New Chapter 2 Phasors and System Arrangements

CHAPTER 2
PHASORS AND
SYSTEM ARRANGEMENTS
Chapter 2
Page 1
Phasors and System Arrangements
PHASORS AND SYSTEM ARRANGEMENTS

Relationship between Current And Voltage In Various System
Elements
Resistor
Inductor
Capacitor
Complex Impedance
Three Phase Power Loads
Introduction
Problem 1
Relationship Between Currents and Voltages
Characteristics of Faults
Using Phasor Relationships to Design Directional Relays
Problem 2: V,I Phasor Relationships
Types of Distribution Systems
Radial System
Loop System (Ring Main Unit)
Primary Slective System
Secondary Selective System
Substation Bus Arrangements
Single Bus Arrangement
Doube Bus Double Breaker
Main and Transfer Bus
Double Bus Single Breaker
Ring Bus Arrangement
Breaker and a Half Scheme
Reliability Comparisons
IEEE Device Numbers

Chapter 2
Page 2
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CURRENT AND VOLTAGE IN

VARIOUS SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Resistor
The current and voltage are in phase in a purely resistive circuit, as shown in Figure
2-1.
Figure 2-1. Resistor Circuit

Inductor
The current lags the voltage by /2 radians or 90o in a purely inductive circuit, as
shown in Figure 2-2.
Figure 2-2. Inductor Circuit
Chapter 2
Page 3
Capacitor
The current leads the voltage by /2 radians or 90o in a purely capacitive circuit, as
shown in Figure 2-3.
Figure 2-3. Capacitor Circuit
Complex Impedance
In general, impedance is a complex number of the form Z = R+ jX, where R
(resistance) is the real part and X (reactance) is the reactive or imaginary part.
The inductive reactance (XL) in a coil or wire that is measured in ohms () is equal to
2 times the frequency (f) times the inductance (L) of the coil that is measured in
Henries (H) or XL = 2fL. The capacitive reactance (XC) of a capacitor that is
measured in ohms () is equal to the reciprocal of 2 times the frequency (f) times
the capacitance that is measured in farads (F) or XC = 1/(2fC).
Because impedance is a complex number it may be represented on the complex
number plane; however, because resistance is never negative, only the first and
fourth quadrants are involved in the analysis. The resistance (R) is located on the
positive real axis, inductive reactance (XL) is located on the positive reactance
(imaginary) axis, and capacitive reactance (XC) is located on the negative reactance
(imaginary) axis, as shown in Figure 2-4.
Chapter 2
Page 4
Complex Impedance
Figure 2-4. Complex Impedance
An impedance triangle is often used as a graphical representation of impedance.

The impedance triangle consists of vectors that represent resistance (R) and
reactance ( jX), as shown in Figure 2-5. The vector Z is the sum of the two vectors
R and jX.
Figure 2-5. Impedance Triangle
Chapter 2
Page 5
THREE-PHASE POWER LOADS

Introduction
A three-phase system has three sources of power with a certain time interval
between each source. It is very easy to generate three-phase voltages by
connecting three windings 120o apart on a generator. Figure 2-6 shows a threephase system in an ABC phase rotation sequence.
Three wires of a three-phase system can provide 173% ( 3) more power than two
wires of a single-phase system. When both single-phase and three-phase loads are
supplied from the same power supply, a three-phase, four-wire system (3, 4-wire),
which is called a wye (Y) connection, is used to supply power. If there are only
three-phase loads, a three-phase, three wire system (3, 2-wire), which is called a
delta () connection, is used to supply power.
Figure 2-6. Three-Phase Power
Chapter 2
Page 6
PROBLEM 1:
Given a five breaker bus with power flows as indicated in Figure 2-7, and the system
elements that are indicated below, identify each breaker (insert the letter) with its
respective system component.
System elements:
a. p.f. correction capacitor
b. pure resistive heater
c. generator
d. induction motor
e. synchronous motor
Figure 2-7. Power Flow Phasors (Problem 1)
Chapter 2
Page 7
SOLUTION TO PROBLEM 1:
Figure 2-8. Solution to Problem 1
Chapter 2
Page 8
Summary
Voltage, Current, and Impedance:
E
I
Z
|Z|
cos
sin
tan
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
IZ
E/Z
E/I = R + j(XL - XC)
[R2 + (XL - XC)2]1/2
R/Z = p.f.
X/Z
X/R
Power (Single-Phase):
S
P
Q
cos
sin
tan
=
=
=
=
=
=
EI = (P2 + Q2)1/2
EI cos = S cos
EI sin = S sin
P/S = p.f.
Q/S
Q/P
Power (Three-Phase):
S
P
Q
cos
sin
tan
=
3 EI =(P2 + Q2)1/2
3 EI cos = S cos
=
=
3 EI sin = S sin
= P/S = p.f.
= Q/S
= Q/P
Motors:
kWin = (hpout x .746 kW/hpout)/()

kVAin = kWin/p.f.
I
= (hpout x .746 kW/hpout)/( 3 x kV x x p.f.)
= kVA/( 3 x kV)
Note: If x p.f. .746 then kVAin = hpout
Transformers:
kVA
Ipri
Isec
Chapter 2
=
3 x kV x I
= kVA/( 3 x kVpri)
= kVA/( 3 x kVsec)
Page 9
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CURRENTS AND VOLTAGES
Van
Vab
Ia
Vbc
Vcn
Ib
Ic
Vbn
Vbc
Figure 2-9.
Relationship between Current and Voltage for a System with Unity Power
Factor
At unity power factor

Ia leads Vbc by 90 degrees
Ib leads Vca by 90 degrees
Ic leads Vab by 90 degrees
Chapter 2
Page 10
CHARACTERISTICS OF FAULTS
SYSTEM VOLTAGE
FAULT ANGLES
7.2 23 kV
20 to 45 lag
23 69 kV
45 to 75 lag
69 230 kV
60 to 80 lag
230 kV and above
75 to 85 lag
Chapter 2
Page 11
USING PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS TO DESIGN

DIRECTIONAL RELAYS
Back-Feed
67
Ia
Vbc
Ia and Van are in Phase
Fault on
Transformer
Primary
67
Ia
Vbc
Ia lags Ia(before fault) by approx. 60 degrees

Normal Load
67
Vbc
Ia
Ia lags Ia (before fault) by 180 degrees

Ia lags Vbc by 90 degrees
Figure 2-10 Ninety Degrees Connection for Directional Relays
Chapter 2
Page 12
PROBLEM 2: V, I PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS

Given the circuit diagram that is shown in Figure 2-11a with current flows and V, I
phasor relationships as shown in Figure 2-11b, match the following elements in the
circuit diagram (insert the letter).
a. pure capacitor
b. pure inductor
c. pure resistor
d. generator
A
VAB
I2
I1
I3
I4
B
(a) Circuit Diagram
I4
I3
I1
VAB
I2
(b) Phasor Relationships
Figure 2-11. V, I Phasor Relationships (Problem 3)
Chapter 2
Page 13
TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

RADIAL SYSTEM
(a)
(b)
Figure 2-12. Examples of Radial Systems

Advantages
Low initial investment
Reduced Fault level compared to other systems
Simple to operate
Simple Relaying (no need for directional relays)
Disadvantages
No redundancy
Taking out any component for maintenance causes power interruption to

part or all of the system
Comments
Used to feed non-critical loads
Chapter 2
Page 14
LOOP SYSTEM (RING MAIN UNIT)
(a)
(b)
Figure 2-13. Examples of Loop Systems

Advantages
Provides some redundancy
Faults on the high side loop do not cause outages, if the loop is closed, and
proper relaying is used
Disadvantages
High initial investment
High Fault level, compared to the radial systems
More complex to operate
Need directional relaying
Comments
Used to feed critical loads
Chapter 2
Page 15
PRIMARY SELECTIVE SYSTEM
Figure 2-14. Example of a Primary Selective Radial System

Advantages
Relatively low initial investment
Reduced Fault level compared to loop system
Simple to operate
Simple Relaying (no need for directional relays)
Disadvantages
Only provides redundancy for faults on the primary side of the selector
switch
Comments
Provides some degree of redundancy
Chapter 2
Page 16
SECONDARY SELECTIVE SYSTEM
Normally Open Tie Breaker

or
Normally Closed Tie Breaker
(a)
(b)
Figure 2-15. Example of Secondary Selective System

Advantages
Relatively Low initial investment
Same fault level as radial system (if tie breaker is open)
Simple to operate
No need for directional relays (if tie breaker is open)
Disadvantages
High fault level (if tie breaker is closed)
Need directional relaying (if tie breaker is closed)
Comments
Provides good degree of redundancy
Chapter 2
Page 17
SUBSTATION BUS ARRANGEMENTS

SINGLE BUS ARRANGEMENT
Line
Bus
Disc. Switch
Circuit Breaker
Lines
Figure 2-16. Example of a Single Bus Arrangement
The single-bus scheme is not normally used for major substations. Dependence on
one main bus can cause serious outage in the event of breakers or bus failure. The
station must be de-energized in order to carry out bus maintenance or add bus
extensions. Although the protective relaying is relatively simple, the single bus
scheme is considered inflexible and subject to complete outage.
Chapter 2
Page 18
DOUBLE BUS - DOUBLE BREAKER

Line
Line
Transformer
Figure 2-17. Examples of Double Bus-Double Breaker Scheme
The double-bus-double-breaker scheme requires two circuit breakers for each feeder
circuit. Normally each circuit is connected to both busses. In some cases, half of the
circuits could operate on each bus. For these cases, bus or breaker failure would
cause the loss of half the circuits. The location of the main bus must be such as to
prevent faults spreading to both buses. The use of two breakers per circuit makes
this scheme expensive. However, it represents a high order of reliability when all
circuits are connected to operate on both busses.
Chapter 2
Page 19
MAIN AND TRANSFER BUS

Line
Line
Main Bus
Bus
Tie
Breaker
Transfer Bus
Transformer
Figure 2-18. Examples of a Main and Transfer Bus Scheme
The main-and-transfer-bus scheme adds a transfer bus to the single-bus scheme.

An extra bus-tie circuit breaker is provided to tie the main and transfer busses
together.
When a circuit breaker is removed from service for maintenance, the bus tie circuit
breaker is used to keep that circuit energized. Unless the protective relays are also
transferred, the bus-ti relaying must be capable of protecting transmission lines or
generators. This is considered rather unsatisfactory since relaying selectivity is poor.
A satisfactory alternative consists of connecting the line and bus relaying to current
transformers located on the lines rather than on the breakers. For this arrangement
line and bus relaying need not be transferred when a circuit breaker is taken out of
service for maintenance, with the bus-tie breaker used to keep the circuit energized.
If the main bus is ever taken out of service for maintenance, no circuit breakers
remain to protect any of the feeder circuits. Failure of any breaker or failure of the
main bus can cause complete loss of service of the station.
Disconnect switch operation with the main-and-transfer-bus scheme can lead to
operator error, injury, and possible shutdown.
Chapter 2
Page 20
DOUBLE BUS SINGLE BREAKER

Bus No. 1
Bus No. 2
Bus tie breaker
Line
Line
Figure 2-19. Example of a Double Bus Arrangement Scheme

This scheme used two main busses, and each circuit includes two bus selector
disconnect switches. A bus tie circuit connects to the two main busses and, when
closed, allows transfer of a feeder from one bus to the other bus without deenergizing the feeder circuit by operating the bus selector disconnect switches. The
circuits may all operate from the No. 1 main bus, or half of the circuits may be
operated off either bus. In the first case, the station will be out of service for bus or
breaker failure. In the second case, half of the circuits would be lost for bus or
breaker failure.
In some cases circuits operate from both the No. 1 and No. 2 bus and the bus-tie
breaker is normally operated closed. For this type of operation a very selective bus
protective relaying scheme is required in order to prevent complete loss of the
station for a fault on either bus.
Disconnect switch operation becomes quite involved with the possibility of operator
error, injury and possible shutdown. The double-bus-single-breaker scheme is poor
in reliability and is not used for important substations.
Chapter 2
Page 21
RING BUS ARRANGEMENT
Transformer
Line
Transformer
Line
Figure 2-20. Example of a Ring Bus Arrangement
In the ring-bus scheme, the breakers are arranged in a ring with circuits connected
between breakers. There is the same number of circuits as there are breakers.
During normal operation, all breakers are closed. For a circuit fault, two breakers are
tripped, and in the event one of the breakers fails to operate to clear the fault, an
additional circuit will be tripped by operation of breaker-failure backup relays. During
breaker maintenance, the ring is broken, but all lines remain in service.
The circuits connecter to the ring are arranged so that sources are alternated with
loads. For an extended circuit outage, the line disconnects switch may be opened
and the ring can be closed
No changes to protective relays are required for any of the various operating
conditions or during maintenance.
The ring bus scheme is economical in cost, has good reliability, is safe for operation,
is flexible, and is normally considered suitable for important substations up to a limit
of five circuits. Protective relaying and automatic reclosing are more complex than
for previous schemes described. It is common practice to build major substations
initially as a ringbus; for more than five outgoing circuits, the ring bus is usually
developed to the breaker-and-a-half scheme.
Chapter 2
Page 22
BREAKER AND A HALF SCHEME

Line
Line
Bus No. 1
Tie
Breaker
Bus No. 2
Line
Line
Figure 2-21. Examples of Breaker and a Half Scheme
The breaker-and-a-half scheme, sometimes called the three-switch scheme, has

three breakers in series between the main busses. Two circuits are connected
between the three breakers, hence the term breaker and a half. This pattern is
repeated along the main busses so that one and a half breakers are used for each
circuit.
Under normal operating conditions, all breakers are closed and both busses are
energized. AA circuit is tripped by opening the two associated circuit breakers. Tie
breaker failure will trip one additional circuit, but no additional circuit is lost if a line
trip involves failure of a bus tie breaker.
Either bus may be taken out of service at any time with no loss of service. With
sources connected opposite loads, it is possible to operate with both busses out of
service. Breaker maintenance can be done with no loss of service, no relay changes,
and simple operation of the breaker disconnects.
The breaker and a half arrangement is more expensive than the other schemes,
except the double breaker-double-bus scheme. However, the breaker-and-a-half
scheme is superior in flexibility, reliability, and safety. Protective relaying and
automatic reclosing schemes are more complex than for other schemes.
Chapter 2
Page 23
RELIABILITY COMPARISONS
The various schemes have been compared to emphasize their advantages and
disadvantages. The basis of comparison to be employed is the economic justification
of a particular degree of reliability. The determination of the degree of reliability
involves an appraisal of anticipated operating conditions and the continuity of service
required by the load to be served.
Chapter 2
Page 24
SUMMARY OF COMPARISON OF SWITCHING SCHEMES

Switching
Advantages
Disadvantages
Scheme
Single Bus
1. Lowest Cost
Double bus,
double breaker
1. Each circuit has two

dedicated breakers
2. Has flexibility In permitting
feeder circuits to be
connected to either bus.
3. Any breaker can be taken
out of service for
maintenance
4. High reliability
1. Low initial and ultimate cost
2. Any breaker can be taken
out of service for
maintenance
3. Potential devices may be
used on the main bus for
relaying
Main and
Transfer
Double bus,
single breaker
Chapter 2
1. Permits some flexibility with

two operating busses
2. Either main bus may be
isolated for maintenance
3. Circuits can be transferred
readily from one bus to the
other bus by use of bus-tie
breaker and bus selector
disconnect switches.
Page 25
2. Failure of bus or any circuit

breaker results in shutdown of
entire substation
3. Difficult to do any maintenance
4. Bus cannot be extended without
completely de-energizing the
substation
5. Can be used only where loads can
be interrupted or have other supply
arrangements
1. Most expensive
2. Would lose half of the circuits for
breaker failure if circuits are not
connected to both busses
1. Requires one extra breaker for the

bus tie
2. Switching is somewhat
complicated when maintaining a
breaker
3. Failure of bus or any circuit
breaker results in shutdown of
entire substation
1. One extra breaker is required for
the bus tie
2. Four switches are required per
circuit
3. Bus protection schemes may
cause loss of substation when it
operates if all circuits are
connected to that bus
4. High exposure to bus faults
5. Line breaker failure takes all
circuits connected to that bus out
of service
6. Bus-tie breaker failure takes entire
substation out of service
SUMMARY OF COMPARISON OF SWITCHING SCHEMES (Cont'd.)
Switching
Advantages
Disadvantages
Scheme
Ring bus
1. Low initial and ultimate cost

2. Flexible operation for
breaker maintenance
3. Any breaker can be
removed for maintenance
without interrupting load
4. Requires only one breaker
per circuit
5. Does not use main bus
6. Each circuit is fed by two
breakers
7. All switching is done with
breakers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Breaker and a
Half
Chapter 2
1. Most flexible operation

2. Highly reliable
3. Breaker failure of bus side
breakers removes only one
circuit from service
4. All switching is done with
breakers
5. Simple operation; no
disconnect switching
required for normal
operation
6. Either main bus can be
taken out of service at any
time for maintenance
7. Bus failure does not remove
any feeder circuits from
service
Page 26
1.
2.
If a fault occurs during a breaker

maintenance period, the ring can be
separated into two sections
Automatic reclosing and protective
relaying circuitry rather complex
If a single set of relays are used, the
circuit must be taken out of service
to maintain the relays (Common on
all schemes)
Requires potential devices on all
circuits since there is no definite
potential reference point. These
devices may be required in all cases
for synchronizing, live line, or
voltage indication
Breaker failure during a fault on one
of the circuits causes loss of one
additional circuit owing to operation
of breaker-failure relaying
1 breakers per circuit
Relaying and automatic reclosing
are somewhat involved since the
middle breaker must be responsive
to either of its associate circuits
Chapter 2
Page 27

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CHAPTER 2

Phasors and System Arrangements

PHASORS AND SYSTEM ARRANGEMENTS

Loop System (Ring Main Unit)

Primary Slective System

Secondary Selective System

Substation Bus Arrangements

Single Bus Arrangement

Doube Bus Double Breaker

Main and Transfer Bus

Double Bus Single Breaker

Ring Bus Arrangement

Breaker and a Half Scheme

IEEE Device Numbers

Phasors and System Arrangements

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CURRENT AND VOLTAGE IN

Figure 2-1. Resistor Circuit

Figure 2-2. Inductor Circuit

Phasors and System Arrangements

Figure 2-3. Capacitor Circuit

Phasors and System Arrangements

Figure 2-4. Complex Impedance

An impedance triangle is often used as a graphical representation of impedance.

Figure 2-5. Impedance Triangle

Phasors and System Arrangements

THREE-PHASE POWER LOADS

Figure 2-6. Three-Phase Power

Phasors and System Arrangements

Figure 2-7. Power Flow Phasors (Problem 1)

Phasors and System Arrangements

Figure 2-8. Solution to Problem 1

Phasors and System Arrangements

kWin = (hpout x .746 kW/hpout)/()

Phasors and System Arrangements

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CURRENTS AND VOLTAGES

At unity power factor

Phasors and System Arrangements

230 kV and above

Phasors and System Arrangements

USING PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS TO DESIGN

Ia lags Ia(before fault) by approx. 60 degrees

Ia lags Ia (before fault) by 180 degrees

Figure 2-10 Ninety Degrees Connection for Directional Relays

Phasors and System Arrangements

PROBLEM 2: V, I PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS

Phasors and System Arrangements

TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Figure 2-12. Examples of Radial Systems

Low initial investment

Reduced Fault level compared to other systems

Simple Relaying (no need for directional relays)

Taking out any component for maintenance causes power interruption to

Phasors and System Arrangements

LOOP SYSTEM (RING MAIN UNIT)

Figure 2-13. Examples of Loop Systems

Provides some redundancy

High initial investment

High Fault level, compared to the radial systems

More complex to operate

Need directional relaying

Phasors and System Arrangements

PRIMARY SELECTIVE SYSTEM

Figure 2-14. Example of a Primary Selective Radial System

Relatively low initial investment