Unit 2 - Oscillators by Mehzabeen

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S.M.Mehzabeen
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www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Objectives
Define the basic oscillator circuit
Identify elements of feedback in the oscillator
Identify the conditions for oscillation to occur
Identify input and output characteristics
Identify common uses of the oscillator
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Oscillators By S.M.Mehzabeen
Word Wall
Oscillation: an effect that repeatedly and regularly
fluctuates about a mean value
Oscillator: circuit that produces oscillation
Characteristics: frequency, amplitude, distortion,
wave-shape, stability
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In our daily life
Oscillator
Digital watches, Invertors, Radios , T.V, Computers, Fans, Metal

Detectors, Electronic Bells and lots more
Pendulum of a clock.
If you push on a pendulum to start it swinging, it will oscillate at

some frequency - it will swing back and forth a certain number
of times per second.
The length of the pendulum controls the frequency.
In pendulum potential energy is converted in kinetic energy
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Overview of the Oscillator

One of the basic building blocks of electronics
Input is a direct current (DC) power source
Output is alternating current (AC)
Can generate sub-audible frequencies or very high
frequencies
Most oscillators are amplifiers with feedback
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Amplifiers as Oscillators?
Most amplifiers will oscillate when conditions are correct
Example: Too high of a volume on public address system
= loud noise and squeals that are the result of acoustic
waves traveling from the speakers to the microphone
The result is oscillation
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Electrical Feedback
Practical oscillators use electrical feedback to produce
oscillation
Feedback circuits use resistors, capacitors, coils, or
transformers to connect a portion of the output signal back to
the input of the amplifier
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Feedback and Amplifier Gain

Conditions for Oscillation
Feedback alone does not promise oscillation
There is always some loss in the feedback circuit
Amplifier gain must be greater than this loss
Feedback must be in-phase
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In-phase Feedback
In-phase feedback is also called regenerative feedback
or positive feedback
When the original amplifier input and output signals are not
in-phase, the feedback circuit is used to reverse the phase
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Input Characteristics
Steady source of direct current (DC)
In many applications, the DC source requires a filter
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Output Characteristics
Amplitude
Frequency
Waveform type
Stability
On some oscillators, the capability to change frequency
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Oscillator Amplitude
Usually determined by the gain available from the
amplifier
Supply voltage and circuit losses affect amplitude
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Oscillator Frequency
Frequency of operation is normally determined by the
feedback circuit
Common feedback circuits used to determine oscillator
frequency include:
crystals
resistor and capacitor networks (RC)
coil and capacitor networks (LC) {tank circuit}
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Waveform Type
Generally, determined by:
Feedback circuitry
Output filter circuitry
Amplifier gain, or
Changes to input voltage
May be sinusoidal (sine wave), square wave, or triangular
wave
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Oscillator Stability
Sometimes referred to as a stable oscillator
Source of a signal with consistent amplitude
Source of a signal with consistent frequency
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Ability to Change Frequency

Oscillators sometimes have the ability to change
frequencies
Crystal oscillator frequency is controlled by changing the
crystal
Crystals are usually cut from quartz to generate a
specified frequency when operating
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Typical Uses of the Oscillator

Radio and
television stations
require oscillators
to develop the
basic signal to
transmit their
information
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Cell
phones, electronic
keyboards,
and remote
controls use oscillators to

produce
the required
frequencies for operation
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Digital
devices
such as
computers, watches,
calculators, and iPods all
require
oscillators to
generate the rectangular

waveform
required for
operation
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Variable oscillators, known
as signal generators, are
used
to generate
frequencies and waveforms

needed for troubleshooting
and the testing of electronic
equipment
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Need of an Oscillator
An oscillator circuit is capable of producing ac voltage of
desired frequency and waveshape.
To test performance of electronic circuits, it is called
signal generator.
It can produce square, pulse, triangular, or sawtooth
waveshape.
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High frequency oscillator are used in broadcasting.
Microwave oven uses an oscillator.
Used for induction heating and dielectric heating.
Oscillators are circuits
that generate periodic
signals.
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An oscillator converts DC power from power supply to AC
signals power spontaneously without the need for an AC
input source (Note: Amplifiers convert DC power into AC
output power only if an external AC input signal is present.)
There are several approaches to design of oscillator circuits.
The approach to be discussed is related to the feedback
using amplifiers.
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A frequency-selective feedback path around an
amplifier is placed to return part of the output signal
to the amplifier input, which results in a circuit called
a linear oscillator that produces an approximately
sinusoidal output.
Under proper conditions, the signal returned by the feedback

network has exactly the correct amplitude and phase needed to
sustain the output signal.
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Types of Oscillators
Sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal.
An oscillator generating square wave or a pulse

train is called multivibrator :
1. Bistable multivibrator (Flip-Flop Circuit).
2. Monostable multivibrator.
3. Astable multivibrator (Free-running).
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Types of Oscillators
Depending upon type of feedback, we have

1.
Tuned Circuit (LC) oscillators.
2.
RC oscillators, and
3.
Crystal oscillators.
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Using Positive Feedback
The gain with positive feedback is given as
By making 1 A = 0, or A = 1, we get gain as infinity.

This condition (A = 1) is known as Barkhausen Criterion of oscillations.
It means you get output without any input !

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How is it Possible ?
Connecting point x to y, feedback voltage drives

the amplifier.
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How is it Possible ?
What happens to the output ?

There are three possibilities.
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Basic principles for oscillation
An oscillator is an amplifier with positive feedback.
Ve Vs Vf (1)
Vf Vo (2)
Vo AVe A Vs Vf AVs Vo
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(3)
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Vo AV e A Vs Vf A Vs V o
Vo AVs A o
The closed loop gain is:
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1 A Vo AVs
Vo
A
Af
Vs 1 A
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In general A and are functions of frequency and thus

Vo
As
s
A f s
1 As s
Vs
may be written as;
is known as loop gain

As s
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(1) If A < 1, we get decaying of damped oscillations.
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(2) If A > 1, we get growing oscillations.
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(3) If A = 1, we get sustained oscillations. In this

case, the circuit supplies its own input signal.
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Wherefrom comes the starting voltage ?

Each resistor is a noise generator.
The feedback network is a resonant circuit giving
maximum feedback voltage at frequency f0, providing
phase shift of 0 only at this frequency.
The initial loop gain A > 1.
The oscillations build up only at this frequency.
After the desired output is reached, A reduces to unity.
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Tank Circuit
LC parallel circuit is called
tank circuit.
Once excited, it oscillates
at
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Tank Circuit
The energy keeps oscillating between electric

potential energy and magnetic filed energy.
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Oscillators are the circuits which coverts DC

Voltage from battery to AC Voltage
Without excitation input signal
A simple example
If you charge up the capacitor with

a battery and then insert the
inductor into the circuit, here's
what will happen
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The capacitor will start to discharge through the
inductor. As it does, the inductor will create a
magnetic field
Once the capacitor discharges, the inductor will try to
keep the current in the circuit moving, so it will
charge up the other plate of the capacitor.
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Once the inductor's field collapses, the capacitor has
been recharged (but with the opposite polarity), so it
discharges again through the inductor
Frequency will depend upon L and C
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Tank Circuit
When the tank circuit resonates, the circulating current
flows through L1 in series with L2. Hence the equivalent
inductance is
The feedback factor is
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Damped oscillations are produced.
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LC Oscillators
Hartley oscillator.
Colpitts oscillator.
Clapp oscillator.
Franklin oscillator
Tuned Collector oscillator.
Armstrong oscillator.
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General Form of LC Oscillators
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General Form of LC Oscillators - Description

Amplifier any active device EX:Vacuum
tube,Transistor,FET,Op-amp
Z1,z2,z3 determine the frequency of oscillation

Z1,z2 serve as ac voltage divider for the output voltage
and feedback signal voltage across z1-feedback signal.
1,3 input terminals.
2,3-output terminals.
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Z=z1 II hie =
ZL =z +z3 II z2
Z L = II z2
Z L = + II
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Vo = - I1(Z1+Z3) = -I1
vf =- I1 Z1 =- I1
vf=
==
Av = ZL
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Av =1
=1
General Equation of LC Oscillator:

hie (z1+z2+z3) +z1z2 (1+hfe)z1z3 =0
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Hartley Oscillator
Note that in the collector-tuned circuit, two inductor

coils are used.
One end of these coils is grounded.
If we make the tickler coil an integral part of the circuit, we get Hartley Oscillator.
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Hartley Oscillator
LC oscillator
Two inductive reactances
One capacitive reactance in its feedback network.
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Hartley Oscillator
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Amplifier stage:
Circuit Description
1.Transistor Active device in Common emitter

Configuration.
2.R1 and R2 biasing resistors.
3.RE-Biasing emitter resistance
4.CE-Emitter bypass capacitors.
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Circuit Description
5.CC1 & CC2 are the coupling capacitors.

6.RFC-Radio frequency Choke(isolation b/w A.C & D.C)
Reactance value very high for high

frequencies.(open circuit)
Reactance value zero for D.C.Conditions.
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Derivation of frequency of oscillation
Z1 =jwL1+jwM
z2 = jwL2 +jwM
z3=

hie (z1+z2+z3) +z1z2 (1+hfe)z1z3 =0
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hie (jwL1+jwM+ jwL2 +jwM- )+
jwhie (L1 + L2 +2M ) (W2
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Equating Imaginary part = 0

L1+L2+2M =
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Equating Real part = 0
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hfe L2 + hfe M L1 M = 0
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Colpitts Oscillator
An excellent circuit.
LC Oscillator
Two Capacitive Reactance
One Inductive Reactance In The Feedback Network.
Same As A Hartley Oscillator Except The Tank Circuit.
Widely used in commercial signal generators.
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Colpitts Oscillator
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Its AC Equivalent
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Amplifier stage:
Circuit Description

Configuration.
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Circuit Description
Reactance value very high for high frequencies.(open
circuit)
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DERIVATION OF FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION
Z1 =
Z2 =
Z3 = jwL
hie (z1+z2+z3 ) +z1z2 (1+hfe)z1z3 =0
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hie (z1+z2+z3 ) +z1z2 (1+hfe)z1z3 =0
hie ( + = 0
j hie ( + -wL ) +(
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Equating Imaginary part = 0
+ = wL
=w2 L
fr =
=wL
w =
fr =
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Equating Real part = 0
= =c2 L
hfe = - 1
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= w2c2L
1+hfe =
hfe =
68
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Solution :
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CLAPP OSCILLATOR
To Achieve Frequency Stability Colpitts Oscillator Circuit
Slightly Changed-clapp Osc
Addition Of One More Capacitor C3 Is Introduced In
Series With The Inductance.
KEY POINT:
C3 Much More Smaller Than C1 And C2.
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CLAPP OSCILLATOR - CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
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Amplifier stage:
Circuit Description

Configuration.
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Circuit Description
Reactance value very high for high frequencies.(open
circuit)
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Provides improved stability
Permits capacitive tuning of the oscillator if C3 is variable.
1
fr
2
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1
Lc3
1
fr
c1c 2c3
)
2 L(
c1c 2 c1c3 c 2c3
c1c 2
c3
c1 c 2
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ADVANTAGES of Colpitts oscillation

The frequency is stable and accurate.
The good frequency stability.
The stray capacitances have no effect on C3 which
decides the frequency.
Keeping C3 variable, frequency can be varied in the
desired range.
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Franklin oscillator
Two Transistor Stages With Some Common Terminal(emitter)
Each Stage Provides 180 Phase Shift
Both Stages Provides Amplification As Well As Phase
Inversion
The Resonating Circuit Is Isolated From Active Device Path By
C1 And C2.
Resonating Circuit Isolated From Input Of First Stage And
Output Of Second Stage.
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Franklin oscillator
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SERIES RESONATING CIRCUIT
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PRACTICAL FRANKLIN OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT
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Franklin oscillator - CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

Parallel Resonating Circuit Formed By L And C.
Rb Coupling Resistance
Rf Feedback Resistance.
Attenuation Caused By These Two Decides Loop Gain
Parallel Resonating Is Most Popular Than Series
Resonating Circuit.
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1
YL
Rs j Ls
Rs jLs
YT 2
j C
2
2
Rs Ls
Rs jLs
YT 2
j C
2
2
Rs Ls
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Yc jc
YT YL YC
1
j C
Rs j Ls
Rs
jLs
YT 2
2
j C
2
2
2
2
Rs Ls
Rs Ls
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Equate Imaginary Part to zero:

Ls
C 0
2
2
2
Rs Ls
Ls 2 2
Ls
Rs 2
c
1
Rs2
2
LsC Ls
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2
Ls
Rs 2 2 Ls 2
c
2
1
Rs
2
2
LsC Ls
Rs 2
1
1
f
2)
(
LsC Ls
2
84

1
f
2 LsC
Rs 2
2
Ls
The impedance at resonance condition is

determined from the real part.
1
zr
Yr
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1 Rs 2 2 Ls 2
2 Ls 2
Rs
zr
Yr
Rs
Rs
85
Substituting value 2
Ls
zr
CRs
Ls
Rs 2
1
zr Rs
2 )
(
Rs LsC Ls
Ls
zr Rs
Rs
CRs
Ls
zr
CRs
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FREQUENCY RANGE
100MHZ TO 3 GHZ
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APPLICATION
RF Oscillator
Precision Frequency Meter-used For The Measurement Of
Frequency
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ARMSTRONG OSCILLATOR
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TICKLER OSCILLATOR
Small Secondary Winding Is Called Tickler Coil.

Hence Another Name Tickler Oscillator.
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CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
LC Oscillator.
Employs Transformer Action.
Primary Acts As A Inductor(L)
Voltage Across The Secondary Used As A Feedback.
Biasing Point Selected By R1,R2,RE.
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CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
C1 And C2 Coupling Capacitors.

C3 Emitter Bypass Capacitor.
Feedback Signal Applied To The Base.(Q)
Transformer 180 Phase Shift .Transistor Q 180
Phaseshift.
Overall Phase Shift 360 Satisfies Barkhausen
Criterion.
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FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION
The Sustained Oscillation Depends On Inductance(l) And

Capacitance(C)
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DRAWBACKS
Rarely Used.
Compared To Other LC Oscillator.
Transformer Used
Circuit Costlier And Bulkier.
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TUNED COLLECTOR OSCILLATOR
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WHY?
The Tuned Circuit Is Placed In The Collector Of The

Transistor.
Hence Called Tuned Collector Oscillator.
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CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
LC Oscillator.
Employs Transformer Action.
Primary Acts As A Inductor(L)
Voltage Across The Secondary Used As A Feedback.
Biasing Point Selected By R1,R2,RE.
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CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
Collector Drives The LC Resonating Circuit.

Feedback Signal Induced From The Primary Applied To The
Base.(Q)
Transformer 180 Phase Shift .Transistor Q 180 Phaseshift.
Overall Phase Shift 360 Satisfies Barkhausen

Criterion.
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FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION
The Sustained Oscillation Depends On Inductance(l) And

Capacitance(C)
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DRAWBACKS
Rarely Used.
Compared To Other LC Oscillator.
Transformer Used
Circuit Costlier And Bulkier.
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0
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1
RC Oscillators
Three types :
1. RC Phase shift Oscillator.
2. Wein Bridge Oscillator.
3. Twin T Oscillator.
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TRANSISTORIZED RC FEEDBACK NETWORK
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3
RC FEEDBACK NETWORK
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Derivation for RC phase shift oscillator.
Let c1 =c2=c3=c
R1=R2=R
R3+(Rth II Rin)=R
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0
Advantages and Disadvantages of RC oscillator
Advantages
Disadvantages
Doesn t require any Fixed frequency oscillator.

bulky
and expensive
inductors.
Only one frequency fulfill
barkhausen criterion .
Pure sine wave output is
possible.
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1
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2
Solution :
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3
WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
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4

Z S R ZC R
1 1 sRC
sC
sC
1 1 1
sC
Z P R Z C
R ZC R
1
R
1 sCR
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5
Input Loading
1
1
Z1 Z P Z S
ZP ZS
sC
1 sCR
R 1 sCR
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Output Loading
Z2 Z S R ZC
R1 sCR
sCR (1 sCR) 2
1 sRC
sC
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6
Amplifier Gain
Ar
V0 V0 Vi
IS
Vi I S
To
get
V0
, we use
Vi
V i V V I 1 R1
V0
R R2
R
1
1 2
Vi
R1
R1
Since
I 0,
I1 I 2
Vi
Z 1 and
IS
R
R 1 sCR
Ar 1 2
R1 sCR (1 sCR ) 2
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and
Vo
R1 so
R1 R 2
V0 Vi
R
Z 1 1 2
Vi I S
R1
R 1 sCR
where Z 1
sCR (1 sCR ) 2
Ar
Vo
R1 R 2
so
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7
Feedback factor
Xf
Xo
If
Vo
1
ZS
sC
1 sRC
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8
Phase of f Ar equal to 180 o . It already
f Ar 1 2
R1 sCR (1 sCR ) 2
sCR
sCR
sCR
sCR
sCR s 2 C 2 R 2
1
2
R2
sCR
R
1 2
2
2
2
R1 1 3 sCR s C R
R1
R2
R1
is since f Ar 0.
1
f Ar 1 2
R1 sCR (1 sCR ) 2
Then need only

Rewriting
Oscillation Condition
R
1
1 2
1
R
3 j CR
CR
Then imaginary term 0 at
1
o
RC
Then, we can get
appropriat ely using
R 1
1 2 1 or
R1 3
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the
1
1
sCR
sCR
oscillatio n frequency
f Ar 1 by selecting
the resistors
R1 and R 2
R2
2
R1
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9
Loop gain
sC
Ar
sCR
sC R2
R1 sCR

1
R1 sCR (1 sCR) 2
1 sCR
f Ar
R
sCR
1 2
R1 sCR (1 sCR) 2
Gain with feedback is

Ar
Arf
1 f Ar
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0
Advantages and Disadvantages of wien bridge oscillator
Disadvantages
Advantages
It uses both positive and More

negative
feedback, it
provides
better stability
and high over all gain.

Frequency can be easily
adjusted by varying R or C
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components used
costlier.
It cant generate very high

frequency.
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1
TWIN T OSCILLATOR
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2
Crystal Oscillator
The Piezoelectric Effect Quartz exhibits piezoelectric effect.
When a changing mechanical stress is applied across the
crystal to cause it to vibrate, a voltage develops at the
frequency of mechanical vibration.
Conversely, when an ac voltage is applied across the crystal, it
vibrates at the frequency of the applied voltage. The greatest
vibration occurs at the crystal's natural resonant frequency.
Which is determined by the physical dimensions and by the way
the crystal is cut.
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3
Crystal Oscillator
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Crystal Oscillator
From equivalent circuit it is clear that it consists of series
as well as parallel resonant circuit
At series resonance inductive reactance is equal to
capacitive reactance Cs
At parallel resonance inductive reactance is equal to
capacitive reactance Cm
So,crystal can be used in hartley or colpitts oscillator in
place of the tank circuit
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Crystal Oscillator
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Crystal Oscillator
Used when accuracy and stability of fo is utmost

important.
Where do you need such high stability of frequency of
oscillations ?
Instead of an inductor, it uses a crystal of quartz,
tourmaline, or Rochelle salt.
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Crystal Oscillator
Piezoelectric effect.
The crystal is suitably cut and then mounted between
two metallic plates.
The fundamental frequency is given as
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Crystal Oscillator
Cm (mounting capacitance) = 3.5 pF;

Cs = 0.0235 pF; L = 137 H; R = 15 k
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Crystal Oscillator
Crystals have incredibly high Q.

For the given values, Q = 5500.
Q as high as 100 000 can be possible.
An LC circuit has Q not greater than 100.
The extremely high value of Q makes fo highly
stable.
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Crystal Oscillator
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Series and Parallel Resonance

First, resonance occurs at fs for the series combination of
L and Cs.
Above fs the series branch LCsR has inductive reactance.
It then resonates at fp , with Cm.
For this parallel resonance, equivalent series
capacitance is Cp.
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Crystal Oscillator
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Crystal Oscillator
Normally, Cs is much smaller than Cm.
Therefore, Cp is slightly less than Cs.
Hence, the frequency fp is slightly greater than fs.
The crystal is inductive only between the frequencies fs
and fp.
The frequency of oscillation must lie between these
frequencies.
Hence the stability.
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The fo is between 411 kHz and 412 kHz.

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Pierce Oscillator
If we assume that the current through C1,2 is larger than
the collector current (high Q), then we see that the same
current flows through both capacitors. The voltage at the
input and output is therefore
vo I1
vi I1
1
jC1
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j C2
vo
C
n 1
vi
C2
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FACTORS AFFECTING THE FREQUENCY STABILITY

Change in temperature affects component values of the
tank circuit.
Change in temperature affects active device parametres
inturn affect the frequency.
Variation in the power supply the another factor affecting
the frequency.
Changes in the load connected affect the effective
resistance of the tank circuit.
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MODIFICATIONS FOR FREQUENCY STABILITY

Enclosing the circuit in a constant temperature chamber.
Maintaining constant voltage by using the zener diodes.
Load effect is reduced by coupling the oscillator to the
load loosely
Circuit having high input impedance and low output
impedance.
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Variation of frequency with temperature.FOR

FREQUENCY STABILITY
It is denoted by S.
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Review
Need of an Oscillator.
Types of Oscillators.
Using Positive Feedback.
Barkhausen Criterion of Oscillations.
Starting Voltage .
Tank Circuit.
Tuned Collector Oscillator.
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Review
Hartley Oscillator.
Colpitts Oscillator.
RC Phase Shift Oscillator.

Wien Bridge Oscillator.
Crystal Oscillator.
Series and Parallel
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Unit 2 - Oscillators by Mehzabeen

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In our daily life

Digital watches, Invertors, Radios , T.V, Computers, Fans, Metal

If you push on a pendulum to start it swinging, it will oscillate at

Overview of the Oscillator

Feedback and Amplifier Gain

Ability to Change Frequency

Typical Uses of the Oscillator

Typical Uses of the Oscillator

controls use oscillators to

frequencies for operation

Typical Uses of the Oscillator

generate the rectangular

Typical Uses of the Oscillator

frequencies and waveforms

Under proper conditions, the signal returned by the feedback

An oscillator generating square wave or a pulse

Depending upon type of feedback, we have

Tuned Circuit (LC) oscillators.

Using Positive Feedback

The gain with positive feedback is given as

By making 1 A = 0, or A = 1, we get gain as infinity.

It means you get output without any input !

Connecting point x to y, feedback voltage drives

What happens to the output ?

Basic principles for oscillation

An oscillator is an amplifier with positive feedback.

Basic principles for oscillation

The closed loop gain is:

Basic principles for oscillation

In general A and are functions of frequency and thus

may be written as;

is known as loop gain

(1) If A < 1, we get decaying of damped oscillations.

(2) If A > 1, we get growing oscillations.

(3) If A = 1, we get sustained oscillations. In this

Wherefrom comes the starting voltage ?

The energy keeps oscillating between electric

Oscillators are the circuits which coverts DC

If you charge up the capacitor with

Oscillators are the circuits which coverts DC

Oscillators are the circuits which coverts DC

Frequency will depend upon L and C

The feedback factor is

Damped oscillations are produced.

General Form of LC Oscillators

General Form of LC Oscillators - Description

Z1,z2,z3 determine the frequency of oscillation

1,3 input terminals.

General Form of LC Oscillators

General Form of LC Oscillators

General Form of LC Oscillators

General Equation of LC Oscillator:

Note that in the collector-tuned circuit, two inductor

1.Transistor Active device in Common emitter

5.CC1 & CC2 are the coupling capacitors.

Reactance value very high for high

Reactance value zero for D.C.Conditions.

Derivation of frequency of oscillation

General Equation of LC Oscillator:

Derivation of frequency of oscillation

hie (jwL1+jwM+ jwL2 +jwM- )+

jwhie (L1 + L2 +2M ) (W2

Derivation of frequency of oscillation