Z 11 Z 12
I
U L1E
=
L1
U L2E
Z 21 Z 22
I L2
U L1E , U L2E
I L1 , I L2
Z xx
(4.1)

current in phase L1, L2
impedances of the network
The transformation matrix is:

1 1 1
1
1 1
S=
and T = S
1 1
2 1 1
S
T
inverse transformation matrix

0
U
1 1
U L1E
=
1 1
U L2E
U1
30
(4.2)
(4.3)
S
U 1, U 0
U L1E , U L2E
positive and negative sequence system voltage
The derivation of the impedance matrix is shown in equation (4.4). A symmetrical

network is assumed (Z 11 = Z 22 and Z 12 = Z 21 ):

0
Z 11 + Z 12
1 1 1
1 1
Z
Z 12
0
Z 11 Z 12 (4.4)
Z S = S ZP T =
=
11
1 1
Z 21 Z 22
2 1 1
ZS
symmetrical impedance matrix
Figure 4.5: Earth fault in symmetrical components
In figure 4.5 an earth fault in symmetrical components is shown. Therefore, the positive
and zero sequence system have to be connected in series at the fault point.
4.2.2 Different Simulation Models

For simulating this type of network the program PAS [upa08] can use for load flow and
short circuit calculations. Network calculation programs for three phase networks can
be used, if all parameters of the two-phase network are recalculated.
Transient programs as SIMULINK or EMTP can also be used for simulating transient
phenomenon.
31
4.2.3 Used Simulation Environment of the Earth Fault

Similar to chapter 4.1.3 the simulation model is build based on the theory of symmetrical
components (4.2.1).
For the simulation of earth faults in a radial network, a detailed model (figure 4.3) based
on figure 4.2 is developed. This model is used for simulations and the algorithms in the
following chapters are applied to the results.
Z add is the additional impedance, in parallel to the arc suppressing coil.
Figure 4.6 shows figure 4.2 as a two-phase network in symmetrical components.
ZTR1
Unet1
UP1
ZTR0
ITR
Cline2 /2
Cline1 /2 Cline10/2
Cline2 /2
Zline3
ILoad1
1
Cline2 /2

Zline10
Zline20
Up
Zline2
Znet1
0
P
2Zadd
Cline1 /2 Cline1 /2
Cnet
2Zpet
Zline1
IP1
Cline2 /2
UF1
2ZF
Cline3 /2
Cline3 /2
IF0
UF
Zline30
ILoad
UF0
Cline3 /2
Cline3 /2
2ZE
Cnet
station
rest of the
network
line1
line2
fault
line3 + load
Figure 4.6: Simulations model in symmetrical components
1 , C0
Cnet
net
1
0
Cline
, Cline
1
Z line , Z 0line
Z 1T R , Z 0T R
I 1P , I 0P
U 1, U 0
U 1F , U 0F
I 1load , I 0load
IF
Z add
Z pet
ZF
ZE
U net
positive and zero sequence capacitance of the residual network

positive and zero sequence capacitance of the feeder current
positive and zero sequence line impedance
positive and zero sequence transformer impedance
positive and zero sequence current at the measuring point
positive and zero sequence voltage at the measuring point
positive and zero sequence voltage at the fault point
positive and zero sequence load current
fault current
additional resistor
arc suppressing coil
fault impedance
The detailed description of the simulation model is described in appendix B.
32
Zload
4.2.4 Reference Model 2

Table 4.2: Simulation data
Network
Frequency
Equivalent network impedance Z1 / Z0
Line length
Line Z1 / Z0 per km
Line cap C1 / C0 per km
Fault distance
Load
Capacitive current of the Network
Load of the of the Network

16.7 Hz
j12 / j12
60 km, ZLine1 +ZLine2
0.12 +j0.13 / 0.16 +j0.37
2 nF / 2 nF
40 km, ZLine1 =20 km, ZLine2 =20 km
40 MW / 300 , 0 Mvar
0.1 + j 109
400
500 A
100 MW / 121
These values of this reference network are chosen to investigate earth faults in a typical
two phase network.
The nominal line-to-earth voltage is 55 kV.
In this network 110-kV is the highest voltage level. Therefore, the equivalent network
impedance is used instead a transformer impedance.
Maximum line lengths are up to 60 km.
A network with overhead lines is chosen because earth faults are problematic especially
in these kinds of networks. The line impedances are taken from the tables [FMR+ 05].
The additional resistance is 400 . This resistance adds around 100 Ampere to the fault
current during an earth fault.
Because of the dimensions of such networks 500 Ampere is a realistic value for the
capacitive network currents.
33
5 Basis of Earth Fault Distance

Protection
Earth fault distance protection is used distribution networks. Especially in low and
solidly grounded networks, there exist distance protection relays, which can calculate
the distance from the relay to the fault point.
In this chapter, the derivation of the fault impedance calculation algorithm will be
presented. This algorithm is a simplification because in the derivation the distributed
line-to-earth capacitances have been neglected.
The algorithm will then again be simplified to the classic algorithm, which will be shown
in chapter 6. Unfortunately this classic algorithm only provides good results up to fault
impedances around some 100 .
Furthermore, it will be shown that the algorithm of classic distance protection devices,
as they are already in use, can also be used for earth fault distance protection in compensated networks, however, for low impedance earth faults only.
This chapter is based on [AF07], [AOFS06a] and [AOFS06b].
In chapter 6 the classic algorithm will be derived and explained.
In chapter 7 the improvements of the classic algorithm will be presented.
These general considerations are based on the model (see figure 4.2) in chapter 4.1.3.
The distributed line-to-earth capacitances are neglected and the faulty phase is assumed
to be in phase L1.
At the fault point (see figure 4.3) the following equation has to be fulfilled:
U 1F + U 2F + U 0F = U F
(5.1)
1
1
, respective it is the same for the negative and
Z 1Line is the sum of unZLine1
and unZLine2
zero sequence system.
Inserting the measured voltages and the voltage drop along the line, equation (5.1) can
be written:
U 1 I 1P Z 1Line + U 2 I 2P Z 2Line + U 0 I 0P Z 0Line 3 I 0T R Z E = 3 I 0F Z F (5.2)

A symmetrical network (no phase preferences) is assumed, leading to:
Z 1Line = Z 2Line
(5.3)
5 Basis of Earth Fault Distance Protection
The measured voltages in symmetrical components can be summed up to the line voltage
of the faulty phase,
U L1 = U 1 + U 2 + U 0 = (I 1P + I 2P ) Z 1Line + I 0P Z 0Line + 3 I 0F Z F + 3 I 0T R Z E (5.4)
U L1 3 I 0F Z F
Z 0Line
1
2
0
=
I
+
I
+
I
P
P
P
Z 1Line 3 I 0T R Z E
Z 1Line
(5.5)
With I L1 = I 1P + I 2P + I 0P
0
U L1 3 I 0F Z F 3 I 0T R Z E
0
0 Z Line
=
I
I
+
I
L1
Z 1Line
Z 1Line

0
U L1 3 I 0F Z F 3 I 0T R Z E
Z Line
0
= I L1 + I
1
Z 1Line
Z 1Line

0
Z
with k 0 = 31 Z Line
1 and 3 I 0 = I and 3 I 0F = I F and 3 I 0T R = I T R
1
(5.6)
(5.7)
Line
U L1 I F Z F I T R Z E
= I L1 + I k 0
Z 1Line
Z 1Line =
U L1 I F Z F I T R Z E
0
= z1 l
I L1 + I k 0
Z 1line , Z 2line , Z 0line

I 1P , I 2P , I 0P
U 1, U 2, U 0
U 1F , U 2F , U 0F
IF
ZF
I
k0
U L1
I L1
0
z1
ZE
IT R
l
(5.8)
(5.9)

fault current
fault impedance
measured line-to-earth voltage in phase L1
measured current in phase L1
specific positive sequence system line impedance
fault distance
Equation (5.9) is the basis for an algorithm in a fault distance calculation of a line-toearth fault. The influence of line-to-earth capacitances have been neglected, which leads
to partial deviations in cable networks. This algorithm also needs accurate setting of k 0
because a wrong setting can lead to miscalculations (see chapter 8.1.3). In this algorithm
the fault impedance Z F and the fault current I F are included, but both are unknown
and have to be calculated through separate algorithms (see chapter 7).
Generally in common literature Z E = Z E are set equal zero and are neglected (see
chapter 6)
36
6 Classic Algorithm in Classic Distance

Protection Relays
As has been described above, distance protection relays have the possibility to locate
earth faults [Sie03], however, this system is only established in solid or low impedance
grounded networks.
This feature is blocked in classic distance protection devices for compensated networks,
because the relays generally use the line current level as trigger. In low and solidly
grounded networks, the line current is high enough to get a secure trigger level. However,
in compensated networks the current during an earth fault is just a little above the load
current. Settings around the load current are too insecure; it is recommended to reach
the level under all operating conditions.
The reason for choosing this type of detection algorithm is that has already been built in
modern distance protection relays. With some changes in the parameters or firmware this
technology can also used for earth fault detection in earth fault compensated networks.
An improved version could be easily set up on this platform, because the measurement
technique and logic have already been implemented.
The model for earth fault distance protection can be simplified as shown in figure 6.1
[AOFS06b].
ZTR1
Unet1
IP1
Zline11
Up1
ZTR2
3Zpet
Zload1
UF1
IP
Zline12
Up2
ZTR0
Zline21
Zline22
Zload2
UF2
IP
Up0
3Zadd
Zline10
Zline20
UF0
Figure 6.1: Simulation model in symmetrical components
For this model the following assumptions are made:

Only fundamental harmonics
One idea behind this thesis is, to use a classic distance protection relay as platform for the new algorithm. Fundamental harmonics are chosen because distance
protection relays use them for their algorithm. Therefore, fundamental harmonics
are chosen, even if theoretically higher harmonics could possibly be used for the
detection algorithm.
Steady state conditions
For these investigations permanent earth faults are interesting. If such a fault
occurs, there is enough time for search actions. After some periods the transient
conditions disappear and steady state conditions can be used.
Capacitances are neglected
An overhead line or a cable has distributed line-to-earth capacitances which are
responsible for the earth fault current. In the classic algorithm, theses capacitances
are neglected because in low ohmic or solidly grounded networks the earth fault
current at the fault point is similar to the sum current at the measuring point.
Low ohmic earth faults
The classic algorithm does not consider the fault impedance. This is acceptable
for low ohmic earth faults or networks, in which higher ohmic earth faults are rare.
Furthermore, the algorithm reduces the influence of the ohmic parts by using only
38
the reactive part of the calculated impedance. The fault transitions impedance is
dominantly ohmic and the influence can be reduced.
Low ohmic station grounding impedances
Stations or substations have grounding systems with impedances around 0.05 to
0.5 . These values can be neglected because the influence on the measured voltages is small.
With the assumptions above, equation (5.9) can be simplified to equation (6.1).
Z 1Line =
U L1
0
= z1 l
I L1 + I k 0
Z 1Line
U L1
I L1
k0
I
0
z1
l
(6.1)

current in phase L1
fault distance
Z F is seen as predominantly ohmic [Fre07]. If only the imaginary part of the equation
(6.1) is used, the ohmic influences can be reduced.
1
l = 10 imag
x
Z 1Line
0
x1
l
U L1
I L1 + I k 0

(6.2)

specific positive sequence system line inductance
fault distance
Equation (6.1) is already used in solid or low ohmic grounded networks with low ohmic
earth faults when the capacitive currents can be neglected.
With the classic algorithm the location of earth faults up to some 100 can be detected
in reality. Above these limit the deviation increases and the calculation results cannot
be used for an exact distance determination. Another problem is that higher ohmic
earth faults are often not detected at all, because the displacement voltage or the zero
sequence current are too small to reach any detectable starting limit for the protection
devices (see chapter 2.2).
In the following sections, the results of the classic algorithm will be presented.
39
6.1 Laboratory Tests

First tests were carried out in the laboratory. Therefore an analogical three phase
network model was used. Low ohmic earth faults were carried out at different fault
points. For measurements and tests, a distance protection relay was installed in this
network. The laboratory setup is presented in table 6.1.
Table 6.1: Data of the laboratory tests
Power supply
Transformer
Line (100%)
Load
110 V, 3, 50 Hz
1350 VA, uk 12%, YY0
3+j30 , equivalent to 100km @ 0,3 /km
120
For more tests, which should be independent from the network model, the data was
recorded and the fault recordings were saved. Afterwards, it was possible to replay these
recordings by using an OMICRON CMC 256-6[omi08]. This signal generator can replay
files in comtrade format [com99]. Different distance protection relays could be tested
with one and the same test file (see figure 6.2).
Comtrade file
Comtrade file
Comtrade file
Comtrade file
Comtrade file
Comtrade file
Comtrade file
Comtrade file
PC
CMC
Protection device
Figure 6.2: Simulation system for protection relays
Due to the reason that the network model has only two possibilities to change the line
length, two different tests could be done: One at 0.5 and the other one at 30 . The
results are presented in table 6.2.
Table 6.2: Result of the laboratory tests
Distance X in
0.5
30
Result of the protection device in

1
30.5
These laboratory tests have been the very first tests in autumn 2004 and have proven
the principle usability of the classic distance algorithm for earth fault location in a
compensated network.
40
6.2 Simulations Based on Laboratory Network Model
6.2 Simulations Based on Laboratory Network Model

For the first simulations and tests of the distance protection relays, a three phase netR
works model has been developed by using MATLAB/SIMULINK
[mat08]. This transient model is an exact simulation model of the analogue laboratory network model as
used for the first tests (see chapter 6.1). The transient results of the simulation model are
converted to the comtrade format and directly replayed with the OMICRCON CMC-256
as input for the distance protection relays.
The results of the variation of the fault distance are presented in figure 6.3.
35
calculated reactance in Ohm
30
25
20
X
15
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
X varied in Ohm
Figure 6.3: Results distance variation of the laboratory tests
In figure 6.3, it can be seen that the calculated fault impedance increases linear to the
increasing real model fault distance in the simulation. These simulations and tests with
classic distance protection show that the classic algorithm is valid for earth faults in
compensated networks with low ohmic earth faults.
41
7 Improved Earth Fault Distance

Protection in Compensated
Networks
Distance protection based on the algorithm presented in chapter 5 is accurate for low
ohmic earth fault; however, the deviation gets high for high ohmic earth faults.
The classic algorithm can be used in radial networks as well as in meshed networks, which
are mostly 110-kV-networks. In meshed 110-kV-networks, this algorithm can be used
because most of the faults are low ohmic earth faults (arc surge arresters are damaged
and good grounding of the pylons). Another improvement in these networks can be done
by using a two-sided fault locator [LSW07] which eliminates the concerning effects and
reduces calculation errors.
In radial medium voltage networks the number of earth faults is higher, fault impedances
are higher and in view of more branching points without protection devices the topology
is more complex.
In the following chapter improvements for distance protection in radial distribution systems will be presented. The influence of the distributed line-to-earth capacitances has
not been included.
This chapter is based on [AF07].
7.1 Increasing the Accuracy of the Algorithm

As presented in chapter 5 the fault current I F and the fault impedance Z F have to be
considered when calculating the fault distance. In the next chapters a new approach to
derive an estimation for the fault impedance Z F and the fault current I F will be shown.
7.1.1 Estimation of the Fault Impedance

The fault transition impedance is the parameter which influences the fault scenario
strongly. The line-to-earth voltages and the fault current depend on this impedance (see
chapter 2.3). Faults with high impedance can cause problems in locating the fault point.
If Z E is neglected and the zero sequence current is set equal to the fault current at the
fault point equation (5.4) can be written :
U L1 = U 1 + U 2 + U 0 = (I 1P + I 2P ) Z 1Line + I 0P Z 0Line + 3 I 0P Z F
(7.1)
3Z F I 0F = U L1 I L1 Z 1Line I 0P Z 0Line + I 0P Z 1Line
(7.2)
Inserting Z 1Line = Z 11 Z 12 and Z 0Line = Z 11 + 2Z 12 in equation (7.2) it can be written:

ZF =
U L1 I L1
Z 1Line Z 12
I
I
Z 1line , Z 0line
I 1P , I 2P , I 0P
ZF
I
U L1
I L1
Z 12
(7.3)

fault impedance
coupling Impedance
Figure 7.1 shows the common used model for the fault loop impedance. The loop
impedance is divided into three parts, one is assigned to the lines (overhead) (Z 1Line ),
the second to the fault impedance (Z F ) and the third part to the earth return path
(underground) (Z Earth ).
Figure 7.1: Estimation of the Fault Impedance
As presented in [AOF+ 07] Z Earth is equal to the coupling impedance Z 12 . Equation (7.3)
can be written as:
ZF =
Z 1line
I1, I2, I0
ZF
I
U L1
I L1
Z Earth
44
U L1 I L1
Z 1Line Z Earth
I
I
positive sequence line impedance
fault impedance
alternate earth impedance
(7.4)
The fault impedance can be calculated under the above mentioned restrictions by dividing the phase-to-earth voltage UL1E from the faulty phase at the measured residual
current I (figure 7.1). This estimation is acceptable because the fault impedance is
the dominant part of the faulted circuit impedance. If the fault impedance has a value
in the same amount as the line impedance, there is an aberration in the calculation,
because the influence of the line impedance is the same or even higher. In that case
the fault transition impedance is not dominating the faulted circuit impedance and the
aberration is caused by the dominant influence of the line impedance.
In addition, load currents in the same range as the fault current cause an aberration,
if the line and the fault impedance are the same. Therefore, an increase of the fault
current by use of an additional resistance is recommended [Imr06].
This estimation can be used if the calculated fault impedance is higher than 2 to 3 times
the line impedance.
Due to experiences, the fault impedance is approximated ohmic (see chapter 8.1.4)[Fre07].
It is also required, that the zero sequence current source is behind the measuring point
(Bauchsches paradox). [HAB+ 93a][HAB+ 93b]

RF = real
U L1
I
RF
U L1
I

(7.5)
line-to-earth voltage
fault resistance
45
7.1.2 Estimation of the Fault Current

As shown in figure 7.2, the fault current I F consists of the inductive current of the
neutral point impedance and the capacitive currents of the faulty line and of the other
feeders.
Figure 7.2: Fault current
The fault current I F can be estimated with the following equations:

I F = I L + I cap2 + I cap3 + I cap4 + I cap5 + I c1 + I c2 + I c3 + I c4
(7.6)
I F = I + I cap1
(7.7)
I c1,c2,c3,c4
I cap1,cap2,cap3,cap4,cap5
I
IF
distributed line capacitive currents

capacitive current from feeder 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
fault current
The residual current plus the capacitive current of the other feeders equals the current
I which is measured through the protection relay equation (7.7. The missing capacitive
current is the capacitive current of the faulty line.
For the determination of the fault current, the capacitive current of the faulty line is
necessary in conjunction with the measured residual current. The needed data for this
can be achieved by measuring the residual current during network operation or can be
46
taken from tables. As it is shown in equation (7.7), the capacitive current from the
line depends on the displacement voltage and the capacitive currents from the line.
These currents depend on the switching state of the network. For estimation it can be
assumed that the displacement voltage is the same in the whole network. If the capacitive
current from the faulty line is known, the current has to be multiplied with the ratio
from displacement voltage to nominal voltage, because with smaller displacement voltage
the capacitive currents get smaller. If the capacitive current of the observed section is
known, equation (7.7) can be extended by the measured displacement voltage and the
nominal line to earth voltage:

0
Umeas

(7.8)
I F = I + I cap1
UL1Enominal
IF
I cap1
I
UL1Enominal
U 0meas
fault current
capacitive current from feeder 1
measured displacement voltage
Equation (7.8) the fault current at the earth fault point. This equation can only be used
in radial networks.
7.1.3 Neutral Point Current of the Transformer and Grounding

Impedance
The neutral point current of the transformer I T R depends on the current of the arc
suppressing coil and the additional resistance. These currents depend on the network
enlargement and the additional resistance and can reach values around some hundred
Ampere.
The knowledge of these currents can be achieved by measurements.
The influence of Z E is described in chapter 8.1.4.1.
47
7.2 Improved Earth Fault Distance Algorithm

For higher impedance fault the classic algorithm presented in equation (6.1) is not satisfying. Above some 100 the algorithm cannot be used. In this case, that improved
algorithm, presented in equation (5.9)has to be used to reduce the influences of the fault
transition impedance.
Inserting equation (7.5) and equation 7.8 into equation 5.9 reads
Z 1Line =
U L1 real
U L1
I

I + I cap
0
Umeas
UL1Enominal
IT R ZE
I L1 + I k 0
k0
I cap
I
0
Umeas
U L1
UL1Enominal
I L1
0
z1
1
Z Line
ZE
IT R
l
= z1 l
(7.9)

capacitive current from faulty feeder
positive sequence system line impedance
fault distance
The fault distance is calculated by using the imaginary part of the calculated impedance
Z 1Line .
l=
1
imag
x10
U L1 real
U L1
I

I + I cap
0
(Umeas
)
UL1Enominal
I L1 + I k 0
IT R ZE
(7.10)
With equation (7.10) the fault distance can be calculated. The sensitivity analysis of
different influence parameters will be explained in chapter 8.
48
7.3 Distributed Loads
7.3 Influence of load distribution on the distance

calculation
In the simulations above, the load is always set at the end of the line. In reality, the loads
are distributed along the line, sometimes split up in a more equal way, sometimes there
are load spots. This chapter shows the influence of distributed loads on the improved
algorithm
7.3.1 Simulation Model

R
The following model is implemented in MATLAB/SIMULINK
. The data used, is the
same as described in table 4.1.
Figure 7.3: Simulation model of load distribution
The fault point is varied from busbar 1 to busbar 5. The improved algorithm is again
applied to the simulation results.
7.3.2 Comparison of Compensated, Middle Ohmic and Solidly

Grounded Networks
In the following, different network types (compensated, middle ohmic and solidly grounded)
are compared to each other. In figure 7.4a the distance calculation of a middle ohmic
and in figure 7.4b of a solidly grounded network is shown.
49
30
30
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
20
15
10
25
Calculated distance in km
25
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
20
15
10
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
(a) Middle ohmic grounded network
900
1000
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
(b) Solidly grounded network
Figure 7.4: Distance calculation with distributed loads
As it can be seen, at low ohmic earth faults in the solidly grounded network the fault
detection is more accurate. At higher ohmic earth faults, solidly and middle ohmic
grounded networks become more and more similar. The reason is, that in solidly
grounded networks the fault current is higher than the load current and therefor the
load is negligible.
As experiences have shown in real networks the results of these simulations are the
same: With distributed load the calculated distance using the classic algorithm is always
decreasing at higher ohmic earth faults.
With the improved algorithm it is possible to locate a fault area.
7.3.3 Correction of the Influence of Distributed Loads

In this chapter an idea for correcting the influence of distributed loads is presented.
As shown in the simulations in figure 7.4, a correlation between the distribution of load
along a line and measured impedance up to fault location can be recognized. The more
loads there are before the absence place, the smaller the measured fault impedance gets.
50
30
30
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
25
caclulated fault distance in km
25
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
20
15
10
20
15
10
200
400
600
800
1000
ZF in Ohm
200
400
600
800
1000
ZF in Ohm
(a) Fault at busbar 1, 2 and 3
(b) Fault at busbar 4 and 5
Figure 7.5: Simulations with random varied fault point and load distribution
In figure 7.5 the results of different load distributions are presented. The load distribution
is varied whereas the total line load is unchanged. It can be seen that different load
distribution offers several fault distances. For the first busbar the calculation works fine,
for the others the information about calculated area is not possible.
7.3.3.1 Correction coefficients
The idea is to use correction coefficients to improve the computed fault distance. Equation (7.11) tries to include these loads into this factor in order to correct the fault
impedance.
The loads (load1 - load4 ) are filled in percentage of the total load. The coefficients are
computed from several simulations/tests. The coefficients try to include the aberration
of the distance algorithm and combine it with the load factors.
A1
A2
A3
A4
B1
B2
B3
B4
Ax , B x , C x , D x
distx
coef fxy
C1
C2
C3
C4
dist1
coef f11
D1

D2
coef f12 = dist2
D3 coef f13 dist3
coef f14
dist4
D4
(7.11)
loads in % of the total line load

aberration in % of the nominal distance
correction coefficients y at busbar x
The coefficients coeffx are median values of coeffxy for the load at busbar x.

The coefficients matrix can be written: coef f T = coef f1 coef f2 coef f3 coef f4

The load matrix can be written as: loadsT = load1 load2 load3 load4 .
51
In this matrix the loads are inserted in percentage of the total line load.
4
coeff1
coeff2
coeff3
coeff4
3.5
correction factor
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
200
400
600
ZF fault transition impedance
800
1000
Figure 7.6: Correction curves
It is shown that it is possible to determine coefficients, which are able to correct and to
reduce the deviations (see figure 7.6).
The coefficients are likely to determine, however, only for one fault transition resistance
value and for one area between the measurement and the load. Therefore, coefficient
matrices must be determined which are nearly independent of load.
Best results can be achieved if the correction curves are calculated for faults at the end
of the line. A similar approach for including the loads can be found in [AW07].
7.3.3.2 Distance Calculation with Correction Coefficients
The matrix is dependent on the neutral point treatment. Therefore, it has to be estimated for separately for these networks.
Example:
For a compensated network and approximately 100 A additional resistance in parallel
to the arc suppressing coil, the coefficient matrix is presented at 50 fault resistance :
1.96
1.4
coef f =
1.24
0.99
The fault distance can be corrected using equation (7.12).
l = lcalculated coef f T loads
52
(7.12)
l
lcalculated
coef fx
fault distance
distance calculated by using the improved algorithm
correction coefficient at busbar x
The fault impedance can be estimated as presented in chapter 7.1.1. With the knowledge
of the fault impedance, the correcting coefficients are known and the calculated fault
distance can be corrected using equation (7.12).
30
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
25
20
15
10
200
400
600
ZF fault transition impedance
800
1000
Figure 7.7: Distributed loads with corrected values
.
In figure 7.7 the curves at all 5 error locations (see chapter 7.3.1) are shown, whereby
the distribution of load is varied accidentally as presented in chapter 7.3.3.1.
A practical realization could take place to that extent that the correction coefficients in
the relay are deposited and, depending on the neutral point treatment, are applied. A
suggestion for correcting the calculated distances is that only distance results which are
at the third or fourth busbar, are corrected, and the rest remains as it is. For shorter
distances the algorithm already works well.
Then the distribution of the load and the neutral point treatment has to be filled in
including the neutral point resistance. A higher accuracy could be attained via additional
curves, dependent on the line lengths between the loads.
53
8 Comparison of the Classic and

Improved Algorithm
8.1 Sensitivity Analysis of the Algorithm
In this chapter the influences on the classic and improved algorithm will be discussed
and, based on the sensitivity analysis, the most critical parameters are identified.
In this chapter the influences of separate parameters will be investigated. The investigations are carried out by using reference model 1 (see chapter 4.1.4).
These parameters can be divided into three groups:
aberrations due to wrong measurements
aberrations due to wrong settings (k 0 )
aberrations due to physical influences (Z E , Z F )
The simulations in the following chapters will work on the basis of a compensated network. In chapter 8.1.5, different networks types (compensated, solidly grounded, isolated
and middle ohmic grounded) will be compared to each other.
8.1.1 Linearization
In this chapter the influences of separate parameters will be investigated. In one working
point the algorithm can be linearized. The classic algorithm (equation (6.1)) and the
improved algorithm (equation (7.10)) are linearized. The maximum aberration of each
parameter can be calculated using equation (8.4) and (8.2) and will conclude in an
aberration of the calculated fault distance smaller than 10% (0.1 p.u.).
Classic Algorithm
0
l = f (x1 , U L1 , I , k 0 , I L1 )

dl ai d xi 1

dai l = dxi l x10 imag I
(8.1)

U L1
0.1p.u.

L1 + I k 0
with ai are the setting and measured parameters:

0
ai (x1 , U L1 , I , k 0 , I L1 )
(8.2)
Improved Algorithm
0
, UL1Enominal )
l = f (x1 , U L1 , I cap , I , k 0 , I T R , Z E , I L1 , Umeas
(8.3)

dl xi

dxi l =

0
U L1
)
(Umeas

real
I
+
I
Z
U
d ai 1
L1
cap UL1Enominal
TR
E
I

dai l x10 imag

I L1 + I k 0

0.1p.u. (8.4)
0
0
ai (x1 , U L1 , I cap , I , k 0 , I T R , Z E , I L1 , Umeas
, UL1Enominal )
If the differential equation is solved, the following maximum aberrations of the parameters can be calculated for the reference model (see chapter 4.1) with the fault point at
15 km and a fault transition impedance of 1 :
Table 8.1: Result of the linearization of some parameters
U L1
I L1
I
k0
simulation result
2432+j1092 V
196-j29 A
93.89 -j17.65 A
0.833
classic algorithm
|UL1 |= 270 V
|IL1 |= 27 A
|I |=34 A
|k0 | = 0.3
improved algorithm
|UL1 |= 266 V
|IL1 |= 27 A
|I |= 35 A
|k0 | =0.29
It can be seen that the influences on both algorithm are similar: 10 % aberration of
each parameter causes around 10 % aberrations in the calculated line length. The same
results will be seen in chapter 8.1.2.
8.1.2 Measurement Influences

Measurement influences can result from measurement transformers or the protection devices itself. The measurement transformers have specifications with aberrations lower
than 0.5%. This accuracy does not lead to significant aberrations of the simulation
algorithm. Protection devices have A/D-converters which have to cover the whole measurement range. In case of an earth fault, the voltage of the faulty phase is low. As a
56
result the quantization can lead to wrong calculation results due to granularity.
In this simulation the parameters U L1 , I L1 and I = 3I 0 are varied 10% from the
simulation result. This shows the influence of each parameter on the calculation result.
Sensitivity at 1 Ohm fault transition impedance
17
17
UL1
UL1
I0
IL1
16.5
I0
U0
IL1
16.5
nominal distance
nominal distance
16
calculated fault distance in km
16
15.5
15
15.5
15
14.5
14.5
14
14
13.5
10
0
Variation in %
10
(a) Classic algorithm
13.5
10
0
Variation in %
10
(b) Improved algorithm
Figure 8.1: Sensitivity analysis at 1 fault impedance
Figure 8.1 shows that the line current and the line-to-earth voltage have the biggest
influence, however, in a complementary direction. The influence of I 0 is smaller than
the line current, because the residual current is smaller compared to the line current
which xxx the line current and wrong measured values can reach an aberration around
10%.
8.1.3 Influences of Wrong Settings

The appropriate setting of k 0 can be measured or read off parameters tables, if available. This earth return path factor k 0 describes the ratio of the zero sequence system
impedance to the positive sequence system impedance. This ratio independent of the
line length and can be used for earth fault distance calculation.
As published in [AOF+ 07] and [KF07] different ways of describing and writing this factor
k 0 exist and are described in the following:
with symmetrical components from protection point of view
This thesis uses equation (8.5).
1
k0 =
3

Z 0Line
1
Z 1Line
(8.5)
57
Z 1Line
Z 0Line
k0

zero sequence system line impedance
with complex earth and complex line impedance
kE =
Z Eearth
Z 1Line
(8.6)
with symmetrical components
k 0k =
Z0
Z1
(8.7)
Conversions between the different k 0 -factor in equation (8.5) and equation (8.7)
are also possible using equation (8.8).
k 0k = 1 + 3 k 0
(8.8)
with separated earth and line impedance
kE =
RE
1
XE
1
+
XL
RL
RL 1 + j R
XL 1 j X
L
(8.9)
Equation (8.6) can be converted into equation (8.9) by using the line angle (equation(8.10)).
tan =
XL
RL
(8.10)
In network practice the exact line parameters of the positive and zero sequence system
are very obvious known, however, the exact factor k 0 of a line can be achieved through
measurements[AOF+ 07].
A common practice is the setting of k 0 to 0.8..1..1.5 with an angle of 0 [FMR+ 05].
In the simulation k 0 is 0.830 .
58
Figure 8.2: Variaton of k 0
Figure 8.2 shows the effect of a wrong setting of k 0 . The black plane in figure 8.2 shows
the area which covers the result of the ideal line length 10% error tolerance. If the
value of k 0 is chosen smaller than its real value, the measured fault impedance is higher,
because the earth return path is rated too low, and if k 0 is set higher, the measured
impedance is lower.
The angle has a smaller influence in overhead line networks than the value, as it is the
setup for the simulations.
8.1.4 Influences of Parameters of the Electrical Grid

To test the conventional algorithm, the following influences have been selected for a
sensitivity analysis [Bre07]. These parameters are varied in the simulation environment
(see chapter 4.1.4) and the algorithm is applied to the results:
the grounding impedance at the measuring station Z E
the fault impedance Z F
the load factor cos
8.1.4.1 Variation of Z E
Normally the voltages are line-to-earth voltages which are measured from line to the
station grounding, assuming that it is measured to the far earth (see figure 4.3). If the
grounding impedance is too high (for example at substations in mountains) and there
exists current over the grounding system (arc suppressing coil placed in this substation),
the voltage rise of the grounding system of the station leads to measurement errors of
the line-to-earth voltage and therefore to a miscalculation of the fault distance. The
59
miscalculation term is I 0ZE 3Z E . In equation (5.9) I 0ZE is named I T R , because in most

cases it is the neutral point current of the transformer.
U 0ZE = I 0ZE 3Z E
(8.11)
U 0meas = U 0measreal + U 0ZE
(8.12)
U L1 = U 1meas + U 2meas + U 0meas
(8.13)
U L1 = U 1meas + U 2meas + U 0measreal + U 0ZE
(8.14)
U 1, U 2, U 0
U 0measreal
I 0ZE
U L1
U 0ZE

real measured displacement voltage
zero current over the grounding impedance
Line-to-earth voltage of phase L1
grounding impedance voltage
Figure 8.3 shows the influence of the impedance Z E .

The values are chosen at 0.01+j0.5 for the starting point, the resistant part is varied,
and the inductive part is chosen at 0.5 due to practical experiences [Fre07]. The
grounding system of a station has an inductive part because the grounding system covers
a certain area. The current over the grounding system creates a magnetic field.
H
L
I
V
1
H 2 dV = LI 2
2
(8.15)
permeability constant
magnetic field density
inductance
current
integration volume
Equation (8.15) shows that the grounding system at area V is inductive. The value
around 0.5 is proved by measurements [Fre07].
60
20
18
16
calculated distance in km
14
12
10
4
classic algorithm without resistance
classic algorithm with resistance
extended algorithm
nominal distance
0.5
1.5
2
2.5
3
grounding impedance ZE in Ohm
3.5
4.5
Figure 8.3: Variation of Z E
In figure 8.3 it can bee seen that the aberration is smaller using an additional resistance
in parallel to the arc suppressing coil the aberration is smaller. The reason is that Z E
is ohmic and the current is also more ohmic using an additional resistance. Therefore,
the voltage drop is more ohmic than inductive. In the algorithm, only the imaginary
part of the calculated impedance is used for the distance calculation and therefore ohmic
influences as Z E are reduced if the voltage drop is dominantly ohmic.
The improved algorithm reduces the influence of Z E and therefor the simulation result
is more accurate than in the classic algorithm.
Figure 8.4: Variation of Z E over the variation of Z F
61
Figure 8.4 shows a variation of Z E when the value of Z F is increased, and its reduced
influence. The black plane in figure 8.4 shows the area which covers the result of the ideal
line length 10% error tolerance. The simulations show that the aberration decreases
with the increase of Z F because the current over the grounding system decreases and
therefore the voltage drop along the grounding system decreases.
8.1.4.2 Variation of Z F
This impedance Z F is not known in reality and varies from 1 (solid and very low
ohmic earth fault), several 100 up to several k (trees, broken lines and dry ground).
For the simulation Z F is the sum of RF and j0.5 (see chapter 8.1.4.1). In the following
simulations the variation of Z F will be reduced to the variation of RF .
Impedance of the grounding at the fault point
In the simulation, this impedance is varied from 1 to 1000 . The grounding impedance
at the fault point is included into the fault transition impedance because, in reality, it is
also seen as one single impedance. The grounding impedance is taken into the transition
impedance by adding an inductive part of j0.5 (see chapter 8.1.4.1).
The fault impedance is often seen as purely ohmic. The reason is that, if the fault
transition impedance increases, the inductive part is so small that it can be neglected
because the ohmic part dominates the impedance.
Impedance of the arc resistance
Arcs are one of the most common fault types in electrical networks. The grounding system can be seen as predominantly ohmic, however, the arc has an inductive component
which might influence the distance calculation.
An estimation for the resistance of an arc can be done by using the Warrington formula
[War68]:
Rarc =
Rarc
larc
Iarc
28688
l
1.4 arc
Iarc
(8.16)
arc resistance
length in meter of the arc
arc current in Ampere
Impedance of the arc reactance

In international scientific literature and publications there exists no general model for
calculating the reactance of an arc. In order to get at least an estimation of the range of
arc reactance the well funded and proved algorithm (see equation (8.17) for arc furnace
ovens is taken as an indication.
62
The arcs reactance which is valid for arc furnace ovens can be estimated as described in
[Ren02] (see equation (8.17))1 . (The reason is that the arc current shows a small phase
shift and therefore it can be seen as a reactance). Also, in [Mah85], it is shown that the
arc reactance is proportional to the arc resistance.

Xarc = 0.08 Rarc + KX
Rarc
Xarc
XkON
KX
R2
0.12 Rarc + 0.08 arc
XkON

(8.17)
arc resistance
arc reactance
real arc furnace oven short circuit reactance including the whole network
smelting constant
KX depends on the smelting. It varies from 0.9 at the beginning of the process to 0 at
the end. If a conservative approach is chosen, the KX factor is set to 0.9. The reactance
will reach values up to 10% of the arc resistance; however, the reactance of the arc is
in the same range of magnitude as the grounding impedance. Both are so small that
they can be neglected because they will not influence the distance calculation result. In
[SAA00], the fault reactance is small in comparison to the fault resistance.
20
18
16
14
12
10
4
classic without additional resistance
classis with additional resistance
improved algorithm
nominal distance
100
200
300
400
500
ZF in Ohm
600
700
800
900
Figure 8.5: Variation of RF
In figure 8.5, the fault resistance is varied. It seems that the fault impedance has a small
influence on the calculated result of the classic algorithm. It can be seen that with the
additional resistor in parallel to the arc suppressing coil, the results are more accurate,
which compares to [Imr06].
The improved algorithm reduces the influences of the fault transition impedance, even
at high ohmic faults (see figure 8.5).
1
[Ren02], page 8-9
63
8.1.4.3 Variation of the Load Factor (cos )

In previous simulations the load factor is always set to 1 a cos = 1 (see chapter 4.1.4).
In medium voltage networks it is the aim to reduce line losses and therefore the loads
should be as near as possible to cos = 1, but also values of cos = 0.95 are common.
It is assumed that different load factors might have an influence on the fault calculation.
In this chapter the load factor is varied from 0.95 to 1.05. The absolute value of the load
is still 100 .
Figure 8.6: Variation of cos of the load over the variation of Z F
Figure 8.6 and also described in [Imr06] shows that the load has a significant influence
on the calculated result. The black plane in figure 8.6 shows again the area which covers
the result of the ideal line length 10% error tolerance.
8.1.5 Comparison of the Different Influences on the Earth Fault

Distance Algorithm in Networks with Other Neutral Point
Treatments
In this chapter networks with other neutral point treatments will be investigated and
compared. The simulations are the same as described in chapter 8.1.4.1 and 8.1.4.2.
The usability of the algorithm in different network types is interesting, because a general
solution would be useful. In the following figure, the algorithm is applied to different
network types.
8.1.5.1 Influence of k 0
Value of k 0
64
30
30
25
25
20
15
10
isolated network
compensated network
solidly grounded network
nominal distance
0.5
20
15
10
isolated network
compensated network
nominal distance
1
value of k0
1.5
0.5
1
value of k0
1.5
Figure 8.7: Influence of the value of k 0 in different grounded networks
20
20
18
18
16
16
Angle of k 0
14
12
10
8
6
isolated network
compensated network
nominal distance
4
2
0
10
20
30
40
50
angle of k0 in
14
12
10
8
6
isolated network
compensated network
nominal distance
4
2
60
70
80
90
10
20
30
40
50
angle of k0 in
60
70
80
90
Figure 8.8: Influence of the angle of k 0 in different grounded networks
If the factor k 0 is varied, the results certainly differ from each other. The reason is
that the zero sequence current is different from network to network. In solidly grounded
networks the zero sequence current has more influence because the amplitude is higher
than in networks with another neutral point treatment. In compensated networks the
current is low and therefore the influence of k 0 is low. In isolated networks the current
depends only on the capacitances and does not flow over the whole line length. For this
network type the simplified algorithm is not usable.
65
20
20
18
18
16
16
8.1.5.2 Influence of Z E
14
12
10
8
6
isolated network
compensated network
nominal distance
4
2
0
2
3
14
12
10
8
6
isolated network
compensated network
nominal distance
4
2
4
2
3
Figure 8.9: Influence of Z E in different grounded networks
Z E has more influence if the current over the grounding station is increased. In a solidly
grounded network the measurement error is higher than in a middle ohmic or an earth
fault compensated network.
8.1.5.3 Influence of Z F
30
20
18
16
25
20
15
10
isolated network
compensated network
nominal distance
200
400
600
transition impedance ZF in Ohm
14
12
10
8
6
isolated network
compensated network
nominal distance
4
2
800
1000
200
400
600
transition impedance ZF in Ohm
800
1000
Figure 8.10: Influence of Z F in different grounded networks
Figure 8.10 shows that the classic algorithm provides similar results as the improved
algorithm.
66
8.2 Fault Distance Variation
The obtained results in this chapter show that an increase of the zero sequence current
is necessary to achieve more accurate measurement results, independent from the parameter k 0 , Z E and Z F . It should be kept in mind that higher earth fault currents lead
or
to problems concerning the influence of a wrong k 0 , touch voltages [CEN99][OVE76]
other interferences.
The simulations show that the improved algorithm could principally be used in all networks, except the isolated one. The reason for this is that the algorithm neglects the
capacitive currents distribution along the line. However, in an isolated network, these
currents are the dominant parameter in case of an earth fault and must not be neglected.
8.2 Fault Distance Variation

For the simulation of the distance variation the simulation model presented in chapter
4.1.4 is used. The simulations are carried out using a middle ohmic grounded simulation
model. The model data represent a overhead line network (see table 4.1).
Figure 8.11: Fault distance variation
In figure 8.11 the fault distance is varied from 0.1 km (close fault point) to 20 km. The
total line length is 20 km. As above the classic and the improved algorithm are applied
to this simulation. It can be seen that with higher fault impedance the classic algorithm
gets imprecise, whereas, the improved version keeps the calculated fault distance. It gets
even better due to the fact that the influence of the line impedance on the estimation of
the fault impedance decreases. Therefore, the calculation can be seen as more accurate.
67
8.3 Compensated Cable Networks

Former simulations have always been done through simulating an overhead line network.
Nowadays, especially in medium voltage networks, the percentage of cables is growing.
Figure 8.12 shows the distance calculation in a pure cable network. For the simulation of
this network, the simulation model presented in chapter 4 is used. The line parameters
are changed, however, the line lengths are unvaried. Again a middle ohmic grounded
network is used for the simulations. The fault distance is varied from 0.1 km to 20 km.
Table 8.2: Simulation data for the cable network
Network
Line length
20 km
Line Z1 / Z0 per km
0.0256 +j0.127 / 0.103 +j0.172
Line cap C1 / C0 per km 0.3 F / 0.3 F
4 + j 81
100
Taking into account, typical values for earth faults in cable networks are a few ohms,
limited to 10 . Using the Warrington formula (equation (8.16)), assuming a fault
current of 200 A and a arc length of 10 cm the resistance can be calculated:
Rarc =
28688
0.1 = 1.7
2001.4
68
8.3 Compensated Cable Networks
8.3.1 Increasing of the Installed Cable Proportion in a Network

These simulations show the usability of the algorithm in networks with different line
types and different percentages of cable and overhead lines.
In these simulations the fault point is varied along the line. Line 1 and line 2 are before
the fault and line 3 is behind (see figure 4.2).
In figure 8.13 the lines before the fault are cables and behind the fault the line is an
overhead line. Due to the reason that the fault point is varied in the simulation, the
length of the cable between the measuring point and the fault is increased and the length
of the overhead line behind the fault is decreased. The whole line length remains 20 km.
(a) Middle ohmic grounding with additional 100 A (b) Middle ohmic grounding with additional 200 A
As it can be seen in figure 8.13 it might be recommended to increase the residual current
up to 200 A for a short time [?]. The fault detection is higher even in mixed networks
and no problems due to interferences and touch voltages are expected.
69
8.4 Solidly Grounded Networks

In solidly grounded network the classic algorithm is commonly used. In this chapter, a
comparison of the classic and improved algorithm will be presented.
For the simulation figure 8.14 is used. The exact simulation model and the model data
can be found in chapter 4.1.4.
rest of the network
station
busbar
transformer
network
protection device
line3
line1+2
load
ZF
ZE
Figure 8.14: Simulation model
As described in chapter 8.1.4.2 the fault resistance is varied.

20
18
16
14
12
10
4
classic algorithm
improved algorithm
nominal distance
100
200
300
400
500
ZF in Ohm
600
700
800
900
Figure 8.15: Simulation of the improved algorithm and comparison with the classic distance protection
algorithm in case of high ohmic fault impedances in low ohmic grounded networks
Figure 8.15 shows that the improved algorithm can also be used for high ohmic earth
faults in solid or low ohmic grounded networks. The algorithm for estimating the fault
impedance is still valid. Due to the reason, that the capacitances can be neglected in
70
8.4 Solidly Grounded Networks
low and solidly ground networks, it can be supposed that the fault current is the same
as the residual current at the measuring point
71
9 Earth Fault Distance Protection in a

Two-Phase Network
As presented in chapter 4.2.1 a two-phase network can also be described in symmetrical
components.
In this chapter the derivation of the fault impedance calculation algorithm for a twophase compensated network will be presented. This algorithm is a simplification because
in the derivation the distributed line-to-earth capacitances have been neglected.
The used classic algorithm will then again be simplified. Unfortunately this classic algorithm only provides good results up to fault impedances around some 100 . However,
this is adequate for these kinds of networks, because the majority of the earth faults are
low ohmic faults.
9.1 Considerations on Earth Fault Distance Calculation

For the general considerations the model in chapter 4.2 is used. The capacitances are
neglected and the faulty phase is phase L1.
The fault point can be described as:
U 1F + U 0F = U F
(9.1)
1
1
Z 1Line is the sum of unZLine1
and unZLine2
, respective it is the same for the zero sequence
system.
Inserting the measured voltages and the voltage drop along the line, equation (9.1) can
be written:
U 1 I 1P Z 1Line + U 0 I 0P Z 0Line 2 I 0T Stp Z E = 2 I 0F Z F
(9.2)
The measured voltages in symmetrical components can be summed up to the line voltage
of the phase,
U L1 = U 1 + U 0 = I 1P Z 1Line + I 0P Z 0Line + 2 I 0F Z F + 2 I 0T Stp Z E
U L1 2 I 0F Z F 2 I 0T Stp Z E
Z 1Line
= I 1P + I 0P
Z 0Line
Z 1Line
(9.3)
(9.4)
with I L1 = I 1P + I 0P
Z 1Line
Z 1Line
with k 0 2phase =
1
2
Z 0Line
Z 1Line
Z 1Line =
Z 1line , Z 0line
I 1P , I 0P
U 1, U 0
U 1F , U 0F
IF
ZF
I
k0 2phase
U L1
I L1
0
z1
ZE
I T Stp
l
(9.5)
= I L1 + I

Z 0Line
1
Z 1Line
(9.6)

1 and 2 I 0 = I and 2 I 0F = I F
U L1 I F Z F I T Stp Z E
Z 1Line
Z 0Line
Z 1Line
= I L1 I 0 + I 0
= I L1 + I k 0 2phase
U L1 I F Z F I T Stp Z E
0
= z1 l
I L1 + I k 0 2phase
(9.7)
(9.8)

positive and zero sequence current at the measuring point
positive and zero sequence voltage at the measuring point
positive and zero sequence voltage at the fault point
fault current
fault impedance
earth return path factor for a two-phase network
fault distance
From equation (9.8) an algorithm for fault distance calculation of a line-to-earth fault
can be derived. This algorithm also needs accurate setting of k 0 2phase because a wrong
setting can lead also to miscalculations (chapter 9.5.1.3).
As described before distance protection relays have the ability to locate earth faults
[Sie00] [Sie93], however, this technology is only used if the second phase during an earth
fault is solidly grounded.
With the assumption that high ohmic faults are not in the centre of attention, equation
(9.8) can be simplified to equation (9.9).
74
Z 1Line =
U L1
0
= z1 l
I L1 + I k 0 2phase
Z 1Line
U L1
I L1
k0 2phase
I
0
z1
l
(9.9)

current in phase L1
fault distance
If only the imaginary part of equation (9.9)is used, the ohmic influences can be reduced.
l=
imag(Z 1Line )
x10
Z 1Line
0
x1
l
(9.10)
specific positive sequence system line inductance
fault distance

First tests of the classic algorithm in a two-phase network were carried out in the laboratory. Therefore an analogical network model was used as described in chapter 6.1.
Low ohmic earth faults were carried out at different fault points. For measurements and
tests two distance protection relays, which will be referred to as Relay 1 and Relay 2 in
this and the next section, were installed in this network. These tests showed that it is
possible to use the existing relays, by changing the settings of the relay.
Due to saturation effects of the network model, the fault scenarios were too different to
make a statement about the usability, but the tests gave a first idea about the principle
use of this algorithm. Another problem was that the two relays did not react in the
same way, which might be based on different trigger levels and internal algorithms.
9.3 Testing of Two-Phase Distance Protection Relays

For the first simulations and tests of the distance protection relays, a two phase network
R
model has been developed by using MATLAB/SIMULINK
[mat08] as shown in figure
9.1. The transient results of the simulation model are converted to the comtrade format
and directly used as input for distance protection relays.
75
Figure 9.1: Simulation for the testing of the relays
The setup of the simulation is described in table 9.1. The values are the same, as those
inserted in the simulation model. The lines are modelled as -equivalents. All tests
scenarios were low ohmic earth faults.
Table 9.1: List of the elements in the simulation
Nominal voltage
110 kV
Frequency
16.7 Hz
Line 1
40 km / 3.2 +j4.6
Line 2
20 km / 1.6 +j2.3
Fault point
at 40 km, after the first line
Capacitive current of the network
150 A
Arc suppressing coil
120 A
The protection relays, which use the classic algorithm, were tested with different settings of the simulation environment. The load, the resistor Radd in parallel to the arc
E
E
suppressing coil and the earth return path ( R
and X
) were varied. Table 9.2 presents
RL
XL
the settings and the results.
76
9.4 Improved Algorithm for Two-Phase Networks
Table 9.2: Simultion and test results
Test:
Load
Radd
1 20 MW 100
2 60 MW 100
3 0 MW 100
4 0 MW 100
5 0 MW 100
6 0 MW 400
7 60 MW 400
RE
RL
XE
XL
1
1
1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
1
1
1
0.1
0.5
0.5
0.5
Result
Relay 1 Relay 2
40 km 42.3 km
40.9 km 42.4 km
41.5 km 42.4 km
41.5 km 42.1 km
41.5 km 42.6 km
41.5 km 42.2 km
41.5 km 40.1 km
The tests (table 9.2) show that the distance protection relay can be used for detecting
earth faults in a compensated two-phase network for low ohmic earth faults.
9.4 Improved Algorithm for Two-Phase Networks

As presented in chapter 7.1.1 and 7.1.2 the fault current and the fault impedance can
be estimated. It has to be mentioned that this algorithm difficult to use in a meshed
network, because it is not easy to estimate the capacitive currents. They flow from both
line ends into the line instead of one and the distribution depends on the fault point.
Therefore a distance protection which includes measurements from both sides is preferable [LSW07].
9.4.1 Derivation of the Improved Algorithm

Inserting equation (7.5) and equation (7.8) into equation (9.8) can be written:
Z 1Line =
U L1 real
k0 2phase
I cap1
I
U 0meas
U L1
UL1Enominal
I L1
0
z1
1
Z Line
ZE
I T Stp
l
U L1
I

I + I cap
abs(U 0meas )
UL1Enominal
I T Stp Z E
I L1 + I k 0 2phase
= z1 l
(9.11)

capacitive current from feeder 1
fault distance
77
Equation (9.11) is similar to equation (7.9) in a 3-phase network.

Using the imaginary part of equation (9.11), the fault distance can be calculated.
9.5 Comparison of the Classic and Improved Algorithm

As presented in chapter 8, the classic and the improved algorithm have been compared
to each other.
9.5.1 Sensitivity Analysis of the Algorithm

In this chapter the influences of separate parameters will be investigated, as presented in
chapter 8.1. The investigations are carried out by using reference model 2 (see chapter
4.2.4).
These parameters can be divided into three groups:
aberrations due to wrong measurements
aberrations due to wrong setting
aberrations due to physical influences
For the simulations in the following chapters a compensated network is assumed.
9.5.1.1 Linearization
In this chapter the influences of separate parameters will be investigated. In one working
point the algorithm can be linearized. The maximum aberration of each parameter can
be calculated using equation (9.13) and (9.15) and will conclude in an aberration of the
calculated fault distance smaller than 10% (0.1 p.u.).
Classic Algorithm
l = f (x1 , U L1 , I , k 0 , I L1 )

dl ai d xi 1

dai l = dxi l x10 imag I
(9.12)

U L1
0.1p.u.

L1 + I k 0 2phase

0
ai (x1 , U L1 , I , k 0 , I L1 )
78
(9.13)
Improved Algorithm
0
l = f (x1 , U L1 , I cap , I , k 0 2phase , I T R , Z E , I L1 , Umeas
, UL1Enominal )
(9.14)

dl ai

dai l =

0
U L1
(Umeas
)

I
U
real
I
+
I
Z
d xi 1
L1
cap UL1Enominal
TR
E
I

dxi l x10 imag

I
+
I
k
L1
0 2phase

0.1p.u. (9.15)
0
0
ai (x1 , U L1 , I cap , I , k 0 2phase , I T R , Z E , I L1 , Umeas
, UL1Enominal )
If the differential equation is solved, the following maximum aberrations of the parameters can be calculated for the reference model (see chapter 4.2) which works with a fault
point at 40 km and a fault transition impedance of 1 :
Table 9.3: Result of the linearization of some parameters
U L1
I L1
I
k 0 2phase
simulation result
2225+j1751 V
302-j73 A
167 -j54 A
0.57+j0.37
classic algorithm
|UL1 |= 315 V
|IL1 |= 55 A
|I |=52 A
|k0 | = 0.2
improved algorithm
|UL1 |= 270 V
|IL1 |= 41 A
|I |= 59 A
|k0 | =0.22
It can be seen that the influences on both algorithm are similar: The same results can
be seen in chapter 9.5.1.2.
9.5.1.2 Measurement Influences
As described in chapter 8.1.2 U L1 , I L1 and I = 3I 0 will be varied.
79
45
50
UL1
UL1
I0
IL1
44
I0
49
U0
IL1
dist nominal
48
43
42
41
40
39
dist nominal
47
46
45
44
43
38
42
37
36
10
41
0
Variation in %
10
40
10
0
Variation in %
10
Figure 9.2: Sensitivity analysis at 1 fault impedance
Figure 9.2 shows that the line current and the line-to-earth voltage have the biggest
influence on the fault distance algorithm, however, in a complementary direction. The
influence of I 0 is smaller than the line current, because the residual current is smaller
compared to the line current, which the load current and wrong measured values can
reach an aberration around 10%.
9.5.1.3 Influences of Wrong Settings

In contrast to the analysis in chapter 9.5.1.2 the simulations in this chapter and chapter
9.5.1.4 are carried out through varying the input parameters of the simulation model
and re-simulating without varying the results of the simulations.
The simulations are the same as described in chapter 8.1.3, the k 0 2phase is defined in
another way (see equation (9.16)). Equation (9.16) is used in this chapter.
k 0 2phase
Z 1Line
Z 0Line
k0 2phase
1
=
2

Z 0Line
1
Z 1Line
zero sequence system line impedance
In the simulation k 0 2phase is 0.6833 .
80
(9.16)
Figure 9.3: Variaton of k 0 2phase
Figure 9.3 shows the effect of a wrong setting of k 0 2phase . The black plane in figure 9.3
shows the area which covers the result of the ideal line length 10% error tolerance. If
the value of k 0 2phase is chosen smaller than its real value, the measured fault impedance
is higher, because the earth return path is rated to low, and if k 0 2phase is set higher, the
measured impedance is lower.
9.5.1.4 Influences of Parameters of the Electrical Grid
These parameters are varied in the simulation environment and the algorithm is applied
to the results as described in chapter 8.1.4.
Variation of Z E
Figure 9.4 shows the influence of the impedance Z E . The values are chosen at 0.01+j0.5
for the starting point, the resistant part is varied and the inductive part is chosen at
0.5 due to practical experiences [Fre07].
81
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
classic algorithm without resistance
classic algorithm with resistance
extended algorithm
nominal distance
0.5
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4.5
Figure 9.4: Variation of Z E
In figure 9.4 it can bee seen that the aberration is smaller using an additional resistance in
parallel to the arc suppressing coil. The reason is that Z E is ohmic and the current is also
more ohmic using an additional resistance. Therefore, the voltage drop is more ohmic
than inductive. In the algorithm, only the imaginary part of the calculated impedance
is used for the distance calculation and therefore ohmic influences as Z E will be reduced
if the voltage drop is dominantly ohmic.
The improved algorithm reduces the influence of Z E and therefore the simulation result
is more accurate than in the classic algorithm.
Figure 9.5: Variation of Z E over the variation of Z F
Figure 9.5 shows a variation of Z E when the value of Z F is increased and its reduced
82
influence. The black plane in figure 9.5 shows the area which covers the result of the ideal
line length 10% error tolerance. The simulations show that the aberration decreases
with the increase of Z F because the current over the grounding system decreases and
therefore the voltage drop along the grounding system decreases.
Variation of RF
60
60
50
50
40
40
As done in chapter 8.1.4.2 the resistance is varied from 1 to 1000 .

The grounding impedance at the fault point is included into the fault transition impedance
because, in reality, it is also seen as one single impedance. The grounding impedance is
added to the transition impedance by adding an inductive part of j0.5 (see chapter
8.1.4.1).
30
20
10

improved algorithm
nominal distance
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
(a) Fault impedance varied from 1 to 1k
30
20
10

improved algorithm
nominal distance
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
(b) Fault impedance varied from 1 to 100
Figure 9.6: Variation of Z F
In figure 9.6 the fault transition impedance is varied. Without the additional resistance,
the fault current is too small in comparison to the load current at higher fault impedances
and therefore the calculated fault distance is too high. It can be seen that with the
additional resistor in parallel to the arc suppressing coil, the results get better, which
compares to [Imr06]
Due to the reason that according to experiences in a 110-kV-network faults are mostly
low ohmic faults, figure 9.6b shows a zoom of the first sector of figure 9.6a which presents
fault impedances from 1 to 10 .
The improved algorithm reduces the influences of the fault transition impedance even
at high ohmic faults.
Variation of the Load Factor
In previous simulations the load has always been set to a cos = 1. It is assumed that
different load factors might have an influence on the fault calculation. In this chapter
83
the load factor is varied from 0.95 to 1.05.
Figure 9.7: Variation of cos of the load over the variation of Z F
Figure 9.7 shows that the load has a significant influence on the calculated result. The
black plane in figure 9.7 shows the area which covers the result of the ideal line length
10% error tolerance.
9.5.2 Fault Distance Variation

In these simulations an additional resistance of 100 is put in parallel to the Petersen
coil. The line length is set to 60 km. The fault point is 40km far away.
84
The improved algorithm reduces the influence of the fault impedance, independent from
the fault distance. The classic algorithm works well for low ohmic earth faults, as
described in 6, however, it cannot be used for high impedance fault. The same problem
has already been presented in chapter 7.
85

To test the classic algorithm in compensated networks earth fault tests were carried out.
One test series took place in a 110-kV-network, another one in a 20-kV-network and
a third one in a 110-kV two-phase network. In these tests the classic algorithm was
tested because at the time when the tests were carried out, the improved algorithm was
not applied with the field tests, but the test data was used later to verify the improved
algorithm, which is presented in chapter 11.
10.1 Tests in a 110-kV-Network

In January 2006, earth fault field tests were carried out in an Austrian 110-kV-network.
The distance between the measurement point and the earth fault location was 4.4 km
corresponding 0.57+j1.69 . The station, where the measurement were placed, was
connected through a double system line (see figure 10.1) with the fault point. The zero
impedance was 1.73+j5.14 . The impedances are measured values.
The earth fault was a low ohmic earth fault (direct connection of one phase to ground).
Fault point
Measurement
Figure 10.1: Earth fault tests in a 110-kV-network
Various tests with different network situations (additional cables see figure 10.1) have
been carried out. The reason for these tests was to find the influence of different capacitances and detuning of the coils in the network on the earth fault current at the fault
point as described in [OAFS06].
Table 10.1: Various field test 110 kV
Nr.
1
2
3
4
Description of network switching states during the tests

Network with all cables connected, over-compensated 60 A
Network with one cable disconnected (IE =-53 A); over-compensated 60 A
The measurements were done using a two step procedure (for replay at any time) (see
figure 6.2):
The first step was to record the data. This was done with an OMICRON CMC 256-6
with a sampling rate of 9 kHz.
The second step was to verify the classic algorithm. With the recorded data and the
test system, the distance protection device was tested in the laboratory.
The results from all four experiments are shown in table 10.2. The values are the
fault impedances in Ohm calculated by the distance protection device using the classic
algorithm.
Table 10.2: Results of the calculation of the relay of the field test 110 kV
1
2
3
4
k 0 =0.68 0
Fault Distance R
X
km
4.4 km
0.3 1.8 4.7
4.4 km
0.3 1.6 4.2
4.4 km
0.1 1.9 4.9
4.4 km
0.2 1.9 4.9
Compared to the real distance of 4.4 km, the results of the tests with k0=0.68 gave fault
distances between 4.2 and 4.9 km. The relative error is -5% and +11% respectively.
These tests prove the usability of the classic algorithm for compensated 110-kV-networks
for low ohmic earth faults. Even it was a meshed network with decentralized arc suppressing coils, the classic algorithm was working very well in case of low ohmic earth
faults.
88

In October 2005 earth fault field tests were carried out in a 20-kV-network. These tests
were done to prove the principle usability of the classic algorithm described in chapter
5.
To get a secure trigger and for a better function of the algorithm, an additional resistor
in parallel to the arc suppressing coil was installed. As the additional resistor a water
resistor was used.
10.2.1 Water Resistor for Test Purpose

A water resistor was chosen because of the costs which lay around 100 Euro and the
easy adjustment of the ohmic value. For the tank a plastic garden tank is used, the two
electrodes are made of copper.
By using distilled water and adding salt in small amounts the ohmic value could be
varied from 5 k to 5 .
For dimensioning the water resistor was simulated by using EleFAnT2D1 [IGT03]
(a) Electrode of the water resistor
(b) Simulated electrical field in the water tank
Figure 10.2: Water tank
The results showed possible zones of high electrical field in the area of the upper electrode,
but no critical point.
1
http://www.igte.tugraz.at/de/elefant/elefant.html
89
Figure 10.3: Test setup in the high voltage laboratory
Furthermore, high voltage tests were considered for the use in the test network. The
resistor was tested in the high voltage laboratory at the Institute of High Voltage Engineering and System Management 2 . The insulation coordination level was tested due to
the recommendations [ABB99].
A measurement system according to IEC 60060-1 was used [IEC94].
The insulation level was tested according to EN 60071-1, table 2 [IEC06]. The standard
impulse withstand voltage tests was tested according to the highest pollution level. The
standard short-duration power-frequency withstand voltage tests was tested according
to EN 60071-1, paragraph 6.2 and 6.3.
All tests were successful.
10.2.2 Earth Fault Tests

The actual tests were carried out in a 20-kV-network. The area shown in figure 10.4
shows this 20-kV-network where a substation supplies the whole region and is connected
to a 110-kV-line via two star-star-transformers with arc suppressing coils.
The measurement equipment was placed in this substation (named Measurement in
figure 10.4). The first fault point (Fault point 1) was 0.8 km apart from the substation,
the second fault point (Fault point 2) was 14,7 km far away. The earth faults were lowohmic earth faults and the substations were connected via a combination of overhead
voltage lines and cables forming a radial network.
The distance between the measurement point and the first earth fault location was
0.8 km corresponding 0.2+j0.221 .
The distance between the measurement point and the second earth fault location was
14.7 km corresponding 4.42+j4.1 .
2
http://www.hspt.tugraz.at/
90
Table 10.3: Earth fault tests
Station
Measurement
Fault point 1
Fault point 1
Description of the station

Substation 110/20-kV
0.8 km, 0.2+j0.221
14.7 km, 4.42+j4.1
Figure 10.4: Earth fault tests in a 20-kV-network
10.2.2.1 Test Setup

The water resistor was connected in parallel to the arc suppressing coil via a circuit
breaker and put outside the building (see figure 10.5). The resistor was switched on
with this circuit breaker and was only connected for 300ms during the earth fault. The
circuit breaker of the resistor was trigger by the displacement voltage of the network.
91
Figure 10.5: Experiment setup at the substation
10.2.2.2 Test Procedure

The switching sequence is shown in figure 10.6. After the detection of the earth fault by
a displacement voltage relay and a time delay of 200ms the circuit breaker of the water
resistor was closed. 500ms after the entrance of the earth fault, the circuit breaker was
opened. The earth fault was switched off manually after about 1 second. It was useful
that the resistor was not put in parallel to the arc suppression coil during the whole
earth fault, because enough test data with and without the resistor had been collected.
Afterward different test with the distance protection relays were done.
rest of network
EIN
Resistor
AUS
EIN
Earth fault
AUS
Zcoil
t=0
EF ON
t=200ms
Resistor ON
t=500ms
Resistor OFF
(a) Switching sequence
EF
Zadd
t=1s
EF OFF
(b) Test circuit
Figure 10.6: Test procedure of the earth fault tests
The tests, which have been carried out, will be described in 10.4.
92
Table 10.4: Various Field-test 20 kV
Test nr. Fault point

Description of the system states
1
Fault point 1 No load current on the faulty line, no network at the
same transformer, with an additional resistance
2
Fault point 1 No load current on the faulty line, no network at the
same transformer, with an additional resistance
3
Fault point 1 No load current on the faulty line, small network at the
same transformer (3 MVA load, IC=46A), with an additional resistance
4
Fault point 1 Load current on the faulty line, small network at the
same transformer (3 MVA load, IC=46A), with an additional resistance
5
same transformer (3 MVA load, IC=46A), without an
additional resistance
6
same transformer (1.5 MVA load, IC=42A), with an additional resistance
7
same transformer (1.5 MVA load, IC=42A), without an
additional resistance
8
same transformer (1.5 MVA load, IC=42A), with an additional resistance
93
10.2.3 Test Results

Due to the reason that the zero impedance of the line was not known, two different
realistic k0 -factor settings were chosen to test the classic algorithm. The procedure by
replaying the recorded data as described in chapter 6.2 was used to test the algorithm.
The results presented in table 10.5 are the calculation results of the distance protection
relay.
Table 10.5: Results of the calculation of the relay of the field test 20kV by using the classic
algorithm at fault point 1
Nr Fault Distance
1
0.8 km
2
0.8 km
3
0.8 km
4
0.8 km
5
0.8 km
R
0.37
0.37
0.36
0.33
0.17
k 0 =0.6
X
0.44
0.45
0.45
0.42
0.51
0
km
1.59
1.62
1.62
1.52
1.84
km
0.79
0.82
0.82
0.72
1.04
R
0.34
0.33
0.32
0.31
0.16
k 0 =0.8
X
0.39
0.40
0.39
0.38
0.43
0
km
1.41
1.44
1.41
1.37
1.55
km
0.61
0.64
0.61
0.57
0.75
Table 10.6: Results of the calculation of the relay of the field test 20kV by using the classic
algorithm at fault point 2
Nr Fault Distance
6
14.7 km
7
14.7 km
8
14.7 km
R
4.09
3.86
4.07
k 0 =0.6
X
5.72
4.36
5.71
0
km
20.5
15.6
20.4
km
5.80
0.90
5.70
R
3.35
3.33
3.36
k 0 =0.8
X
5.18
4.07
5.22
0
km
km
18.5 3.80
14.5 0.20
18.71 4.01
10.2.4 Discussion of the Results

The tests have shown that the accuracy increases with growing failure distance.
An important fact is that with the additional current injection resistor in parallel to the
arc suppressing coil the trigger level is higher and more accurate, however, higher accuracy in distance calculation was not observed. The differences are caused by fault point
transition impedances and grounding impedances in substations or switching stations.
These resistances are not included in the classic algorithm and the influence of these
impedances increase along higher earth fault currents.
94

The transmission networks of some railway companies in Europe are operated as twophase 110-kV-networks. It was possible to get data from earth fault tests to evaluate
the classic algorithm for two-phase systems, presented in chapter 9.
The distance to the fault point was 3.33 +j4.96 . The k 0 2phase factor was 0.4 42 .
The faults were a low ohmic earth faults.
Table 10.7: Earth fault tests in a two-phase network
1
2
3
4
Fault Distance
3.33 +j4.96
3.33 +j4.96
3.33 +j4.96
3.33 +j4.96
k 0 2phase = 0.4 42
R
X
3.86
4.96
5.00
4.60
3.90
4.82
4.61
5.10
In table 10.7 the data of the earth faults are presented.

It can be seen, that the classic algorithm provides accurate results in case of low ohmic
earth faults in a two-phase network.
95
11 Analyses of Earth Fault Tests with

the Improved Algorithm
For evaluating the improved algorithm results from various earth fault tests have been
analyzed. For the analysis the improved algorithm was applied to the real test data and
the results were observed. The data were recorded from different network operators in
Austria.
11.1 Earth Fault Test in a 30-kV Network

In three different 30-kV-networks earth fault tests were carried out. In all 4 networks
an additional resistor was put in parallel to the arc suppressing coil. This resistor added
600 A neutral current during an earth fault.
network 1
This network was a network with mainly overhead lines. The fault distance was 12,19 +j6.81 .
The capacitive current of this feeder was 11 A.
Table 11.1: Results of earth fault tests in network 1
Nr: Xdistance
1
6.81
2
6.81
3
6.81
Xclassic
7.95
8
7.95
Ximproved
7.49
7.45
6.91
RFnom
40
60
100
RFcalculated
52.79
65.91
93.79
Icap Iadditional
11 A 600 A
11 A 600 A
11 A 600 A
network 2
This network was a network with mainly overhead lines. The fault distance was 5.59 +j4.7 .
Nr: Xdistance
1
4.7
2
4.7
3
4.7
4
4.7
5
4.7
6
4.7
7
4.7
8
4.7
9
4.7
10
4.7
Xclassic
4.91
4.60
4.94
4.84
4.84
3.86
5.34
6.25
6.47
6.77
Ximproved
4.62
4.50
4.80
4.74
4.76
3.84
5.33
4.73
5.11
5.66
RFnom
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
100
100
100
RFcalculated
19.53
16.95
19.7
12.21
12.22
12.21
15.44
62.53
75.46
72.43
Icap Iadditional
30 A 600 A
30 A 600 A
30 A 600 A
30 A 600 A
30 A 600 A
30 A 600 A
30 A 600 A
30 A 600 A
30 A 600 A
30 A 600 A
network 3
Nr: Xdistance
1
0.13
2
0.13
3
0.13
4
0.13
5
0.13
Xclassic
0.13
0.10
0.68
1.59
1.67
Ximproved
0.13
0.10
0.33
1.07
0.40
RFnom
0.4
0.4
17
80
80
RFcalculated
0.44
0.37
17.09
35.39
39.01
Icap Iadditional
27 A 600 A
27 A 600 A
27 A 600 A
27 A 600 A
27 A 600 A
network 4
Nr: Xdistance
1
0.89
2
0.89
3
0.89
98
Xclassic
1.03
1.25
2.25
Ximproved
1.02
0.82
1.19
RFnom
2
35
100
RFcalculated
2.4
35.05
67.37
Icap Iadditional
11 A 600 A
11 A 600 A
11 A 600 A
The results of the tests in the 30-kV-networks show that the improved algorithm increases
the accuracy significantly. Especially at high ohmic earth faults the improved algorithm
provides good results.

This network is already described in chapter 10.2. In this chapter the improved algorithm
will be applied to the results and compared to the classic algorithm.
In table 11.5 the results of the earth fault tests at fault point 1 are presented.
Table 11.5: Results of earth fault tests at fault point 1
Nr: Xdistance
1 0.221
2 0.221
3 0.221
4 0.221
Xclassic
0.3
0.4
0.39
0.4
Ximproved
0.3
0.4
0.27
0.33
RFnom
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
RFcalculated
0.95
0.94
0.92
1.03
Icap Iadditional
0.5 A 100 A
0.5 A 100 A
0.5 A 100 A
0.5 A 100 A
In table 11.6 the results of the earth fault tests at fault point 2 are presented.
Table 11.6: Results of earth fault tests at fault point 2
Nr: Xdistance
1 4.109
2 4.109
Xclassic
5.42
5.39
Ximproved
5.07
4.44
RFnom
2
2
RFcalculated
14.72
13.71
Icap Iadditional
36 A 100 A
36 A 100 A
The result of the simulation show, that the improved algorithm provides good results in
comparison to the classic algorithm.
11.3 Earth Fault Tests in a 10-kV-Network

Tests were carried out in an urban 10-kV-network in Austria. This network is a cable
network.
For these tests the water resistance (see chapter 10.2.1) was used to vary the additional
residual current.
The distance between the measurement point and the fault location was 2 km, corresponding 0.236 +j0.178 . The k 0 factor was 0.5 -30 .
99
Table 11.7: Results of earth fault tests in a 10-kV-network
Nr: Xdistance
1
0.17
2
0.17
3
0.17
4
0.17
Xclassic
22
2.11
1.79
0.12
Ximproved
0.8
0.4
0.4
0.1
Icap
8A
8A
8A
8A
Iadditional
100 A
100 A
800 A
500 A
In table 11.7 it can be seen, that the improved algorithm provides better results than
the classic algorithm, however, the aberration in a cable network is higher than in an
overhead line network which is according to chapter 8.3.
Another problem in this network is the short fault distance. Even with 800 A additional
current, the voltage in the faulty phase is only 160 V. This level is in the lowest range
of the voltage measurement system of the relays and causes inaccuracy of the A/D
converter.
11.4 Earth Fault Tests in a Low Impedance Grounded

Network
The classic distance location of earth faults in low or solid ohmic grounded network is
working quite well (see chapter 8.1.5) but at high impedance earth faults the classic
algorithm does not work any more.
As presented in chapter 8.4 the improved algorithm can also be used for a more accurate
distance calculation in low impedance grounded networks.
It was also possible to get data from earth fault tests in a low impedance grounded
network (table 11.8 and table 11.9). In the first table the results of the fault point 1
are shown. This point was in a distance of 0.6 . In the second table fault point 2 is
presented which is in a distance of 6.6 .
The fault impedances were not known, but the type of the fault was noticed. The
calculated fault impedances RF calculated are in the expected range.
100
11.5 Discussion of the Earth Fault Tests
Table 11.8: Results of earth fault tests in a low impedance grounded network at measurement
point 1
Nr: Xdistance
1
0.6
2
0.6
3
0.6
4
0.6
5
0.6
6
0.6
Xclassic
10.2
3.22
2.01
0.73
0.35
0.2
Ximproved
0.63
0.5
0.79
0.55
0.22
0.24
RFnom
RFcalculated
tree
3823.37
tree
4099.69
wire on earth
120.22
low fault point impedance
19.24
14.64
70.87
Icap
8A
8A
8A
8A
8A
8A
Iadditional
300 A
300 A
300 A
300 A
300 A
300 A
In table 11.9 the fault point 2, which was in a distance of 6.6 is presented.
Table 11.9: Results of earth fault tests in a low impedance grounded network at measurement
point 2
Nr: Xdistance
1
6.6
2
6.6
3
6.6
Xclassic
6.6
5.74
6.07
Ximproved
7.38
6.08
6.63
RFnom
RFcalculated
30.01
35.72
23.56
Icap
8A
8A
8A
Iadditional
300 A
300 A
300 A
The classic distance algorithm gave good results when the fault impedances were low
but the results were of no use if the fault impedance was too high. Some of the earth
fault tests, when the fault impedance was much higher (a fresh tree), did not trigger the
relay and no fault data was recorded.
The results show that also in low impedance grounded networks the improved algorithm
increases the accuracy and offers the ability for earth fault distance location at higher
ohmic earth faults.
11.5 Discussion of the Earth Fault Tests

The tests show that the improved algorithm can be used to detect earth faults in compensated as well as in solidly or low ohmic grounded networks. The accuracy for higher
ohmic earth faults increases along higher additional earth fault currents as well as the
accuracy increases with increased fault distance. Although, there were load distributed
along the line, the improved algorithm provides accurate results.
101
500,00
400,00
300,00
Abberation in %
200,00
Classic Algorithm
Improved Algorithm
100,00
0,00
0
-100,00
-200,00
-300,00
Fault distance in Ohm
Figure 11.1: Accuracy depending on the fault distance
500,00
400,00
Aberration in %
300,00
200,00
Classic Algorithm
Improved Algorithm
100,00
0,00
0,00
20,00
40,00
60,00
80,00
100,00
120,00
140,00
-100,00
-200,00
Transition impedance in Ohm
Figure 11.2: Accuracy depending on the fault impedance
Figure 11.1 and 11.2 show the comparison of the classic and the improved algorithm.
It can be seen that the accuracy increases with the increase of the fault distance. The
accuracy, if the improved algorithm is used, is constant in comparison to the classic
algorithm.
The accuracy of faults close to the measurement point is widely ranged because small
aberrations in the calculation combined with the short fault distance give high aberrations in the fault distance.
102
12 Conclusion
Earth fault compensated networks are a common used technology for operating high
and medium voltage grids. These kinds of networks have the advantage that earth fault
currents are quite small, influence (ohmic, inductive) problems can be minimised and
danger for human body can be reduced. Earth faults cause problems in networks with
overhead line, for example a broken line or trees falling into the line. Due to the reason that this network can be operated during an earth fault without interruption for
customers, the fault point has to be cleared as soon as possible. Therefore earth fault
detection methods are necessary and are being developed.
It is shown that it is possible, in principle, also to locate ground faults in compensated
networks using the classic distance protection algorithm.
The reason for choosing this type of detection algorithm is that it has already been
built into modern distance protection relays. So it would be easy to use this technology
also for earth fault detection in earth fault compensated networks. An improved version
could be easily set up on this platform because the measurement technique and logic is
already implemented.
Nowadays, this function is deactivated for compensated networks in protection devices
because the setting of the trigger level is difficult.
For low impedance faults (up to approx. 100 ) this algorithm is applicable in low
impedance or solidly grounded networks as well as in compensated networks.
In cable networks it is problematic, since this algorithm neglects the cable capacitances
completely, which would not be problematic in solidly grounded networks, however, in
compensated networks it would lead to large deviations in the computation.
More accurate distance localization can be achieved by the parallel connection of a
resistance to the arc suppressing coi., Thereby an additional zero sequence current is
added, which not only increases the accuracy but also the response threshold.
An improvement of the algorithm can be obtained by the inclusion of the fault resistance
and the knowledge of the fault current at fault location. The classic algorithm can be
extended and thus its accuracy improvement, also at high impedance ground faults can
be obtained by the estimation of I F and RF .
This improvement increases the accuracy of the calculated fault distance significantly.
Independent of the variation of the fault impedance, the load factor or the influence of
the grounding impedance, the improved algorithm gives results with deviations around
approx. 10 %.
12 Conclusion
With distributed loads along the line the detection accuracy decreases, since the current
gets lost. An idea for the improvement would be the inclusion of the distribution of
load to reach better results; additional data must be deposited in the relay.
In networks with various branches it can be difficult to detect the fault location because
there is no explicit solution. But this problem does not only exist in case of an earth
fault but also in case of a short circuit. This problem can be solved by using global
information systems (GIS) to detect the fault location and reliability methods to find
the possible fault point.
Earth fault tests proved the usability and obtained good results even with high impedance
ground faults.
Attempts in solidly grounded networks also showed, particularly in the case of high
impedance fault that, the improved algorithm also in these networks gives a relatively
exact result.
Further research is necessary regarding:
kE -factor
The knowledge of this factor is little, however, it is essential for a precise fault
location to know the value of the earth return path factor. The only and exact
way to get this value is to measure it [KF07] [AOF+ 07].
Further research is necessary regarding the variation of the factor k 0 over the year
and the influence of weather and environment.
Use of higher harmonics
During an earth fault higher harmonics can be very dominant [Obk08]. Investigations are necessary, if higher harmonics can provide additional informations for
the earth fault distance calculation.
Influence of the distributed loads
As shown in chapter 7.3, the influence of distributed loads have to be taken into
account because theses loads lead to a too short value of the fault impedance.
Including theses distribution in the algorithm can increase the accuracy of the
fault estimation.
Influence of distributed capacitances
In cable networks the line-to-earth capacitances are 10 to 20 times higher than in
networks with overhead lines [FMR+ 05]. These distributed capacitances can lead
to miscalculations [Ebe04]. Additional simulations are necessary to identify the
influence of these capacitances on the distance algorithm.
Practical implementation
To get real measurement and experience, this kind of distance protection relays
should be installed as additional devices. With these relays not only tests about
104
the usability of the algorithm under different conditions could be done but also the
implementation in the control system can be tested.
The goal is that relays which are already on the market are used and that the
extended algorithm is included to get much better and exactly results.
105
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[HAB+ 93b] Hubensteiner, Helmut ; Aldinger, Gerhard ; Brauner, G
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anninen, Seppo ; Lehtonen, Matti: Characteristics of earth faults in
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H
anninen, Seppo ; Lehtonen, Matti: Method for Detection and Location
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[HL02]
H
anninen, Seppo ; Lehtonen, Matti: Earth fault distance computation
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[Han01]
H
anninen, Seppo: Single phase earth faults in high impedance grounded
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[LSW07]
Leitner, Wolfgang ;
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ucker, A ; Wurzer, Wolfgang:
Leitungsimpedanzmessung und Kurzschlussversuche im resonanzgeerdeten
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Neuwirth, Wolfgang: Grundlegende Untersuchungen zur mittelohmiginduktiven Sternpunktbehandlung. Graz, Austria, Graz University of Technology, Diplomarbeit, 2004
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[OAFS06]
Obkircher, Clemens ; Achleitner, Georg ; Fickert, Lothar ; Sakulin,

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Obkircher, Clemens: Probleme bei Einbau von Kabelsystemen in kompen

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Graz, Austria, Graz University of Technology,
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Obkircher, Clemens: Ausbaugrenzen geloscht betriebener Netze. Graz,

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Bibliography
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Obkircher, Clemens ; Schmauter, Ernst ; Fickert, Lothar ; Raunig,

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[Pet18]
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Pundt, Hans: Untersuchungen der Ausgleichsvorgange bei Erdschlu in

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[Ren02]
Renner, Herwig: Netztechnische Analysen zur Beurteilung der Spannungsqualitat. Graz, Austria, 2002. Habilitation
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[Sch89]
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[SE03]
Schegner, Peter ; Eberl, Gerit: Method for calculating the fault point
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[Sie03]
SiemensAG: Siemens SIPROTEC 7SA6 Handbuch. V4.3, 2003
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Trattnig, Uwe:
Alternative Sternpunktbehandlung f
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[OVE76]
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1976.
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[Wan36]
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[War68]
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[Wil36]
Willheim, R. ; Springer (Hrsg.): Das Erdschluproblem in Hochspannungsnetzen. Berlin, Germany : Julius Springer, 1936
113
In chapter 4 the simulation model, which is mainly used, is presented. In this appendix
the detailed description is explained.
The detailed test data is presented in table A.1.
Table A.1: List of the values of the elements in the simulation
Source
Transformer
Line parameters per km
Line length
Additional resistor
Rest of the network
Grounding impedance
USource
Yn
Z1
Z2
Z0
Z1
Z2
Z0
C1
C2
C0
line 1
line 2
line 3
Zpet
Plosses
Rwater
C1
C2
C0
Z1
Z2
ZE
20000 V
j1.375
j0.96
j0.96
j0.96
0.306+j0.355
0.306+j0.355
1.071+j1.2425
10 nF
10 nF
6 nF
10 km
5 km
5 km
j142
100 kW
100
4.4 F
4.4 F
7.4 F
40
40
0.5+j0.5
In figure A.1 the detailed simulation model in symmetrical components is presented.

ZTR
Unet1
Zline11
IP1
UP1
Cline1 /2 Cline1 /2
Cnet
Zline21
1
Cline2 /2
Zline31
ILoad
1
Cline2 /2
UF1
Cline3 /2
Zload
Zload2
Cline3 /2
Znet1
negative sequence system
ZTR2
Zline12
2
P
I
2
Up
Cline1 /2 Cline1 /2
Zline22
2
Cline2 /2
ILoad
2
Cline2 /2
UF2
Zline32
Cline3 /2
Cline3 /2
IF0
2
Cnet
ZTR
3Zpet

Zline10
Zline20
0
0
ITR
IP
3Zadd
Znet2
Up
Cline1 /2 Cline10/2
Cline2 /2
Cline2 /2
3ZF
UF
ILoad
UF0
Zline30
Cline3 /2
Cline3 /2
3ZE
0
Cnet
station
rest of the
network
line1
line2
fault
line3 + load
Figure A.1: Simulations model in symmetrical components
In figure A.2 the detailed model is presented, which is used for building up the matrices
(see matrix A.2) of the simulation environment.
116
Figure A.2: Simulations model in symmetrical components
In the following table the elements of the simulation model are described.
Table A.2: List of the elements in the simulation
Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Element
Yn
1
1
Cnet
+ Ynet
C1
C2
C4
1
Yload
Y5
Ymess
Y6
Y7
Nr.
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Element
C7
Y8
2
Yload
1
Zpd +Z9
Ymess
Y10
Y11
1
C12 +Z12
Y1
Ymess
Nr.
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Element
Y2
Y3
Y4
C3
2
2
Cnet
+ Ynet
C5
C6
C8
0
Cnet
Nr.
31
32
33
34
Element
C9
C10
C11
1
3ZF +3ZE2
1
ZE
Matrix A.1 is the element matrix. In this matrix all elements are number with 1 to 34.
Only the main diagonal is used, the rest of the matrix is zero.
117
1
0
..
.
.
Y =
..
.
..
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
..
..
.
.
..
..
.
.
0 0 0 30 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 31 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 32 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 33 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 34
0
0
3
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
4
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
5
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
(A.1)
Matrix A.2 is the description of the network as a tree-incidence matrix.
C=
118
1
00
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
(A.2)
The voltage source is element 1 and therefore in the voltage vector as position 1, the
rest is 0, because no other sources are in the model.

U0 = Usource
(A.3)
In the following the algorithm, which is used for the network simulation is presented
[Muc78].
Z = inv(Y )
(A.4)
Z [] = C T Z C
(A.5)
[]
U0 = C T U0
(A.6)
[]
I [] = inv(Z [] ) U0
(A.7)
I = C I []
(A.8)
U = U0 Z I
(A.9)
a=e
2i
3
1 1 1
T = 1 a2 a
1 a a2
(A.10)
(A.11)
The voltages Usym are taken at the elements 14(zero sequence system), 2(positive sequence system) and 25(negative sequence system). The current Isym is measured at
the elements 15(zero sequence system), 20(positive sequence system) and 8(negative
sequence system).
U = T Usym and I = T Isym
119

0
B Simulation Environment Two-Phase

Network
In chapter 4.2 the simulation model, which is used for the simulation of the two-phase
network, is presented. In this appendix the detailed description is explained.
The detailed test data is presented in table B.1.
Table B.1: List of the values of the elements in the simulation
Source
Equivalent network
impedance
Line parameters per km
Line length
Additional resistor
Rest of the network
Grounding impedance
USource
Yn
Z1
Z0
Z1
Z0
C1
C0
line 1
line 2
line 3
Zpet
Plosses
Rwater
C1
C0
Z1
ZE
110000 V
j1.375
j12
j12
0.12+j0.13
0.16+j0.37
2.2 nF
2.2 nF
20 km
20 km
20 km
0.1 +j109
100 kW
400
43 F
43 F
121
0.5+j0.5
In figure B.1 the detailed simulation model in symmetrical components is presented.

1
ZTR
Unet1
UP1
ZTR0
ITR
Cline2 /2
Cline1 /2 Cline10/2
Cline2 /2
Zline3
ILoad1
1
Cline2 /2

Zline10
Zline20
Up
Zline2
Znet1
IP
2Zadd
Cline1 /2 Cline1 /2
Cnet
2Zpet
Zline1
IP1
Cline2 /2
UF1
2ZF
Cline3 /2
Cline3 /2
Zload
IF0
UF
Zline30
ILoad
UF0
Cline3 /2
Cline3 /2
2ZE
Cnet
station
rest of the
network
line1
line2
fault
line3 + load
Figure B.1: Simulations model in symmetrical components
In figure B.2 the detailed model is presented, which is used for building up the matrices
(see matrix B.2) of the simulation environment.
Figure B.2: Simulations model in symmetrical components
In the following table the elements of the simulation model are described.
122
Table B.2: List of the elements in the simulation
Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Element
Yn
1
1
+ Ynet
Cnet
C1
C2
C4
1
Yload
Nr.
7
8
9
10
11
12
Element
1
Zpd +Z9
Ymess
Y10
Y11
1
C12 +Z12
1
2ZF +2ZE2
Nr.
13
14
15
16
17
18
Element
Y1
Ymess
Y2
Y3
Y4
C3
Nr.
19
20
21
22
23
Element
1
2ZE1
Cnet
C9
C10
C11
Matrix B.1 is the element matrix. In this matrix all elements are number with 1 to 23.
Only the main diagonal is used, the rest of the matrix is zero.
1
0
..
.
.
Y =
..
.
..
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
..
..
.
.
..
..
.
.
0 0 0 19 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 20 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 21 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 22 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 23
0
0
3
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
4
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
5
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
(B.1)
Matrix B.2 is the description of the network as a tree-incidence matrix.
123
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
C=
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
(B.2)
The voltage source is element 1 and therefore in the voltage vector as position 1, the
rest is 0, because no other sources are in the model.

U0 = Usource
(B.3)
In the following the algorithm, which is used for the network simulation is presented
[Muc78].
Z = inv(Y )
(B.4)
Z [] = C T Z C
(B.5)
[]
U0 = C T U0
(B.6)
[]
124
I [] = inv(Z [] ) U0
(B.7)
I = C I []
(B.8)
U = U0 Z I
(B.9)
1 1
T =
1 1

(B.10)
The voltages Usym are taken at the elements 7(zero sequence system) and 2(positive
sequence system). The current Isym is measured at the elements 8(zero sequence system)
and 14(positive sequence system).
U = T Usym and I = T Isym
125
C Comparison of the Classic and

Improved Algorithm
In this chapter are the complete simulation results of chapter 8.
C.1 Simulation of Different Percentages of

Cable/Overhead Lines
As described in chapter 8.3.1 the percentage of the cable/overhead lines is changed and
the usability of the improved algorithm is investigated. In the following sections the full
set of the simulations are presented.
C.1.1 Overhead Line Network

In these simulations a pure cable network is investigated.
Figure C.1: Middle ohmic grounded overhead line network
Figure C.2: Solidly grounded overhead line network
C.1.2 Cable Network

In these simulations a pure cable network is investigated.
Figure C.3: Middle ohmic grounded cable network
128
Figure C.4: Solidly grounded cable network
C.1.3 Mixed Network, Cable at Beginning of the Feeder

These figures show the result of the improved distance algorithm in a mixed (cables and
overhead lines) network, where the cables are located between the substation and the
fault.
Figure C.5: Middle ohmic grounded mixed network
129
Figure C.6: Solidly grounded mixed network
C.1.4 Mixed Network, Cable at the End of the Feeder

These figures show the result of the improved distance algorithm in a mixed (cables and
overhead lines) network, where the overhead line are located between the substation and
the fault.
Figure C.7: Middle ohmic grounded mixed network
130
Figure C.8: Solidly grounded mixed network
131
C.2 Simulation of a Network with Distributed Loads

In this chapter is the full set of simulation results from chapter 7.3. Different network
types are simulated and presented in the next pages.
C.2.1 Compensated Network

In this simulation a compensated network is assumed. It can be seen that the improved
algorithm is more accurate than the classic algorithm.
Distance calculation with classic algorithm
(see equation (6.1))
Distance calculation with improved

algorithm (see equation (7.9))
120
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
300
Calculated distance in % of the nominal distance
250
200
150
100
100
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
50
80
60
40
20
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
100
200
300
1000
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Figure C.11: Aberration
of distance calculation with improved

algorithm
Figure C.9: Aberration of distance

calculation with classic algorithm
30
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
25
30
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
25
20
15
10
20
15
10
5
5
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Figure C.10: Distance calculation

with classic algorithm
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000

with improved algorithm
Figure C.10 and C.12 show that the the influence of the loads along the line leads to a
too short calculated distance. The reason for this is that the current at the measuring
point is too high in relation to the voltage at the measuring point.
132
C.2 Simulation of a Network with Distributed Loads
C.2.2 Solidly Grounded Network

This section shows the result of the two algorithms in a solidly grounded network.

120
300
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
100
250
200
150
100
50
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
80
60
40
20
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000

algorithm
of distance calculation with classic

algorithm
30
30
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
25
20
15
10
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
25
200
100
20
15
10
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000

100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000

The results in a solidly grounded network show that the common algorithm can be used.
It will not measure with that accuracy than the improved algorithm. The calculated
fault distance is always lower than fault distance (which is according to experiences
in real networks). The improved algorithm is more accurate, however it has the same
problem with distributed loads as in the compensated network.
133
C.2.3 Middle Ohmic Grounded Network

Middle ohmic network are presented as a possibility for future network enhancement [?].
Therefore this network type is simulated and the results are presented in the following
figures.

120
300
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
100
250
200
150
100
50
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
80
60
40
20
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000

algorithm
of distance calculation with classic

algorithm
30
30
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
25
20
15
10
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
25
200
100
20
15
10
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000

100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000

The result is very similar to the solidly grounded network. The accuracy of the common
algorithm is worse. The measured distance will always decrease higher fault impedances.
The improved algorithm is more accurate, however the calculated distances are smaller
than the real fault distance.
134

Earth Fault Distance Protection (DOCUMENTO)

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Earth Fault Distance Protection

Institute for Electrical Power Systems

Reviewer: Univ.-Prof. DI Dr.techn. Lothar Fickert

Reviewer: Professor Matti Lehtonen

Head of Institute: Univ.-Prof. DI Dr.techn. Lothar Fickert

3 Earth Fault Location Methods

4 Simulation of Earth Faults

Three Phase Symmetrical Networks . . . . . . . .

5 Basis of Earth Fault Distance Protection

6 Classic Algorithm in Classic Distance Protection Relays

7 Improved Distance Protection

8 Comparison of the Classic and Improved Algorithm

9 Earth Fault Distance Protection in a Two-Phase Network

Improved Algorithm for Two-Phase Networks . . .

10 Earth Fault Field Tests

11 Analyses of Earth Fault Tests with the Improved Algorithm

B Simulation Environment Two-Phase Network

C Comparison of the Classic and Improved Algorithm

positive, negative and zero sequence transformer impedance

Z S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . symmetrical impedance matrix

1.1 Research Theses

Table 1.1: Research theses

1.2 Research Questions

1.2 Research Questions

Improved Earth Fault Distance

2.1 General Network Types

2.1.1 Isolated Networks

Figure 2.1: Principle scheme of an isolated network

fault current ICE is small([OVE76]).

2.1 General Network Types

2.1.2 Earth Fault Compensated Network

Figure 2.2: Principle scheme of an earth fault compensated network

extinguishing current is set higher than in isolated networks [OVE76].

Increased insulation demand of the fault-free phases

Protection and operation:

2.1 General Network Types

2.1.3 Low Impedance Grounded Networks

Figure 2.3: Principle scheme of a low impedance network

2.1 General Network Types

Protection and operation:

2.1.4 Transient Middle Ohmic Compensated Network

Figure 2.4: Principle scheme of a middle ohmic grounded network

2.1 General Network Types

Protection and operation:

time (defined by standards and dependent on magnitude). As a result it is possible to

2.2 Characteristic Parameters for Earth Faults

2.2 Characteristic Parameters for Earth Faults

to detect an earth fault and to find

2.2.1 Displacement Voltage

2.2.2 Zero Sequence Current

based on the measurement of the magnetic field [nor08]

2.2.3 Zero Sequence Admittance

2.2.4 Higher Harmonic for Detecting the faulty Line

2.3 Earth Fault Transition Impedances

2.4 High ohmic earth faults

zero sequence current in Ampere

Figure 2.5: Zero sequence current at different transition impedances

2.4 High ohmic earth faults

displacement voltage in % of the nominal voltage

Figure 2.6: Displacement voltage at different transition impedances

3 Earth Fault Location Methods

3.1 Location Methods Based on Low Frequency Signals

3.1.1 Distance Calculation Based on Fundamental Frequency

3 Earth Fault Location Methods