Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 23 (2015) 5358

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ultrasonics Sonochemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ultson

Biodiesel production from soybean oil deodorizer distillate enhanced

by counter-current pulsed ultrasound
Xiulian Yin a,b,c, Qinghong You b,c, Haile Ma a,, Chunhua Dai a, Henan Zhang a, Kexin Li a, Yunliang Li a
a

School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, China
Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Palygorskite Science and Applied Technology, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, Huaian 223003, China
c
Jiangsu Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Biomass Conversion and Process Integration, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, Huaian 223003, China
b

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 16 May 2014
Received in revised form 18 August 2014
Accepted 19 August 2014
Available online 27 August 2014
Keywords:
Biodiesel
Soybean oil deodorizer distillate
Counter-current pulsed ultrasound

a b s t r a c t
Biodiesel production from soybean oil deodorizer distillate enhanced by counter-current pulsed ultrasound was studied. Effect of static probe ultrasonic enhanced transesterication (SPUE) and counter-current probe ultrasonic enhanced transesterication (CCPUE) on the biodiesel conversion were compared.
The results indicated that CCPUE was a better method for enhancing transesterication. The working conditions of CCPUE were studied by single-factor experiment design and the results showed that the optimal conditions were: initial temperature 25 C, methanol to triglyceride molar ratio 10:1, ow rate
200 mL/min, catalyst content 1.8%, ultrasound working on-time 4 s, off-time 2 s, total working time
50 min. Under these conditions, the average biodiesel conversion of three experiments was 96.1%.
2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Biodiesel, or so called fatty acid methyl ester (FAME), produced
chemically from triglyceride with short-chain alcohol has received
considerable attention in recent years as a green and alternative
fuel [13]. However, current biodiesel technologies require developments. It is estimated that the cost of biodiesel is approximately
1.52 times higher than that of diesel fuel [4], which is mainly due
to high feedstock cost (up to 7580% of the total biodiesel cost) [5]
and energy intensive process steps involved in their production [6].
Presently, edible oils such as soybean, sunower, palm oil are
the main resources for biodiesel production. However, the use of
these sources to produce biodiesel is not feasible because there is
a big gap in demand and supply of such oils as food and also they
are far expensive to be used at present [7,8]. Low cost feedstock,
such as non-edible oils, waste frying oils and animal fats could
be used [8]. Soybean oil deodorizer distillate (SODD) is a byproduct
in the rening of soybean oil. It contains free fatty acids (FFAs)
(from 3 wt.% to 50 wt.%), triglycerides (4555%), tocopherols (3
12%), sterols (78%), hydrocarbons and other unsaponiables in
trace amounts [3]. The actual composition of SODD depends on
the source and process conditions employed for the rening process of the soybean oil. The high content of FFAs and triglycerides
makes it a potential cheap feedstock for biodiesel production.

Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +86 511 88790958.

E-mail address: mhl@ujs.edu.cn (H. Ma).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2014.08.020
1350-4177/ 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

However, there are few studies on biodiesel production using

SODD as feedstock.
There are some recent reports referring to the use of waste
cooking oils as material for biodiesel synthesis using two step
transesterication processes. The lower rates of synthesis have
been typically attributed to mass transfer limitations due to heterogeneous conditions existing during the reaction [911]. Thus,
there is a need to develop sustainable process intensication technology for biodiesel processing from non-edible oil sources with an
objective of reducing the cost of processing [5]. Among the available newer energy sources for process intensication, use of sound
energy can result in signicant degree of process intensication by
way of generating cavitational events in the reactor [5,12]. Use of
cavitational reactors can favor the reaction chemistry and propagation by way of enhanced mass transfer and interphase mixing
between the phases and also can lower the requirement of the
severity of the operating conditions in terms of temperature and
pressure [13,14].
Although many studies have focused on the ultrasonic assisted
biodiesel production from a variety of feedstock, very few studies
focused on SODD as feedstock [1518]. Moreover, the ultrasonic
instruments used in the studies are usually ultrasonic cleaner or
ultrasonic liquid processors and the state of the reactors is mainly
static. Usually there are two kinds of ultrasonic instruments
applied in the reaction: one is ultrasonic cleaner [19] and the other
one is probe type generator [17]. The ultrasonic cleaner is less efcient in mixing the two immiscible liquids than the probe type
generator.

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X. Yin et al. / Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 23 (2015) 5358

In this study, we used a pulsed probe ultrasound and the state

of the reactants could be set at static or counter-current. Counter-current means that the direction of the ultrasound wave is
from high to low while the ow direction of the reactors is from
low to high. This kind of working mode allowed efcient contact
between the ultrasound and the reactants.
The present work reports the use of sonochemical reactors as a
technique for intensication of biodiesel synthesis based on the
use of SODD as a starting raw material. Using SODD as feedstock,
the biodiesel conversion as target, static probe ultrasonic enhanced
transesterication (SPUE) and counter-current probe ultrasonic
enhanced transesterication (CCPUE) biodiesel producing methods
were investigated in this study.
2. Materials and methods

40 min, and the initial temperature 25 C. The volume of the reactor tank was about 4 L.
2.3.2. Counter-current probe ultrasonic enhanced transesterication
(CCPUE)
The instruments of CCPUE were almost the same as SUPE and
the difference between them was that in the CCPUE method two
peristaltic pumps were used to keep the reaction solutions in a
counter-current ow state, but in the SUPE, the direction of both
the ultrasound wave and the reactors is from high to low.
The conditions of the CCPUE processes were: ultrasound ontime 4 s, ultrasound off-time 2 s, total working time 40 min and
the initial temperature 25 C and the ow rates of two peristaltic
pumps were set at 200 mL/min.
2.4. Transesterication of pre-esteried SODD

2.1. Materials and chemicals

The SODD used for the study was supplied by Zhenjiang branch
of China Grain Reserves Corporation. The chemical and physical
properties of the SODD are shown in Table 1.
The probe ultrasonic reactor used in this study was designed by
our own research group. The frequency of the ultrasonic probe is
20 kHz. The ultrasonic probe was used to transmit the ultrasound
into the liquid and it was about 22 mm in diameter and 100 mm
in length. When the experiment began, the reactants were pumped
into the reactor, and the ultrasonic probe was dipped into the reaction mixture. The ultrasonic irradiation power was set at 600 W. For
all the experiments, the ultrasonic power supply was set to deliver
100% of the total power. Two peristaltic pumps were used to keep
the material solutions in a counter-current ow state when needed
and the speed of the two peristaltic pumps were 200 mL/min.
2.2. Pretreatment of SODD
2.2.1. Pre-esterication of SODD
A 1000 mL 3-neck-boiling ask coupled with a water-cooling
reux condenser and a mechanic stirrer was used as a reactor.
After a set of preliminary experiments and optimization experiments, the conditions of the pre-esterication of SODD were set
as H2SO4 concentration (v/w, based on oil weight) 1.5%, methanol/oil molar ratio 12:1, reaction time 120 min and reaction temperature 60 C.
2.2.2. De-phytosterols
The solubility of phytosterols was low in FAME and can be
removed by centrifugation after being cooled down to certain
low temperature. In this study, we decreased the temperature step
by step, and after each step, the solution was centrifuged to
remove the phytosterols. The temperature steps were 15 C, 5 C,
5 C and the cooling time was 2 h for each step.

After pre-esterication of the SODD, the samples were transferred into a separating funnel and were washed with water in
order to remove the catalyst, excess methanol, and then the phytosterols were removed by the method mentioned above. The
pre-esteried SODD was dehydrated by adding 25% anhydrous
sodium sulfate, then the pre-esteried SODD was put into the
ultrasound reactor to produce biodiesel. The reaction was catalyzed by NaOH and was enhanced by SPUE and CCPUE. The chemical and physical properties of pre-esteried SODD are shown in
Table 2. Sodium hydroxide was pre-dissolved in a known amount
of methanol adapted to each experiment to form methoxide which
was used as catalyst. The pre-esteried SODD and the previously
prepared solution of sodium hydroxide and methanol in a given
ratio were added to the reactor adapted to the two enhancing
methods of SPUE and CCPUE, and reacted under certain conditions
according to each experiment. During the procedure, the ultrasonic
probe was immersed directly into the reaction vessel at the interfacial region of the immiscible phases.
Samples were collected at different pre-designated times and
were quenched immediately by adding phosphoric acid. Then the
samples were transferred into a separating funnel and were
washed with water in order to remove the catalyst, excess methanol, and the glycerin. The water remaining in the biodiesel phase
was eliminated by using anhydrous sodium sulfate (25 wt.% of
the weight of the ester product).
The biodiesel conversion (methyl ester conversion) was calculated as follows:

biodiesel conversion %

W totalfame  W prefame  M glyceride

 100%
3  W glyceride  M Fame
1

2.3.1. Static probe ultrasonic enhanced transesterication (SPUE)

The processes of SPUE were studied with the conditions set as
ultrasound on-time 4 s, ultrasound off-time 2 s, total working time

In Eq. (1), Wtotalfame is the total weight of fatty acid methyl esters
(FAME) that was measured after the alkali catalyzed transesterication and Wprefame is the weight of FAME that was got after the
pre-esterication, MFame and Mglyceride are the average molecular
weights of the FAME and the glyceride, respectively, and the factor
3 indicates that one mole of triglyceride yields three moles of
FAME [18].

Table 1
Chemical and physical properties of SODD (n = 3).

Table 2
Chemical and physical properties of pre-esteried SODD (n = 3).

2.3. Procedures of SPUE, CCPUE

Properties

Units

Average SD

Properties

Units

Average SD

Water content
Acid value
Saponication value
Free fatty acid
Triglycerides
Ve content
Phytosterols content

wt.%
mg KOH/g oil
mg KOH/g oil
wt.%
wt.%
wt.%
wt.%

0.32 0.013
107.64 2.28
154.87 2.62
53.8 1.07
28.53 0.57
9.56 0.21
10.32 0.35

Water content
Acid value
Free fatty acid
FAME
Triglycerides
Ve content
Phytosterols content

wt.%
mg KOH/g oil
wt.%
wt.%
wt.%
wt.%
wt.%

0.26 0.014
1.94 1.28
1.06 0.56
58.73 1.22
29.78 0.31
8.24 0.40
1.16 0.42

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X. Yin et al. / Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 23 (2015) 5358

Fig. 1. GC chromatogram of the FAME (1: Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester; 2: Octadecanoic acid, methyl ester; 3: 13-Octadecenoic acid, methyl ester; 4: 9,12Octadecadienoic acid, methyl ester; 5: 9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid, methyl ester).

2.5. Analysis of biodiesel samples

Samples of 1 mL taken from the reaction tank during the reaction were immediately neutralized to stop the reaction by adding
1 mL 5% phosphoric acid aqueous solution, and then the sample
phase was separated by putting it into a separating funnel. The
upper phase that contained FAME primarily was separated and
washed with deionized water to remove the catalyst, and then
dehydrated by anhydrous sodium sulfate. Before analysis, the samples were diluted in 10 mL n-hexane and ltered by microporous
membrane. The FAME was analyzed by gas chromatography.
Chemical standard, obtained from Nu-Chek Prep, Inc., was a mixture of 40 kinds of long-chain fatty acid methyl ester, and was dissolved in 10 mL chromatographically pure n-hexane (Sigma
Aldrich). The chromatogram of the sample is shown in Fig. 1. The
FAME contained carbon chains ranging from C16:0 to C18:3 in its
chromatogram.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Comparison of SPUE, CCPUE
The effects of SPUE and CCPUE on the biodiesel conversion were
studied and the results are shown in Fig. 2. We can see that the biodiesel conversion increased with time, but it took longer a time for
SUPE to obtain the same methyl ester yield than CCPUE method.
The biodiesel conversion of CCPUE was much higher than that of

SPUE and could reach 92.9% at time of 40 min while the biodiesel
conversion of SPUE was about 72.6% at the same time. The results
showed that the efciency of CCPUE was higher than that of SPUE
and the difference between them was signicant using the T-test
(p < 0.01). Generally, ultrasound has physical and chemical effects
on heterogeneous reaction systems through cavitation bubbles
[20]. Though the conditions for SPUE and CCPUE were the same,
the distribution of ultrasound energy was more uniform for CCPUE
because of the counter-current ow of the reaction mixture. Ultrasound is a kind of longitudinal wave which makes its effect notable
for the reactants under the probe while there are dead angles
around the probe that ultrasound affect slightly. The working
mode of counter-current makes it more efcient for the materials
touching the ultrasound and the ultrasound waves could be welldistributed in the reactants.
The energy consumptions of the two enhancing methods were
analyzed by a DDS666-electronic single-phase power meter (Chint
Instrument & Meter Co., Ltd., Zhejiang, China). The measurements
were taken when the biodiesel conversion reached 80%. The results
on energy consumption is shown in Table 3. It can be seen from the
table that the CCPUE method needs less energy consumption
(0.52 kW h) than that of SUPE (0.59 kW h). Though the total energy
consumption of CCPUE was composed of the energy consumption
of ultrasound and peristaltic pumps, the time taken for the biodiesel conversion to reach 80% for CCPUE (about 35 min) was much
less than SPUE (about 55 min). On the other hand, the efciency
of ultrasonic horn can be reduced in the continuous operation
[21]. In order to determine the kinetic parameters, several tests
were carried out for the two studied processes under the conditions: temperature 65 C, methanol to triglyceride molar ratio
10:1, catalyst content 1.8%, ultrasound on-time 4 s, ultrasound
off-time 2 s, and the ow rate for CCPUE was 200 mL/min. The
kinetics of the reaction was investigated and second order mechanism was found to suitably t the data. In the presence of excess
methanol, the equilibrium was assumed to proceed in a forward
path [21]. The values of the rate constants for CCPUE and SPUE
were 0.68 and 0.56 L mol1 min1, respectively. Therefore CCPUE
method was a better method for enhancing transesterication
reaction.

Table 3
The energy consumptions of the two enhancing methods (n = 3).
Energy consumption

CCPUE
CCPUE

Fig. 2. Comparison of SPUE, CCPUE.

Energy consumption (kW h)

Total energy consumption (kW h)

SPUE
Peristaltic pumps

0.36
0.16
0.52 0.02

0.59
0.59 0.01

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X. Yin et al. / Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 23 (2015) 5358

Compared with our previous study [22] and some other studies,
the biodiesel conversion was not high in this study. The reason for
this maybe that the reaction tank was large (4 L compared to
200 mL) in this study which makes the average calorimetric power
dissipation low.
The optimum working conditions for CCPUE were further studied by using single-factor experiments.
3.2. Effect of the initial temperature
Many studies have focused on the ultrasonic assisted biodiesel
production, but most of these studies controlled the environment
temperature. The reaction temperature has an important effect
on base-catalyzed transesterication. In this research, direct sonication without temperature control was used. This approach lies
in the fact that ultrasound induces intense mixing due to continuous compression and rarefaction cycles which could cause cavitation and generate high local temperature. This phenomenon
could increase the temperature of the reactants automatically
and promote the desired chemical reactions [6,23].
The effect of the initial temperature on biodiesel conversion
was studied with the other conditions as follows: ultrasound ontime 4 s, ultrasound off-time 2 s, catalyst content 2.0% (by weight
of the pretreated SODD), total working time 40 min and the rate
of two peristaltic pumps 150 mL/min, triglyceride to methanol
molar ratio 1:10. The results are shown in Fig. 3. When the initial
temperature was lower than 25 C, the biodiesel conversion
increased from 85% to 95%. When the initial temperature was
higher than 25 C, the biodiesel conversion decreased slightly.
After the starting of the sonication process, the temperatures of
the reaction mixtures increased rapidly because of the heating
effect of the ultrasound waves. But when the initial and ambient
temperature were both 25 C, the temperature of the mixed solution could reach about 56 C after reacting for 40 min, when the
initial temperature was 30 C, the temperature could reach about
65 C. As observed in this study, the biodiesel conversion was also
quite signicant at low temperature. Ultrasonic irradiation of liquids causes high-energy chemical reactions. Acoustic cavitation is
the origin of ultrasound-based-chemistry and it can create extraordinary physical and chemical conditions. With increasing reaction
temperature, the equilibrium vapor pressure increases, which
leads to easier bubble formation. However, the cavitation bubbles
contain vapor and the vapor could reduce ultrasonic effect by
decreasing violent cavitation bubble collapse [6], therefore 25 C
was the optimal initial temperature.

Fig. 3. Effect of initial temperature on biodiesel conversion.

3.3. Effect of methanol to triglyceride molar ratio

The effect of methanol to triglyceride molar ratio on biodiesel
conversion was studied with the other conditions as follows: initial
temperature 25 C, catalyst content 2.0%, ultrasound on-time 4 s,
ultrasound off-time 2 s, total working time 50 min and the rate
of two peristaltic pumps 150 mL/min. The results are shown in
Fig. 4. From the gure we can see that biodiesel conversion
increased from 65% to 96% when methanol to triglyceride molar
ratio was lower than 10:1. Common vegetable oils are esters of saturated and unsaturated monocarboxylic acids with the trihydric
alcohol glyceride, the theoretical methanol to oil molar ratio is
three as taken from stoichiometric transesterication. Since this
reaction is reversible, excess amount of methanol is required to
drive the reaction in the forward direction [21]. Higher concentration of methanol can shift the reaction equilibrium forward to
obtain higher product yields. Furthermore, with the increase in
methanol to triglyceride molar ratio, more cavitational bubbles
are obtained because ultrasound activity is easier in methanol than
in oil [19]. When the methanol to triglyceride molar ratio was
higher than 10:1, the biodiesel conversion decreased slightly. The
reason for this may be that with the increase in methanol content,
the content of reactants and catalyst were diluted, which might
initiate the reverse reaction to reduce the conversion [24,25]. So
10:1 was the optimal methanol to triglyceride molar ratio.
3.4. Effect of peristaltic pump ow rate
The effect of peristaltic pump ow rate on biodiesel conversion
was studied with the other conditions as follows: initial temperature 25 C, methanol to triglyceride molar ratio 10:1, catalyst content 2.0%, ultrasound on-time 4 s, ultrasound off-time 2 s, total
working time 50 min. The results are shown in Fig. 5. From the gure we can see that the biodiesel conversion increased from 84% to
95% with the increase in the ow rate. The reason for this result
may be that the reaction dead angles were reduced at high ow
rates. On the other hand, high ow rate reduced the time the reactant stayed in the reactor and made the ultrasound effect insufcient. The results of our experiments indicated that ow rate of
200 mL/min could match the demand of the experiment.
3.5. Effect of catalyst content
The catalyst content is an important parameter especially when
the content of free fatty acids (FFAs) is high in the feedstock,

Fig. 4. Effect of methanol to triglyceride molar ratio on biodiesel conversion.

X. Yin et al. / Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 23 (2015) 5358

57

Fig. 7. Effect of ultrasound on-time and off-time on biodiesel conversion.

Fig. 5. Effect of peristaltic pump ow rate on biodiesel conversion.

because the FFAs can react with base catalyst to form saponication. This may reduce the methyl ester yield and complicate the
product separation and purication [19,26]. The effect of catalyst
content on biodiesel conversion was studied with the other conditions as follows: initial temperature 25 C, methanol to triglyceride
molar ratio 10:1, ultrasound on-time 4 s, ultrasound off-time 2 s,
total working time 50 min, ow rate 200 mL/min. The results of
this experiment are shown in Fig. 6. The results showed that when
catalyst content was lower than 1.8%, the biodiesel conversion
increased with increasing catalyst content, but when it was higher
than 1.8%, the biodiesel conversion decreased with the increase of
the catalyst content. The reason for this may be that high catalyst
content resulted in serious saponication. Serious saponication
could lead to two results, one was that the transesterication could
not proceed completely, and the other one was that it makes serious emulsication in the separating step difcult, which resulted
in lower biodiesel recovery, therefore 1.8% was the optimal catalyst
content.
3.6. Effect of ultrasound on-time and off-time
The effect of ultrasound on-time and off-time in each pulse on
the biodiesel conversion was studied with the other conditions

as follows: initial temperature 25 C, methanol to triglyceride

molar ratio 10:1, ow rate 200 mL/min, catalyst content 1.8%,
ultrasound off-time 2 s, total working time 50 min. The results of
the experiment are shown in Fig. 7. From the gure, we can see
that biodiesel conversion increased rapidly when ultrasound ontime ranged from 2 to 6 s, but the biodiesel conversion decreased
a little as the ultrasound on-time increased continuously. It can
be seen from the gure that the biodiesel conversion decreased
with increasing the off-time. The reason for this may be that when
the total reaction time was xed, the time that ultrasound affected
the solution increased with the increase of the ultrasound on-time
and decreased with the increase of the off-time. However when the
on-time was too long and off-time was too short, the heating effect
of ultrasound made the temperature too high that the ultrasonic
horn could not work properly. So we prefer 4 s and 2 s as the optimal ultrasound on-time and off-time, respectively.
The results of the single factor experiments showed that the
optimal working conditions for CCPUE were: initial temperature
25 C, methanol to triglyceride molar ratio 10:1, ow rate
200 mL/min, catalyst content 1.8%, ultrasound on-time 4 s, ultrasound off-time 2 s, total working time 50 min. Under these conditions, the experiments were conducted three times, and the
average biodiesel conversion was 96.1%.
4. Conclusions
Biodiesel production from soybean oil deodorizer distillate
enhanced by counter-current pulsed ultrasound was studied. The
effect of static probe ultrasonic enhanced transesterication
(SPUE) and counter-current probe ultrasonic enhanced transesterication (CCPUE) on the biodiesel conversion were compared, and
the results indicated that CCPUE was a better method for enhancing transesterication. The working conditions of CCPUE was studied by single-factor experiment design, and the results showed
that the optimal conditions were: initial temperature 25 C, methanol to triglyceride molar ratio 10:1, ow rate 200 mL/min, catalyst
content 1.8%, ultrasound on-time 4 s, ultrasound off-time 2 s and
total working time 50 min. Under these conditions, the experiments were replicated three times, and the average biodiesel conversion was 96.1%.
Acknowledgements

Fig. 6. Effect of catalyst content on biodiesel conversion.

This work was supported by Jiangsu Province Ordinary University Innovative Research Program (No: CXLX11_0602 and No:

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X. Yin et al. / Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 23 (2015) 5358

CXZZ12_0699), Open project of Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory

of Palygorskite Science and Applied Technology (No:
HPK201305), Colleges and universities in Jiangsu Province Natural
Science Fund (13KJD550001) and Open project of Jiangsu Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Biomass Conversion and Process
Integration (No: JPELBCPL2012003). Thanks for the help of John
owusu who is working at Polytechnic in Ghana in revising the language of the manuscript.
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