Resistors: Classification and characteristics

EC04 403 Electronic Circuits

I. RESISTORS
The resistor is an electrical device whose primary function is to introduce resistance to the flow of electric
current. The magnitude of opposition to the flow of current is called the resistance of the resistor. A larger
resistance value indicates a greater opposition to current flow. The resistance is measured in ohms.
An ohm is the resistance that arises when a current of one ampere is passed through a
resistor subjected to one volt across its terminals.
The various uses of resistors include setting biases, controlling gain, fixing time constants, matching and
loading circuits, voltage division, and heat generation. The following sections discuss resistor characteristics
and various resistor types.
1.1 Resistor Characteristics and Specifications
Voltage and Current Characteristics of Resistors
The resistance of a resistor is
directly proportional to the resistivity of the material and the length of the resistor, and
Inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of current flow.
The resistance R of a resistor is given by

where r is the resistivity of the resistor material (W cm),l is the length of the resistor along direction of
current flow (cm), and A is the cross-sectional area perpendicular to current flow (cm2) . Resistivity is an
inherent property of materials. Good resistor materials typically have resistivities between 210 -6 and
20010-6 Wcm.
The resistance of a resistor can be defined in terms of the voltage drop across the resistor and current
through the resistor related by Ohms law,

Where R is the resistance (W), Vis the voltage across the resistor (V), and I is the current through the
resistor (A). Whenever a current is passed through a resistor, a voltage is dropped across the ends of the
resistor. Figure 1.3 depicts the symbol of the resistor with the Ohms law relation.
All resistors dissipate power when a voltage is applied. The power dissipated by the resistor is represented
by

Where P is the power dissipated (W), V is the voltage across the resistor (V), and R is the resistance (W).
An ideal resistor dissipates electric energy without storing electric or magnetic energy.
Symbol: Fixed
<Ramesh K.> <MEAEC>

Variable:

Resistors: Classification and characteristics

EC04 403 Electronic Circuits

Specifications
Ohmic Value: It is the resistance value of the resistor, expressed in ohms, Kohms, or Mohms.
Tolerance: Tolerance indicates the accuracy. It is generally expressed in the + % deviation from
the resistance value.
Power Rating: It is the maximum power in watts that the resistor can safely dissipate.
Temperature Coefficient: Resistance of the material will change with temperature.
Temperature coefficient indicates the rate at which the resistance of the resistor changes with
temperature effect. It is usually expressed in parts per million per unit temperature change (ppm/ o
C)
Voltage Coefficient: Values of resistors will have a slight change with the applied voltage across
it. It is generally found as a decrease with increase in voltage. Voltage coefficient of a resistor
respresents the possible variations in resistance value due to voltage changes. It is defined as the
change of resistance of resistor per ohm per volt and is expressed in ppm%

where R1 =R @V1 volts and R2 =R@V2 volts.

Voltage rating: This is the max voltage that can be applied to a resistor without any damage.

Noise: The thermal agitation produced in the resistor while current passes through it. This type of
noise is generally referred as White Noise. The noise is measured in V.
Stability: Stability represents the change in resistance value, which occurs, under specified
physical and electrical operating conditions. Expressed in %.
Reliability: It gives the % of failure per 100 hours of use;

1.2 Color Coding of Resistors

Resistors are generally identified by color coding or direct digital marking. The color code is given in Table
1.1. The color code is commonly used in composition resistors and film resistors. The color code essentially
consists of four bands of different colors. The first band is the most significant figure, the second band is the
second significant figure, the third band is the multiplier or the number of zeros that have to be added after
the first two significant figures, and the fourth band is the tolerance on the resistance value. If the fourth
band is not present, the resistor tolerance is the standard 20% above and below the rated
value. When the color code is used on fixed wire-wound resistors, the first band is applied in double
width.
Two types of color coding system: Four band and Five band Systems. The five band system is similar to four
band system except that the first three colour bands represents the first three significant digits of the
resistance value.
Examples: a. The value and tolerance of a resistor, R, with following colour bands
Brown, black, red and gold
From the table below; Brown (1st digit)=1, black(2nd digit)=0, red(multiplier)=2; gold(tolerance)=+5%
Hence R=10 x 102 5%=1x1035%=1k5%
b. Brown, black, gold, gold
R=10x100.1+5%=1 +5%
<Ramesh K.> <MEAEC>

Resistors: Classification and characteristics

EC04 403 Electronic Circuits

1.2 Resistance Types:

Resistors can be broadly categorized as fixed, variable, and special-purpose. Each of these resistor types is
discussed in detail with typical ranges of their characteristics.
1.2.1 Fixed Resistors
The fixed resistors are those whose value cannot be varied after manufacture.
Fixed resistors are classified into composition resistors, wire-wound resistors, and film resistors.
Table 1.2 outlines the characteristics of some typical fixed resistors.

a. Composition resistors
Carbon Resistors are the most common type of Composition Resistors as they are a cheap general
purpose resistor. Their resistive element is manufactured from a mixture of finely ground carbon dust or
graphite (similar to pencil lead) and a non-conducting ceramic (clay) powder to bind it all together. The
ratio of carbon to ceramic determines the overall resistive value of the mixture and the higher this ratio is
the lower the resistance. The mixture is then moulded into a cylindrical shape and metal wires or leads are
attached to each end to provide the electrical connection before being coated with an outer insulating
material and colour coded markings.
Composition resistors are economical and exhibit low noise levels for
resistances above 1 MW. Composition resistors are usually rated for
temperatures in the neighborhood of 70C for power ranging from
1/8 to 2 W. Composition resistors have end-to-end shunted
<Ramesh K.> <MEAEC>

Resistors: Classification and characteristics

EC04 403 Electronic Circuits

capacitance that may be noticed at frequencies in the neighborhood of 100 kHz, especially for resistance
values above 0.3 MW.
b. Film Resistors
The generic term "Film Resistor" consist of Metal Film, Carbon Film and Metal Oxide Film resistor
types, which are generally made by depositing pure metals, such as nickel, or an oxide film, such as tinoxide, onto an insulating ceramic rod or substrate. The resistive value of the resistor is controlled by
increasing the desired thickness of the film and then by laser cutting a spiral helix groove type pattern into
this film. This has the effect of increasing the conductive or resistive path, a bit like taking a long length of
straight wire and forming it into a coil.
This method of manufacture allows for much closer tolerance
resistors (1% or less) as compared to the simpler carbon
composition types. The tolerance of a resistor is the difference
between the preferred value (i.e, 100 ohms) and its actual
manufactured value i.e, 103.6 ohms, and is expressed as a
percentage, for example 5%, 10% etc, and in our example the actual
tolerance is 3.6%. Film type resistors also achieve a much higher
maximum ohmic value compared to other types and values in excess
of10M (10 Million s) are available.

Metal Film Resistors have much better temperature stability than their carbon equivalents, lower noise
and are generally better for high frequency or radio frequency applications. Metal Oxide Resistors have
better high surge current capability with a much higher temperature rating than the equivalent metal film
resistors.
Another type of film resistor commonly known as a Thick Film Resistor is manufactured by
depositing a much thicker conductive paste of CERamic and METal, called Cermet, onto an alumina
ceramic substrate. Cermet resistors have similar properties to metal film resistors and are generally used for
making small surface mount chip type resistors, multi-resistor networks in one package for pcb's and high
frequency resistors. They have good temperature stability, low noise, and good voltage ratings but low
surge current properties.
Metal
Film
Resistors are
prefixed
with
a "MFR" notation (eg MFR100k) and a CF for Carbon Film
types. Metal film resistors are available in E24 (5% & 2%
tolerances), E96 (1%
tolerance)
and E192 (0.5%,
0.25% & 0.1% tolerances) packages with power ratings of
0.05 (1/20th) of a Watt up to 1/2 Watt. Generally speaking
Film resistors are precision low power components.
<Ramesh K.> <MEAEC>

Resistors: Classification and characteristics

EC04 403 Electronic Circuits

c. Wirewound Resistors
Another type of resistor, called a Wirewound Resistor, is made
by winding a thin metal alloy wire (Nichrome) or similar wire onto
an insulating ceramic former in the form of a spiral helix similar to
the Film Resistors. These types of resistors are generally only
available in very low ohmic high precision values
(from 0.01 to 100k) due to the gauge of the wire and number of
turns possible on the former making them ideal for use in measuring
circuits and Whetstone bridge type applications.
They are also able to handle much higher electrical currents than
other resistors of the same ohmic value with power ratings in excess of 300 Watts. These high power
resistors are moulded or pressed into an aluminum heat sink body with fins attached to increase their
overall surface area to promote heat loss. These types of resistors are called "Chassis Mounted Resistors".
They are designed to be physically mounted onto heat sinks or metal plates to further dissipate the
generated heat increasing their current carrying capabilities even further.
Wirewound resistor types are prefixed with a "WH" or "W" notation (eg WH10) and are available
in theWH Aluminium Cladded package (1%, 2%, 5% & 10% tolerance) or the W Vitreous
Enamelled package (1%, 2% & 5% tolerance) with power ratings from 1W to 300W or more.
1.2.2

Variable Resistors

Variable resistors are resistors whose resistance can be changed to any value between zero and a certain
maximum value. Ad in case of fixed resistors variable resistors are also of carbon composition type and wire
wound type. These include potentiometers, preset potentiometer and rheostat.
a. Carbon Potentiometer
The potentiometer is a special form of variable resistor with three terminals. Two terminals are connected
to the opposite sides of the resistive element, and the third connects to a sliding contact that can be adjusted
as a voltage divider.
Potentiometers are usually circular in form with the movable contact attached to a shaft that
rotates. Potentiometers are manufactured as carbon composition, metallic film, and wire-wound resistors
available in single-turn or multi-turn units. The movable contact does not go all the way toward the end of
the resistive element, and a small resistance called the hop-off resistance is present to prevent accidental
burning of the resistive element.

Symbol

<Ramesh K.> <MEAEC>

Resistors: Classification and characteristics

EC04 403 Electronic Circuits

b. Rheostat
The rheostat is a current-setting device in which one terminal is connected to the resistive element and the second
terminal is connected to a movable contact to place a selected section of the resistive element into the circuit.
Typically, rheostats are wire-wound resistors used as speed controls for motors, ovens, and heater controls and in
applications where adjustments on the voltage and current levels are required, such as voltage dividers and bleeder
circuits.

Symbol of rheostat

c. Presets
These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor. They are designed to be mounted directly onto the
circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. For example to set the frequency of an alarm tone or the
sensitivity of a light-sensitive circuit. A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust presets. Presets are
much cheaper than standard variable resistors so they are sometimes used in projects where a standard variable
resistor would normally be used.

Symbol

1.2.3

Special-Purpose Resistors

Integrated Circuit Resistors: Integrated circuit resistors are classified into two general categories: semiconductor
resistors and deposited film resistors. Semiconductor resistors use the bulk resistivity of doped semiconductor
regions to obtain the desired resistance value. Deposited film resistors are formed by depositing resistance films on an
insulating substrate which are etched and patterned to form the desired resistive network. Depending on the
thickness and dimensions of the deposited films, the resistors are classified into thick-film and thin-film resistors.
Varistors: Varistors are voltage-dependent resistors that show a high degree of nonlinearity between their resistance
value and applied voltage. They are composed of a nonhomogeneous material that provides a rectifying action.
Varistors are used for protection of electronic circuits, semiconductor components, collectors of motors, and relay
contacts against overvoltage. The relationship between the voltage and current of a varistor is given by
where V is the voltage (V), I is the current (A), and k and b are constants that depend on the materials and
manufacturing process. The electrical characteristics of a varistor are specified by its b and k values.
Thermistors: Thermistors are resistors that change their resistance exponentially with changes in temperature. If the
resistance decreases with increase in temperature, the resistor is called a negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
resistor. If the resistance increases with temperature, the resistor is called a positive temperature coefficient (PTC)
resistor.

<Ramesh K.> <MEAEC>