Handout 6

Imperial College of Science, Technology & Medicine

Department of Aeronautics

Third Year
Energy Methods
4. Rayleigh-Ritz approximation in the energy methods
In Section 3.1 we have shown how the energy methods may be used to solve the problems
of deformation of truss structures. An important step in the process is to assume the shape
of the displacement function and in that example the assumption that the displacements
vary linearly along each bar (i.e. that the axial strains in the bars are constant) can be
justi ed rigorously (note that the trusses can be loaded only at the joints). A similar
example would be the engineering beam theory, where we are also able to accurately
predict the shape of the displacement eld for a particular type of loading. In general,
however, the governing equations of motion obtained from the principle of total potential
energy (2.35) or the principle of virtual work (2.25) in conjunction with the compatibility
equations (2.11) and the constitutive equations (2.22) cannot be solved for the unknown
displacement eld u(x
y
z ).
In order to apply the energy methods to complex engineering problems we therefore have
to make a reasonable assumption of the shape of the unknown displacement eld and solve
for the set of parameters which in some way scale this shape. A particularly convenient
method which follows from this principle is the
nite element method, in which the medium
(i.e. the body, the structure, the domain of the problem) is partitioned into suciently
small segments along which the shape of the unknown eld is usually assumed to be a
{ 41 {

simple polynomial function, often of a very low order. We will get back to the nite
element method later, in Sections 8-10.
Alternatively, we may treat the structure as a whole and enforce the shape of the displacement eld over the domain as a whole. This is a basic property of the classic Rayleigh-Ritz
method. In a wider sense of the word, and from a historical perspective, the Rayleigh-Ritz
method may be treated as a principle, based around the approximation of the shape of
the unknown eld, which then encompasses the nite element method as its sub-class.
In the present terminology, however, the Rayleigh-Ritz method will be understood in its
classic meaning, where the shape of the unknown eld is assumed over the whole domain
of the problem. While this method lacks the versatility of the nite element method, it
still serves as an ideal introduction to the very important subject of approximation in the
energy methods.
4.1 The Rayleigh-Ritz method with emphasis on beams
We will explain the Rayleigh-Ritz method on the simply supported beam loaded by a
central force F as shown in the gure using the principle of virtual work. Note that, for
this problem, the exact solution using the engineering beam theory can be easily found
we will use it later to assess the accuracy of the Rayleigh-Ritz approximation.
z,w
F
EI
x=-l/2

x=0

x,u
x=l/2

We have to make a reasonable guess for the shape of the unknown displacement w(x). A
possible candidate is
{ 42 {

( )=

w x

;4
l

(4:1)



with  as an unknown parameter, because it satis es the essential boundary conditions

(; 2l ) = 0

and

( 2l ) = 0

and is symmetric with respect to z axis. Note that the exact satisfaction of the essential
boundary conditions makes a vital part of the proof that the energy methods are equivalent to the dierential equilibrium equations (see Sections 2.4 and 2.5), so any candidate
function must satisfy the essential boundary conditions by design. The proper way to do
it is to make sure that the prescribed shape itself (in this case the x2 ;

part of w(x))

satis es this condition, rather than relying on  to handle it. In (4.1)  is the unknown
parameter of the problem and at this stage it should be kept free.
A better approximation for the displacement eld would be

( )=

w x

;4
l



1

l2

2

(4:2)

because in this case there are two free parameters, so a better t to the exact solution may
be obtained. Note that (4.2) is also a suitable candidate because it identically satis es the
essential boundary conditions for arbitrary 1 and 2 . Also note that using
to multiply 2 instead of the present

l2

x
l

as a factor

would serve no useful purpose in the present case,

where the deformation is symmetric, and should thus be eliminated from consideration. It
is important to distinguish between the candidate functions that should not be used (like
the one just mentioned) from those that must not be used (i.e. those that do not satisfy
the essential boundary conditions).
{ 43 {

The principle of virtual work for this problem states

; 

Vi

Ve

;l

00

00

E I w w dx

; (0) = 0
Fw

(4:3)

so in order to apply it we need

( )=

w x

00

x

;4
l



( ) = 2 1 + 12
x

1

l2

l2

; 12

2

2

=)
=)

( ) =

w x

x

;4
l



 +

1

 (x) = 21 + 12 l2

00

l2

2


1
; 2 2

(4:4)
(4:5)

where 1 and 2 are the virtual parameters. Substituting (4.4) and (4.5) into (4.3) now
gives

Vi

Ve




2 1 + 12

 

x2 1  
2
1
l
 ; EI 
;
2
2
1 +
12
;


dx
+
F
l2
2
l2
2 2
4 1
2

2  
Z 2
2
l
= 1 F + E I 1 ; 41 + 24 x2 ; 1 2 dx
4
l
2

x4
 
Z 2 
x2 
2
x
1
+E I 2 ; 24 l2 ; 1 1 + 144 l4 ; 12 l2 + 4 2 dx
2

2
Fl
(4:6)
= 1 E I (4l1 + l2) + 4 + 2 E I (l1 + 21
20 l2) = 0:
Z

We have to remember that (4.6) must be satis ed for arbitrary 1 and 2 , which implies
41 + 2 = ;

Fl

4E I

and

1

and

2

+ 21 2 = 0:
20

This system of equations has the solution

1

21 F l
= ; 256
EI

{ 44 {

5 Fl

= 64
EI

(4:7)

and the Rayleigh-Ritz solution for the displacement w(x) follows from (4.2) and (4.7) as

( )=

w x



;4 5
l

l2

 Fl
21
; 4 64E I

=)

21 F l3  0:0205 F l3 :
(0) = 1024
EI
EI

The exact displacement in the middle of the beam using the engineering beam theory is
3

wex

= 48FEl I  0:0208 FElI

i.e. the Rayleigh-Ritz solution produces an error of

0 0205;0:0208j
0:0208

j :

 100%  1 56%.
:

Natural questions to ask at this point are: \Why should there be an error in the RayleighRitz solution at all? Did we not prove that the energy principles are equivalent to the
dierential equilibrium equation of the problem including the natural boundary conditions
(provided we have identically satis ed the essential boundary conditions, which we have)?
Why do we not then obtain the solution that would be obtained by solving this dierential
equation?" The answer is that only for arbitrary virtual displacements (or variations when
using the principle of total potential energy) are we able to extract the dierential equation
(see (2.32)) and the natural boundary conditions (see (2.33)) from the principle of virtual
work (see (2.31)) or the principle of total potential energy (2.37). If the virtual displacements (variations) are not completely arbitrary, (2.31) may be satis ed without implying
the satisfaction of (2.32) and (2.33). This is precisely the situation with the Rayleigh-Ritz
method where we have prescribed the shape of the virtual displacement eld (see (4.4))
and reduced its arbitrariness only to the parameters 1 and 2 . This reasoning then leads
to the following question: \If virtual work (2.31) does not imply the dierential equation (2.32), is it reasonable to assume that it also does not necessarily satisfy the natural
boundary condition (2.33)?" Indeed, it is, and to see that this is exactly what happens in
our case it is interesting to compare the Rayleigh-Ritz solution for the bending moment,
{ 45 {

( ) = E I w (x) = E I

M x

00




2 1 + 12

with the exact solution, Mex (x) =

Fl

2

jxj

2
l

; 21

 
60 2

; 13 64
2 =
2
x

Fl

; 1 , both of which are plotted in the gure.

exact solution
Rayleigh-Ritz solution
M*64/(Fl)
13

16

x
2

We see that the actual solution indeed does not satisfy the natural boundary conditions
(that the bending moments should vanish at the ends of the beam). In fact now we
realise that in the process of choosing a suitable candidate function for the approximation
of the displacement eld we have never imposed the satisfaction of the natural boundary
conditions. Looking back into (4.5), we see that M = E I w can be zero at x = ; 2 and x =
l

00

only for linearly dependent 1 and 2. While we may be able to choose an approximation
P
that would satisfy the natural boundary conditions (e.g. w(x) =  cos ) and thus
l

n
i

ix
l

improve the results, it is important to remember again that the identical satisfaction of the
essential boundary conditions is an unconditional requirement without which the energy
methods (the principle of total potential energy and the principle of virtual work) cannot
be applied. Satisfaction of the natural boundary conditions, on the other hand, is welcome,
but it is not vital.
We also realise that the moment error in the Rayleigh-Ritz solution is considerably larger
than the displacement error ( 131616  100% = 18:75%) { it is typical for this type of
j

approximation that the error increases with the higher derivatives of the approximated
eld.
{ 46 {

4.2 Generalisation of the Rayleigh-Ritz approach

We will now introduce the notation that we will be using throughout the course. Equation
(4.2) will be written in the following form

( )=



w x

;4
l

l2

;4
l

 

1
2

= h N1 (x) N2 (x) i

1
2

= N (x)


(4:8)

where N1 (x) and N2 (x) are the shape functions (or the interpolation functions) and N (x)
is the matrix of shape functions. We treat N (x) as a matrix, rather than a row vector (note
the expression in (4.8): N (x)
and not N (x)
), which is not only a8standard
9 notation,
<u=
but is also necessary when interpolating a displacement vector u = : v , rather than
w
only one of its components as we do in this example.
t

Using this notation, (4.4) and (4.5) are rewritten as

( ) = N (x)
=)

 ( ) = N (x)

w x

00

w x

(x) = N (x)
=)

 (x) = N (x)

00

00

00

with

N (x) =



;4
l

Vi

= EI

Z 2 z scalar
}| { z scalar
}| {

(
N


)
(
N

)
;
2

00

dx

;4

R2

l2

The internal virtual work, V =

00


;2l E I w
l

= EI

00



and N (x) = 2 12 l2
x

00

; 12


:

, can now be re-written as

00

w dx

;l
2

 (N ) N
dx =
 E I ; (N ) N
2
t

{ 47 {

00

00

00

00

dx

=
 K
with K = E I
t

9
Z 28
< 2 =
2 12
2
; :
2
12 2 ; 12 
l

x
l

; 12

x
l


dx:

The stiness matrix is evaluated as

Z 2
l

K = EI ;
2

24 22 ; 1
2
4
2
24 2 ; 1 144 4 ; 12 2 + 14
4

x
l

x
l

x
l


dx

= EI l

4 1
1 21
20

(4:9)

The external virtual work, V = F w(0), is written using the matrix of shape functions as
e

Ve

}| {
zscalar
1 (0)
= ; 04
= N (0)
=
 N (0) =
 R with R =
(0)
2
t

Fl

N
N

(4:10)

so the principle of virtual work V ; V = 0 yields

i

 (K
; R) = 0 for arbitrary


=) K
= R

which, using the stiness matrix K and the load vector R from (4.9) and (4.10) returns
the known result

=

Fl

64E I

; 214

The matrix notation used in this section and, more generally, the Rayleigh-Ritz method
as presented here may be equally used starting from the principle of total potential energy
R2
1
1R2
2
  = 0 with  =
2 ; E I (w ) dx ; F w(0) =
2 E I ; (N ) N dx
;
F N (0),
l

00

00

00

rather than the principle of virtual work, and using (4.8) as the approximation for the
unknown displacement eld.
{ 48 {