Silabus

MATA KULIAH
SKS
KODE
SEMESTER
: Bahasa Inggris PSIKM

: 2 sks
: SSE
: III / VII
1. Sinopsis Mata Kuliah

Mahasiswa dapat membaca dan memahami teks-teks berbahasa inggris
tentang Ilmu kesehatan masyarakat, serta menuliskan pemikiran-pemikiran
mereka dan mendiskusikan serta mempresentasikannya di kelas.
2. Tujuan Umum
a. Mahasiswa dapat membaca teks-teks berbahasa Inggris.
b. Mahasiswa dapat memahami serta mengidentifikasi sebuah buku atau
teks dalam waktu singkat.
c. Mahasiswa dapat memahami sebuah teks atau karangan dengan lebih
mendalam melalui konstruksi paragrafnya dalam waktu yang tidak
terlalu lama.
d. Mahasiswa dapat menuliskan gagasan dan pemikirannya dalam Bahasa
Inggris.
e. Mahasiswa dapat mempresentasikan pemikirannya di dalam kelas
dalam bentuk seminar.
f. Mahasiswa dapat menterjemahkan teks Bahasa Inggris ke dalam
Bahasa Indonesia atau sebaliknya. (tambahan)
g. Mahasiswa dapat mengenal Toefl secara selintas. (tambahan).
3. Pokok Bahasan
I. Improving Reading Speed and Comprehension
1. Faster Effective Reading.
2. Onstacles to Faster Effective Reading
3. Hints for Reading Practice (1)
II. Pre viewing
1. Previewing using titles and heading
2. Previewing using illustration
3. Previewing using introduction, table of content, blurb, and index of a
book.
III.Finding Main Ideas and Supporting Details
1. A directly stated main idea
2. An implied main idea
3. The supporting ideas
1
IV. Taking Notes

V. Summarizing
VI.Translation (tambahan)
VII.Toefl (tambahan)
VIII. Conversation
IX.. Mid Semester
X.. Class Seminar
XI. Semester Test
In the next exercises you keep a record of your reading by yourself.

1. Find your reading speed. From the table below.
Reading time
Speed (w.p.m)
Reading time
Speed (w.p.m)
(min/secs)
1.00
500
(min/secs)
3.10
158
1.10
427
3.20
150
1.20
375
3.30
143
1.30
334
3.40
137
1.40
300
3.50
131
1.50
273
4.00
125
2.00
250
4.10
120
2.10
231
4.20
116
2.20
215
4.30
111
2.30
200
4.40
107
2.40
188
4.50
104
2.50
174
5.00
100
3.00
167
Note : Your right answers should not fall below 6 or 7 out of 10. (Each of the
following texts consists of ten questions)
Exercise 6
Read the following passages as fast as possible. Then record the time and
speed by yourself.
I. Improving Reading Speed and Comprehensions

1. Faster Effective Reading
The comprehension passage on this course are designed to help your
reading speed. A higher reading rate, with no loss of comprehension, will
help you in other subjects as well as English, and the general principles
apply to any language. Naturally, you will not read every book at the same
speed. You would expect to read a newspaper, for example, much more
rapidly than a physics or economics textbook, but you can raise you average
reading speed over the whole range of material you wish to cover so that the
percentage gain will be the same whatever kind of reading you are
concerned with.
The reading passages which follow are all of an average level of
difficulty for your stage of instruction. They are all approximately 500 word
long. They are about topics of general interest which do not require a great
deal of specialized knowledge. Thus they fall between the kind of reading
you might find in your textbook and the much less demanding kind you will
find in a newspaper or light novel. If you read this kind of English, with
understanding, at say 400 words per minute, you might skim through a
newspaper at perhaps 650-700, while with a difficult textbook you might
drop to 200 or 250.
Perhaps you would like to know what reading speed are common
among native English-speaking university studens and how those speeds can
be improved. Tests in Minnesota, USA, for example, have shown that
students without special training can read English of average difficulty, for
example Tolstoys War and Peace in translation, at speed of between 240
and 250 w.p.m. It is further claimed that with intensive training over
seventeen weeks speed of over 1000 w.p.m, can be reached, but this would
be quite exceptional.
If you get to the point where you can read books of average difficulty
at between 400 and 500 w.p.m with 70% or more comprehension, you will
be doing quite well, though of course and further improvement of speed with
comprehension will be a good thing.
In this and the following three passages we shall be looking at some of
the obstacles to faster reading and what we can do to overcome them.
Think of passage as a whole

When you practice reading with passages shorter than book length, like the
passages in this course, do not try to take in each word separately, one after
the other. It is much more difficult the grasp the broad theme of the passage
this way, and you will also get stuck on individual word which may not be
absolutely essential to a general understanding of the passage. It is a good
idea to skim through the passage very quickly first (say 500 word in a
minute or so) to get the general idea of each paragraph. Titles, paragraph
headings and emphasized word (underlined or in italics) can be a great help
in getting this skeleton outline of the passage. It is surprising how many
people do not read titles, introductions or paragraph heading. Can you,
without looking back, remember the title of this passage and the heading of
this paragraph?
(From Practical Faster Reading)
After finish reading, select the answer which is most according to the
information given in the passage
1. A higher reading rate will help in other subjects as well as English
a. provided there is no loss of understanding
b. only if we memorize well
c. but not in any other laguage
d. though not as a general principle
2. You would expect to read a difficult economics textbook
a. as fast as you read a newspaper
b. more slowly than you read a newspaper
c. more quickly than you read these passages
d. only very rarely
3. You can expect to read the passages on this course
a. more quickly than you read your textbooks
b. more quickly than you read a newspaper
c. more slowly than you read your textbooks
d. faster than any other kind of material
4. The average untrained native speaker at the University of Minnesota

a. reads at 600 w.p.m
b. reads at about 300 w.p.m
c. cannot read difficult works in translation
d. reads at about 245 w.p.m
5. The University of Minnesota Claims that in 12 half-hour lessons
a. it can triple a students reading speed
b. it can double a students reading speed
c. it can increase a students reading reading speed four times
d. no real increase in readi speed can be achieved
6. Intensive training over seventeen weeks can
a. triple an untrained students reading speed
b. increase an untrained students reading speed four times
c. double an untrained students reading speed
d. triple the students comprehension scores
7. You will be doing quite well if you can read books of average difficulty
a. at about 450 w.p.m with 70% comprehension
b. at about 600 w.p.m with 60% comprehension
c. at about 300 w.p.m with 70% comprehension
d. at about 250 w.p.m with 50% comprehension
8. Reading word one at a time is bad because
a. it hurts your eyes
b. all words are equally important
c. it is more difficult to get the general idea of a passage
d. some words are longer than others
9. It is good idea to skim through a passage quickly first
a. at about 350 w.p.m
b. to get the general idea of each paragraph
c. so that you can take in each word separately
d. to make sure you get to the end at least once
10. Titles and paragraph headings

a. are more important than anything else
b. are surprising to many people
c. can easily be remembered without looking back
d. can help us get the outline of a passage
2. Obstacles to Faster Effective Reading

Perhaps you have seen very young children or very old people
learning to read. They move the index finger along the line of print, pointing
to each word, sometimes even to individual letters, saying the word or letters
to themselves in a low voice. This is called vocalizing. Sometimes the
learner makes no sound though his lips may move to from the word,
sometimes there is not even any perceptible movement of the mouth at all,
but the learner is still activating his throat muscles slightly to say the word
to himself. He is still vocalizing.
However slight the extent of vocalizing may be it will still be
impossible for such a reader to reach a speed of more than about 280 w.p.m.
The appreciation of written word must be entirely visual and we must read
more than one word at a time.
Look at you, the second word of this passage. Even if you look
straight at the o of that word, without moving your eyes at all you can
clearly see perhaps and have on either side. So you can read three words
at once. Now look at the word word on line 3. With a very slight movement
of the eyes, you can take in the whole phrase ....... saying the word or letters
....... in the same glance. In the same way, you can probably take in a
complete short sentence on one line, like the one on line 4, at one glance.
None of the lines of print on a page this size should need more than three
eye movements. Take line 6. This would perhaps break up into three word
groups: (1) ......... times there is not even ..........(2) .......... any perceptible
movement ..............(3) ............. of the mouth at all, but ........ When you are
reading well, your eyes will be one or two word groups ahead of the one
your mind is talking in.
Practise on something easy and interesting
Many students trying to increase their effective reading speed become
discouraged when they find that if they try to race through a passage faster,
they fail to take in what they have read. At the end, they have been so busy
reading faster that they cannot remember what the passage was about. The
problem here is that the material they are practising on is either too difficult
for then in vocabulary or content, or not sufficiently interesting. We hope
that the passages in this course material will be both interesting and fairly
easy, but you should also practise as much as you can in your own time.
Read things you like reading. Go to the subject catalogue in the library
biography, sport, domestic science, the cinema......there is bound to be some
area which interst you and in which you can find books of about your level
of ability or just below.
If you want a quick check on how easy a book is, read through three
or four pages at random. It is there are, on average, more then five or six
words on each page that are completely new to you then the book (though
you may persevere with it for interests sake) is not suitable for reading
speed improvement. Incidentally, you should try to read three or four times
as much light speed reading material (whatever it is Newsweek, The Saint or
A Tale of Two Cities) as you do close, slow textbook work. You cannot
achieve a permanent improvement in your reading speed if most of the time
you are practising reading slowly.
Say whether the following statements are true or false according to the
information given in the passage.
1. Very old people and very young children learn to read in much the
same way
2. Vocalizing will prevent readers from reading at speeds of over 100
w.p.m
3. It is sometimes possible to see three word at once without moving the
eyes
4. To read well your eyes should be one or two word groups a head of
your mind
5. Some students get discouraged when they first start reading faster
6. It is more important to read fast than to understand what is read
7. Reading practice material should be interesting and not too hard
8. It is impossible to check quickly how difficult a book is
9. You should never read a book that has five or six new words per page
10.Newsweek, The Saint and A Tale of Two Cities are unsuitable for
students

Set aside time each day
Most of us can find 15 minutes or half an hour each day for some
specific regular activity. It is be a free period or a regular wait, say in the
queue for a bus or meal, even while eating break. One famous surgeon
always made it a rule to spend at least 15 minutes on general reading
before he went to sleep each night. Whether he went to bed at 10 p.m or
2.30 a.m, made no difference. Even if you cannot keep to this kind of
discipline, it is a good idea to make sure you always a general interest
book in your pocket. Dont forget it should be a book which entertains
you the English must not be too difficult for you.
Check your progress through pacing
Nearly all speed reading courses have a pacing element, some
timing device which let student know how many words a minute he is
reading. You can do this simply by looking at watch every 5 or 10
minutes and noting down the page number you have reached. Check
average number of words per page for the particular book you are
reading. How do you know when 5 minutes have passed on your watch if
you are busy reading the book? Well, this is difficult at first. A friend can
help by timing you over a set period, or you can read within hearing
distance of a public clock which strikes the quarter hours. Pace yourself
every three or four days, always with the same kind of easy, general
interest book. You should soon notice your habitual w.p.m rate creeping
up.
Check comprehension
Obviously there is little point in increasing your w.p.m, rate if you do
not understand what you are reading. When you are consciously trying to
increase your reading speed, stop after every chapter (if you are reading a
novel) or every section or group of ten or twelve pages (if it is a text and
ask yourself a few question about what you have been reading. If you
find you have lost the thread of the story, or you cannot remember clearly
the details of what was said, re-read the section or chapter.
10
Lightning speed exercise

Try this from time to time. Take four or five pages of the general
interest book you happen to be reading at the time. Read them as fast as
you possibly can. Do not bother abouth whether you understand or not.
Now go back and read them at what you feel to be your normal w.p.m
rate, the rate at which you can comfortably understand. After a lightning
speed read through (probably around 600 w.p.m) you will usually find
that your normal speed has increased perhaps by as much as 50-100
w.p.m. This is the technique athletes use when they habitually run further
in training than they will have to on the day of the big race.
Select the answer which is most accurate according to the
information given in the passage.
1. The passage recommends setting aside for reading practice
a. two hours a day
b. one hour a day
c. 15 minutes or half an hour a day
d. three times a day before meals
2. One famous surgeon always made it a rule to read
a. for 15 minutes at 10 p.m each night
b. at least 15 minutes at bedtime
c. at least 15 minutes at either 10 p.m or 2.30 a.m
d. whenever he had a spare moment
3. It is a good idea always to carry in your pocket
a. a book you will never forget
b. a serious book
c. several books of various kinds
d. an easy and entertaining English book
4. A pacing device
a. times a students reading speed
b. is not included in most speed reading courses
c. is an aid to vocabulary learning
d. should be used whenever we read alone
11
5. Looking at your watch every 5 or 10 minutes

a. avoids the need for reading faster
b. is not the same as pacing
c. is not easy at first
d. helps you to remember the page number you were at last time
6. The passage recommends pacing yourself
a. every two days with different kinds of book
b. every three or four days with the same kind of book
c. every week with the same kind of book
d. as often as you read a book
7. When you are reading a novel the passage advises you to pause to check
the content
a. every chapter
b. every hour
c. every three or four pages
d. after every page
8. The purpose of pausing for thought every so often is to
a. rest the eyes
b. make sure you have not missed any pages
c. make sure you really understand what you have read
d. prevent brain fatigue
9. If you have lost the thread of a story you are reading, the passage
recommends
a. choosing an easier book
b. glancing back over the chapter you have just read
c. asking a friend to help you with the difficult
d. learning the previous chapter by heart
10. The purpose of the lightning speed exercise is to
a. increase your normal speed by practising at a very high rate
b. get through the book in half the time so that you can go on to the next
c. help you understand more of the content of the book
d. enable you to win reading races against your friends
12

Dictionaries slow you down
If you have chosen the right, fairly easy, sort of book for your general
reading practice, you will not need to use a dictionary for such an exercise.
If you really must know the dictionary meaning of all the words you meet (a
doubtful necessity) job them down on a piece of paper to look up later.
Actually the meanings of many words will be clear from the sentence around
them what we call the context. Here is an example. Do you know the word
sou wester? It has two meanings in English as the following sentence
indicate.
a. In spite of the fact that the fishermen were wearing sou westers the
storm was so heavy they were wet through.
b. An east or north east wind brings cold, dry weather to England but a
sou wester usually brings rain.
You should have guessed very easly that in sentence a) the word sou
wester refers to some kind of waterproof clothing, presumably quite thick
and heavy since it is worn by fishermen in storms. In sentence b) is is clearly
a kind of wind, coming from a south-westerly direction. Incidentally you
would have had the greatest difficulty in finding this word in most
dictionaries since it often appears a long way down among the secondary
meaning of south. If you did not know that sou meant south in the first
place you could only have found the word by the merest chance.
Pay attention to paragpaph structure
Most paragraphs have a topic sentence which expresses the central
idea. The remaining sentences expand or support that idea. It has been
estimated that between 60 and 90% of all expository, paragraphs in English
have the topic sentence first. Always pay special attention to the first
sentence of a paragraph it is most likely to give you the main idea.
Sometimes, though, the first sentence in the paragraph does not have
the feel of a main idea sentence. It does not seem to give us enough new
information to justify a paragraph. The next most likely place to look for the
topic sentence is the last sentence of the paragraph.
Take this paragraph for example : Some students prefer a strict teacher
who tells them exactly what to do. Others prefer to be left to work on their
13
own. Still others like a democratic discussion type of class. No one teaching
method can be devised to satisfy all student at the same time.
Remember that the opening and closing paragraph of a passage or
chapter are particularly important. The opening paragraph suggests the
general direction and content of the piece, while the closing paragraph often
summarizes the very essence of what has been said.
Select the answer which is most accurate according to the information
given in the passage.
1. The use of a dictionary is
a. advisable for speed reading practice
b. unnecessary for speed reading practice
c. essential for speed reading practice
d. of no help in improving general reading ability
2. You can avoid the need for reference books by
a. learning many vocabulary items in advance
b. choosing a fairly easy book
c. asking a friend
d. simply ignoring unknown words
3. If you really want to know what all the words mean
a. make a note and check later
b. use a bigger dictionary
c. ask your instructor
d. read more slowly
4. To understand a general reading book, a knowledge of the meaning of
every single word in that book is
a. doubtfully necessary
b. absolutely unnecessary
c. absolutely necessary
d. most advisable
14
5. Even if you dont know a word you can often get the meaning by
a. wild guessing
b. working it out mathematically
c. working it out from the context
d. comparing it with similar words
6. Word like sou wester are often difficult even to find in a dictionary. They
may be
a. spelled wrongly
b. listed under another word
c. only put in by chance
d. taken from another language
7. The topic sentence of an expository paragraph in English
a. usually comes in the middle
b. is most likely to be found at the end
c. is most often at the beginning
d. is usually omitted in expository writing
8. Most expository paragraphs in English have a cleary defined topic
sentence. In such paragraph the topic sentence comes first
a. in about 40% of cases
b. in about 80% of cases
c. in about 20% of cases
d. very rarely
9. Sometimes we know the first sentence is not the topic sentence because
a. it does not seem to give us enough new information
b. it is not long enough
c. it does not come at the beginning
d. it does not make complete sense
10. The closing paragraph of a piece of writing
a. is not really very important
b. is often unnecessary repetition
c. often comes at the end
d. often summarizes the essence of the passage
15
II. Previewing
Before you start to play tennis, for example, you usually do warming
up. Otherwise, you many have a lot of difficulties. This is a good idea in
reading. Look before you begin serious reading of a book (a non-fiction
book ). Then it is much easier to understand. That is what you do when you
preview.
The are several ways of previewing a non-fiction book
1. Examine the outside-front and back. (study title, illustration; read the
blurbs or comments on the jacket or cover; study the massages on the
end flaps, if any.)
2. Note the authors name; read any biographical information about him
(What are his qualifications?)
3. Check the publishers name and the copyright date. (dates are of almost
importance in many areas of study. The book, if unrevised, could be very
outdated. Study the publishing history-number of copies; dates of reprints,
etc. This information normally is found on back of the title page
4. Read the front matter-Introduction, Preface, Foreword, etc. (A quick
check of this information will give a good indication of what the writer
sets out to do in the book.)
5. Carefully look over the Table of Contents. (This is the skeletal outline for
the entire book. It will indicate the writers approach and general
treatment of the subject, the number of chapters and their approximate
leght and structure. It will also list back matter-Indexes, Bibliographies,
Glossaries, etc)
6. Thumb throught the book. (Stop briefly to note layout and typography.
Note any graphics-photographic inclusions, maps, diagrams, cartoons,
foldouts, etc)
7. If there is an overall Summary of Conclusion, read it carefully
8. Peruse Indexes, Bibliographies, or Glossaries if any are included
9. From the preview, evaluate the books value for your purpose. (If it lacks
what you need or want, select another title and repeat this preview
process.)
At first, this may seem to be a lot of time consuming work and effort.
On the contrary, with little practice and experience, it will take but a few
minutes of your time a relative few minutes that could well be among the
most important of the total time spent studying and reading the book.
16
1. Preview using titles and headings

a. Below is a list of the contents of several books, followed by the titles.
Read and match them
Titles
1. Principles of Urban Transport system planning
2. Electromagnetism : principles and applications
3. Plant Growth and development
4. Principles of Modern Chemistry
5. Living with Technology
Contents
a. Pressure and temperature of Gases
b. Education, skills and working life
c. Biosynthesis and Metabolism
d. How to give people access to all urban activities
e. Amperes circuit law
b. Read the following titles or headings and write down what think is the
Likely content of each book or article. When you have finished, compare
Your answers with partner or group
Titles
1.The Nutrients Food
2.Reading and thinking in English
Contents
....................................................
......................................................
......................................................
.......................................................
......................................................
......................................................
17
3.General Chemistry, Principal and

Modern application
.....................................................
.....................................................
.....................................................
4.An Introduction to Biology
....................................................
...................................................
...................................................
c. Which of the following books word would you consult if you were
studying the effects of new technology on comunity life? Consider
the subtitles as well as the main titles and headings. Give reasons
for your choices.
a. Lost generation
Unemployed youth
b. Computers for the workes
How do they affect you?
c. Studying abroad
Problems studying in other countries
d. Television
Several advantages of having television
e. New technology
Job content and grading
18
2. Previewing using illustrations

Illustrations can provide an indication as to the content of a book.
a. Look at the picture below and try to predict what the text is about.
what kind of text do you think it is?
19
b. Look at the diagrams below and try to predict what the text accompanying
these diagrams is about. Give reasons for your answer.
20
3. Previewing using an introduction, table of contents, blurb, and

index of a book.
Read the following introduction, table of contents, blurb, and index of a
Book. Then, answer the questions.
1. What is the book about?
2. Which parts would you look at in order to know what the book is a
about? Give reasons
3. What audience was the book written for?
4. Where can you find the information about the content and the author?
5. Which part should you check if you want to know an unknown term
quickly?
Introduction to cell science
Cell were first described by Robert Hooke in 1665 when he used his
simple microscope to examine sections of cork. He used the term cell to
describe the small walled units which could be seen in plant tissues: the
biological significance of this discovery was, however, not appreciated until
some considerable time later. The wall itself was considered to be the plant
tissue while the existence and importance of the cell contents were not
realized. However, as microscopes and preparative techniques improved
during the next100 years or so, it became possible to examine the contents of
cell. Between 1831-33 Robert Brown described a small, usually spherical,
body which he called the nucleus, as a regular feature of plant cells and, at
about the same time (1846). Mohl gave the name protoplasm to the thin
mucilaginous layer found inside the cell wall of living plant cells. Later the
term cytoplasm was used to denote the whole living material except for the
nucleus. Still later, about 1880, Schimper and Mayer are generally credited
with the discovery of the plastids, a heterogeneous group of cell organelles
that includes the chloroplasts. Thus by about 100 years ago the largest
structural elements of the plant cell (wall, cytoplasm-containing nucleus and
plastids, central vacuole ) had been desribed. These discoveries resulted
from developments in microscope construction and improvements in
preparative and staining techiques, in later sections of this book we shall see
further examples of the correlation between our knowledge of cell biology
and progress in the techniques for studying cells.
21
At the same time the discoveries of cell structure were being made,
the important generalization known as the cell theory was emerging. This is
generally associated with the names of Schleiden and Schann who in 183839, were the first to bring together the ideas and discoveries of the time into
a generalized theory which stated that cells containing nuclei are the
fundamental units of structure for both plants and animals. Twenty years
later, in 1859. Virchow propounded the next important generalization that
cells arise only from the pre-existing cells by divison. By 1866 Haeckel had
realized that the nucleus was responsible for the storage and transmission of
hereditary characters.
Contents
Preface to the edition
Preface to the second edition
Abbreviations
vii
ix
x
1. Introduction to cell science

The plant cell Size, shape and structure Methods of studying cells
Microscopic techniques Cell fractionation
2. The molecules of cells

Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic acids Proteins Enzymes cofactors
Bionerrgetics
43
3. Cell membranes
132
Properties Chemical composition of cell membranes Membrane structure
Memberane biosynthesis Membrane transport
4. The nucleus
Structure of the nucleus Functions Replication of DNA and the
chromosomes Synthesis of RNA Control of gene expression
157
5. Ribosomes
Properties and structure of ribosomes Synthesis of ribosomes
Ribosomes and protein synthesis. The genetic code
Protein synthesis of 80S ribosomes from plants Polysomes
Protein synthesis and ribosomes in cell organelles
191
22
6. The soluble phase of the cell

Structure considerations Composition of the soluble phase
Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis Pentose phosphate pathway
Biosynthesis of fats B-carboxylation and pyruvate metabolism
224
7. The mitochondrion
Stucture Tricarboxylic acid cycle
The respiratory chain and oxidative phosphorylation Other matabolic
activities
Transport Processes in mitochondria Ontogeny
281
8. The chloroplast
Structure Light reactions and photophosphorylation
Reduction of carbon dioxide. C3 and C4 plants Nitrogen metabolism
Transport processes in chloroplasts Ontogeny
327
In this book the authors consider the biochemistry and physiology of

plant cells in ralation to cellular structure rather than using the familiar
guidelines of metabolic chemistry employed in many texts. They review in
detail the latest developments in our understanding of the structure function
of organelles and other cell inclusions as sites of metabolic activity. In a
number of instance the authors have placed our knowledge of plant
metabolism in terms of what is known about mammalian or microbial
systems, particularly in those subject areas where plant science has lagged
behind
For this new edition the next has beeb revised and updated
throughout. The first two chapters are essentially introductory. They provide
an outline of cell structure and cell chemistry and attempt to familiarise the
reader with some of the techniques used in cell science. Sufficient
background information on cell chemistry is given to anable the nonspecialist to read the book without the aid of other biochemical texts.
Membranes, which from the main basis for celular compartmentation, are
then discussed in detail. A new section is included on membrane transport.
The later chapters describe the metabolic and structural properties of the
various organelles, and whilst they can be read out of context, the order has
been arranged so the related topics are grouped. New material on nitrogen
metabolism is included in the chapter on the chloroplast, while an expanded
chapter descibes and compares the functions of lysosomes and vacuoles. A
completely new chapter deals with protoplasts, which are now widely used
23
in plant cell biology. The metabolic and structural ralationships between

organelles are always stresses and cross-referencing is included whereever it
is appropriate.
This new edition will ensure that the book remains an essential text
for under-graduate student of plant and biological sciences, and postgradute
students of palnt biochemistry and phisiology.
J L Hall is professor of Biology at the University of Southampton
T J Flowers is Lecturer in Plant Physiology at the University of Sussex
R M Roberts is Professor of Biochemistry at yhe University of Florida.
ISBN O 582 44408 X
24
Index
25
III. Finding Main Ideas and Supporting Details

After previewing, good readers try to identify what the passage is
about by finding main ideas and supporting details. The main ideas is the
subject of the paragraph that is what the paragraph is about. Writers may
directly sate their main ideas or they imply them.
A directly stated main idea is one that the writers tell you about in a
topic sentence. Turning around, a topic sentence is a sentence that tells you
what the main idea is.
An implied main idea is just the opposite of a directly staded idea.
Writers do not tell you the main idea in a topic sentence. They give you only
the sentence with the supporting ideas. You have to figure out what the main
idea is. That is, you have to figure out what the writes are implying
(suggesting)
Paragraphs with directly stated main ideas are much easier to
understand. Since the writers tell you the main idea- the subject of the
paragraph-all you have to do is understand what they are telling you about
that main idea.
Paragraph with implied ideas are much harder to understand, because
you have to do more work. You have to find the main idea which the writers
do not tell you.
The supporting ideas are the rest of the ideas in the paragraph. They
develop the main idea. That is they tell you things about the main idea.
Writers use three main placements of directly stated main ideas.
These can be shown with triangels.
The Main Idea First in the Paragraph. Here the topic sentence (that is the
sentence carrying the main idea) opens the paragraph. The sentence carrying
the supporting ideas come next. People sometimes draw this placement as an
upright triangle:
Main idea
Supporting idea
26
Example
Energy sources may initially be divided into two kinds: non-renewable (i.e.
finite) and renewable. The former group includes coal, oil, gas and, in the
long run, nuclear; the latter hydropower, solar power and wind power. The
energy from all these sources ultimately derives from the sun. There is a
further source-geothermal-which depends on the earths own heat. In
practice this may be classed as non-renewable as it is exploitable in only a
few places and even there is limited.
The Main Idea Last in the Paragraph. In this placement, the topic sentence
is at the end of the paragraph. The supporting ideas come first. This drawing
of an upside-down triangle shows the placement.
Supporting ideas
Main idea
Example
Most of us believed that the death of a spouse often leads to the premature
death of the bereft partner. After twelve years of study involving 4.000
windows and windowers, John Hopkings University researchers have
perceived that it is the husband, and not the wives, whose lives are shortened
by the loss of their spouses. However the study indicates that windowers
who remarry enjoy greater longevity than men the same age who continue to
live with their first wives.
The Main Idea within the Paragraph. Here the writers start with some of
the supporting ideas. Then they put in the idea. Next, tey give some more
supporting ideas. Then, they put in the idea. Next, give some more
supporting ideas. This placement is shown in this drawing of two smaller
triangles:
27
Supporting ideas
Main idea
Supporting ideas
Example
Californians and New Englanders are both American. They speak the same
language and abide by the same federal laws But they are very different in
their ways of life. Mobility-both physical and psychological-has made a
great impression on the culture of Californians, lack of mobility is the mark
of the costoms and morality of new Englander.
The main-idea-first placement is the easiest of the three placements to
understand. It tells you what to look for as you read the rest of the paragraph.
Implied ideas, are not directly stated instead, they are suggested by the
sentences in the paragraph taken together
Example
Ticks can carry two bad illnesses. Rocky Mountain spotted fever and
tularemia. Tick bites on a persons head or backbone may lead to paralysis,
that it, not being able to move. This paralysis clears up soon after the tick is
taken off the person.
What is the main idea implied here? It is: Tick bites can hurt people. This
idea is suggested by the troubles that tick bites cause.
28
There are several ways to help you find directly stated main idea.
Look for headings, that is titles for the paragraphs. The writes may put
all or part of the main idea in a heading. Headning are easy to find.
They are in different type (or print) from the reast of the paragraph.
They are in a different place- above the paragraph or before the first
sentence within the paragraph.
Look at the relations among the sentences. The topic sentence is the
most general statement. The other sentences are about it more than
they are about each other.
Use the linking devices The topic sentence may be joined to the
supporting sentences by words like for example, namely, because, and
so on.
Finding implied main ideas takes three steps:
Look at the sentence together. Go further than the different word. Find
the idea that all the sentence share. This shared idea is the implied
main idea
Make a direct statement of your own. Directly state the implies main
idea as a paragraph heading are as a topic sentence
Check your statement. Test each of the writers sentence against your
statement to see if they support your statement. If yes, then you have
found the implies idea. If no, then try out another direct statement.
Keep trying until you get a statement that is supported by the writers
sentence.
Finding supporting details (idea) in paragraph pattern.
There are three paragraph patterns that writers usually use: questionsanswer, problem-solutions, and topic-discussion.
You found the main idea when you pinpointed the topic sentence. It was a
question,a problem or a topic.
Finding the supporting ideas is planning down the other part of pattern
If a question is given to the topic sentence, then the supporting
sentence come in the answer to that question.
29
If a problem is given to the topic sentence, then the supporting

sentences are in the solutions to that problem
If a topic is stated in the sentences then the supporting sentence are in
the discussion of that topic
Finally, writers will choose among a number of methods to develop answer
for the questions, solutions to the problems, and discussions of topics. Each
method of development has linking devices to put together the ideas.
Exercise 1
Guide practice for eight paragraphs follow. They are for practice in using
paragraph patterns in finding main ideas and supporting ideas (details).
1. How do the laws help us in every part of our lives? They help us live
together peacefully. Here are three examples. One,they take care of each
personss right, for example, the laws make sure we are free to write, say, or
read anything we wish. Two, they help people live together in a society, for
example, the laws say people cannot steal from one another. Three, they help
work out fights, for example, the laws are used to clear up the argument
when one person says another one owes money he or she wont pay.
1. What is the paragraph pattern?
.......................................................................................................................
....
2. What is the main idea (topic sentence)?
.......................................................................................................................
....
.......................................................................................................................
...
.......................................................................................................................
...
3. Where is the topic sentence placed in the paragraph?
.......................................................................................................................
...
4. How many supporting ideas (details) does the writer use?
30
........................................................................................................................
..
2. The earth is always charging. One way it changes is by erosion. Some
erosion is caused by the weather. For example, the wind causes erosion. In a
desert, the wind blows the sand around. Rain also causes erosion. It washes
away earth and even changes the shape of some rocks. Another kind of
erosion is caused by rivers. When a river goes through a mountain, it cuts
into the mountain. After a long time, the mountain is lower and the land is
flatter.
1. What is the paragraph?
.......................................................................................................................
.... 2. What is the main idea (topic sentence)?
......................................................................................................................
.....
......................................................................................................................
.....
...........................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
.....
4. How namy supporting ideas (details) does the writer use?
.......................................................................................................................
....
3. Mt. Vesuvius in Italy and Mt St. Helens in the United Sated are both
famous mountains. They are both volcanoes. A valcano is a mountain that is
open at the top. Smoke and hot air come out of the hole. Sometimes very hot
rock also comes out of the mountain. That can mean trouble for people
nearby. This is what happened with Mt.Vesuvius and Mt St. Helens. Hot
rock poured out of Mt.Vesuvius and covered the town of Pompeii in 79AD.
Everyone in the town was killed. The Mt St. Helens valcano did not kill
31
many people. There were no cities close to the mountain. But the hot rock
killed a large part of the forest. And a lot of dirt fell on cities many miles
away.
.......................................................................................................................
....
.......................................................................................................................
....
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
....
........................................................................................................................
...
4. Scientists know a lot about the earth. For example, they understand how
mountains are made and what a volcano is. But they do not know when a
volcano will send hot rock into the air. They may know about the outside of
the earth. But they still are not sure about the inside, and scientist are not
sure about how the earth was made. They have many different ideas about
this. There are still many difficult questions for scientists who study the
earth.
32
.......................................................................................................................
....
.......................................................................................................................
....
.......................................................................................................................
....
.......................................................................................................................
....
.......................................................................................................................
..
........................................................................................................................
...
5. Before the 1600s people were interested in chemicals. But they did not
study them like modern chemists. These early chemists were called
alchemists. Their kind of chemistry was called alchemy. They had some
strange ideas. For example, they believed they could make gold. They
though they could mix together the right things and have gold. For hundreds
of year alchemists tried to do this, of course, no one ever made gold this way
.......................................................................................................................
....
.......................................................................................................................
...
33
.......................................................................................................................
....
...........................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
....
........................................................................................................................
..
6. Antonie Lavoisier is important in the his story of modern chemistry. In the

1700s, he began to use a new way to study chemicals. Before Lavoisier,
scientists just looked at something and thought about it. Nut Lavoisier did
experiments. He studied the size and weight of many different things. He
found out something else. For example, when water boils, it become steam.
This was a very important idea for the future of chemistry.
.......................................................................................................................
...
.......................................................................................................................
...
.......................................................................................................................
...
.......................................................................................................................
...
.......................................................................................................................
.
34
........................................................................................................................
..
7. Lavoisier is best know as a chemist. He learned some every important
facts about chemistry. And he gave names to many chemicals. These are the
same names we used today. Some of Lavoisiers other ideas were important,
too. He used science to improve farming. He also worked on a way to
improve Frances banks and government. He helped to make the taxes and
money the same all over France. Lavoisier was a great man in many ways.
.......................................................................................................................
...
.......................................................................................................................
....
.......................................................................................................................
...
.......................................................................................................................
....
.......................................................................................................................
....
........................................................................................................................
..
8. The earth is a very complex object, made up of many layers. What we are
familiar with is only the upper surface of the skin or crust. This crust is
altogether rather more than 100 km deep. The outher crust, of a depth of
approximately 8 km, is made mostly of very hard rock, a kind of granite.
This make up the continents or major land massas. Below it is a much
35
thicker layer. The inner crust, also made of a hard but different kind of rock,
basalt. Beneath this lies the upper mantle. A semi-fluid layer about 600 km
deep. Where temperatures reach 1500 C. The lower mantle is more rigid,
because of the great pressures at those depths. It extends a further 2900 km
towards the centre of the earth and has a temperature twice that of the layer
immediately above it. Within the mantle is the core this again is devided into
two layers. The outer and the inner. The former consists of molten nicked
and iron and has a temperature of 3900 C. The latter, of the same
constituents is however relatively solid again because of the great pressure at
those depths. The temperature of the inner core is about 900 C higher than
that of the outher core and its diameter is appoximately 4300 km.
.......................................................................................................................
..
.......................................................................................................................
....
.......................................................................................................................
....
.......................................................................................................................
....
.......................................................................................................................
...
........................................................................................................................
...
Exercise 2
36
Read the text below and identify the main idea of each paragraph by
underlining it.
The history of chemistry
The early scientific study of chemistry, known as alchemy, grew up in
the first few centuries A.D. at Alexandria in Egypt. There two important
things came together: one was the practical knowledge of the Egyptian
workers in metals, pottery and dyes; the other was the learning of the earlier
Greek Philosophers, such as Hippocrates and Aristotle. At the same time
alchemy was much influenced by ideas from the East about magic and
astrology foretelling the future from the stars.
Greek philosophers regarded debate about the nature of matter as
superior to experiment, and some held that all matter was made up of the
same four elements earth, fire, air, and water. Many people therefore
thought that if these elements could be rearranged, one substance could be
changed into another. For instance, a base metal could perhaps be turned into
gold. The chief aim of the alchemists was to find a way of doing this.
Alchemy came under Arab influence when the armies of Islam
conquered Egypt during the seventh century. The Arabs carried its study into
Western Europe when they advance into Spain. Many Arabic words are still
used in chemistry alkali, alcohol and even alchemy itself, which
means the art of Egypt. The greatest Arab alchemist was Jabir Ibnu
Hayyan, possibly the same person as Geber, author of two important books
on alchemy know from the Latin translations of the thirteenth century. Jabir
claimed that mercury and sulphur were elements like the four Greek ones.
He said that all metals were composed of mercury and sulphur in different
proportions. To change a base metal into gold required the proportions to be
changed by the action of a mysterious substance which came to be called
the philosophers stone. Alchemist searched in vain for this substance for
several hundred years.
Alchemy was studied widely in Europe during the twelfth and
following centuries, and attracted the attention of many learned men.
Thought they were doomed to fail in their attempts to make gold, their work
led to the growth of a great deal of new chemical knowledge and of methods
of making experiments. Many of the later European alchemists, however,
were complete frauds who prayed upon trusting people by all sorts of trick,
and the subject fell into disrepute. By the first half of the sixteenth century,
the aim of the alchemists had changed from the making of gold to the
making of medicines. In particular they sought a fanciful substance called
37
the elixir of life, a powerful medicine which was to cure all ills, and which
some people thought would turn out to be the same substance, as the
philosophers stone. This phase of chemistry lasted till about 1700.
Exercise 3
Underline the main ideas and circle the supporting details as you read the
paragraphs below. Then write them in note form in the space provided.
1. There are two main groups of whale toothed and toothless. The former
includes the dolphin, the porpoise and the killer and sperm whales; the
latter the grey, humpback, right and blue whales. Some toothed species,
like the killer, feed on other large mammals such as the porpoise, while
others e.g. the sperm whale eat smaller forms of marine life. The
mouth of the toothless whale is adapted to form a kind of sieve in which
tiny marine animals are caught by a filtering process.
Main idea :
........
Supporting details
a.
b.
2. In recent years the number of oil spills has been increasing. These spills,
some of which have occurred directly at the site of extraction and other
during transportation, have had an adverse effect on marine organisms.
Because of the importance of these organisms in the life cycle, research
has been carried out in order to identify more accurately the reactions of
these organisms to oil. A recent study has revealed that it is essential to
understand that there is not one, but rather at least four possible ways in
which oil can affect an organism.
38
First as a result of an organisms ingestion of oil, direct lethal toxicity,

that is, death by poisoning, can occur. However, in cases where the effect
is less extreme, sub-lethal toxicity occurs. While cellular and
physiological processes are involved in both cases, in the latter the
organism continues to survive.
Second, in some cases, oil forms a covering on the organism. This
covering, referred to as coating , can result in something, that is, death of
organism due to lack of air. In instances where the effect of coating are
less severe, interference whit movement and loss of isolative properties
of feathers or fur may occur. The third effect of oil on marine organisms
is the physical and chemical environment brought about by oil spills in a
change in the species composition of a region.
Main idea :
..
...
Supporting details :
a.
b.
c.
d.
3. The actual cause of the quake itself is the rupturing or breaking of rocks
at or below the earths surface. This is produced by pressure which
scientists believe may be due to a number of reason, two of which are the
expansion and contraction of earths crust and continental drift.
39
Main idea :
..
...
a.
b. ........
4. In order to minimize the damage and to alleviate some of the suffering
resulting from earthquakes, scientists are working on ways to facilitate
accurate prediction. Two of the instruments presently in use to achieve
this goal are seismologists can accurately indicate the exact time, location
and size of an earthquake. The latter, as the name suggests, are used to
record any changes in the tilt of the land.
Main idea :
..
...
a.
b.
5. Clearly a replacement for these natural sources of energy is required.
Several possible alternatives have been suggested, such as solar,
geothermal and nuclear energy. Solar energy has the obvious advantage
that the sun is an inexhaustible and abundant source which is free of both
pollution and radioactivity. A lot of research is currently directed at
discovering ways of harnessing solar power cheaply and efficiently, and
of storing solar energy in reasonably small spaces. Geothermal energy,
which involves stored underground reservoirs of steam is also pollutionfree. Nuclear fission, a process whereby an uranium nucleus absorbs a
40
neutron, is not the reaction cause the nucleus to spilt into lighter element,
producing a large amount of heat. The by-products of this reaction are
dangerously radioactive.
Main idea :
..
...
a.
b.
c.
Exercise 4 ( Scramble Sentences )
Arrange these groups of sentences by first choosing one as the sentence.
Write its number on line A. Write the remaining sentence numbers in correct
on the remaining lines.
1. A. ..
(Topic sentence/ main idea)
B. ..
C. ..
D. ..
E. ...
F. ...
G. ..
H. ..
I. ..
J. ..
41
1. Then you are ready to start looking for a job

2. Think about what kind of work you like to do
3. Next you need to write a resume
4. Finding a job is often difficult for a young person today
5. This tells about your education and your earlier job
6. But it will be easier if you follow these steps
7. You can also talk to some people whit different kinds of jobs
8. First, you have to decide what kind of job you want
9. It should be carefully typed
10.
You should talk to your friend and your family about it
2. A. ..
B. ..
C. ..
D. ..
E. ...
F. ...
G. ..
H. ..
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
J..
He found out that this was not true
They fell at the same speed
Galileo is a famous for his study of how things fall
It is an important law for understanding our world
This is the law of falling bodies
This meant that weight is not important
He took a heavy ball and a light ball and dropped them both from a high
place
Before, people thought that heavy things always fell faster than light
things
42
9. He was the first person to do experiments about this problem

3. A . ..
B. ..
C. ..
D. ..
E. ...
F. ...
G. ..
1.
2.
3.
4.
This is already true in some places

Many children in this town became sick because of the dirty water
One example is a small town in Massachusetts
Many American scientists are worried about the drinking water in the
United States
5. They think that soon there may be no more clean drinking water
6. Then is not safe to drink
7. Dirt, salt and chemicals from factories can get into the water
4. A. ..
B. ..
C. ..
D. ..
E. ...
F. ...
G. ..
43
H. ..
1. They are not perfect, of course, but they usually do not make mistakes
2.
First, they are fast
3.
Computers are helpful in many ways
4.
Second, computers can work whit lots of information at the same time
5.
They can work with information much more quickly than a person
6.
Third, they can keep information for a long time
7.
Also, computers are almost always correct
8.
They do not forget things the way people do
5. A. ..
B. ..
C. ..
D. ..
E. ...
F. ...
G. ..
H. ..
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Another way to learn is from a book

You may not be an expert, but you can have fun!
After a few hours of practice, you too can work whit computers
There are many books about computers in book stores and libraries
These days, it is important to know something about computers
Some companies have computer classes at work
Also, most universities offer day and night courses of computer science
44
8. There are number of ways to learn
6. A. ..
B. ..
C. ..
D. ..
E. ...
F. ...
G. ..
H. ..
J...
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
But there are also small personal computers to use at home or in an office
They are so small you cannot even see all their parts
There are even computers in telephones, television sets, and cars
These computers have to be very small
The first computers ware very large machines
There are other special computers for factories
There are still big computers for companies or universities
Now computers come in all shapes and sizes
These large computers tell the factory machines what to do
7. A. ..
B. ..
C. ..
D. ..
45
E. ...
F. ...
G. ..
H. ..
I. ..
J. ..
1. Or they many stop doing anything at all
2. They say you should not work whit computers all day
3. And there is another, different kind of problem with computers
4. Some doctors say they may be bad for your health
5. Computers are very useful, but they also can cause problems
6. Computers are machines, and machines can break down
7. Another problem is whit the machinery
8. It is not perfect, so sometimes computers lose important information
9. One kind of problem is whit the computers memory
10.When computers break down, they may erase information, like chalk on a
blackboard
IV. Taking Notes

Almost everyone who studies has to take notes at some time. For
example, we take notes from a text we are reading, from a lecture, etc. When
46
we take notes we leave out unnecessary information, rearrange information,

show logical relationships between different pieces of information; e.g. by
using logical symbols, abbreviations and diagrams.
Here are some examples of the notes taken by students.
Example 1
Text :
Acquiring Information
What are the ways in which a student can acquire information? First,
he will acquire information from his tutors in three main ways by lecture,
by tutorial and by handouts which the tutor may give him. Secondly, he may
acquire information from other experts outside his college principally by
reading but also perhaps by listening to the radio, listening to cassete
recordings, or watching educations TV programmes. Thirdly, he will get
information from his fellow students, perhaps in student-led seminars,
perhaps in the contributions of other students in tutorial, or perhaps just in
informal conversation. Lastly, he can acquire information from himself. By
thingking about his subject and linking together what he has heard and seen,
he may come up with new ideas, which are his alone.
Acquiring information
1. From tutors, by
a) lecture
b) tutorial
c) handouts
2. From other experts by
a) reading
b) listening to: i) radio
ii) cassette recordings
c) watching TV
3. From fellow students, by
a) student-led seminars
b) contributions of other students in tutorial
c) informal conversation
47
4. From himself, by
a) thingking about his subject and
b) linking together what he has heard and seen
Example 2
Lecture
Our first experiment illustrating expansion through heat requires the
apparatus before us: a ring on a metal ball and a Bunsen burner. Having lit
of the Bunsen, to see how easily the ball can be passed through the ring. It
doesnt touch any part as it goes through. Now, Im taking it out and
applying heat from the burner. Ill do that for several second. Well, lets see
what happens when I try to pass the ball through the ring this time. The
metal ball will not go through. Since the ring has remained untouched by
heat, we must conclude that the ball has increased in volume, that is to say, it
has expanded.
Expans of Metal
Apparat
a) ring on stand
b) metal bail
c) Bun burn
Exper
1) cold ball passed through ring

2) ball heat sev. secs
3) wd not go through
4) vol of ball i.e. ball expand
Looking at the example above, people take notes by using headings and
numbering, abbreviations, and symbols. The following are examples of
abbreviations and symbols used in taking notes:
Abbreviations:
alg.
algebra
cf
compare (with)
48
approx
arch
geol
diam
deg
Symbols:
+
->
<-
approximate(ly)
architecture
geology
diamete
degrees
e.g
etc
et al.
ie
viz
for example
et cetera
and others
that is
namely
therefore
<
greater than
because
>
less than
is equal to, the same as
@
at
is not equal to, not the same as
%
per cent
plus, and, more
rises
minus, less
falls, decreases by
gives, produces, leads to, results in
is gives by, is produced by, results from, comes from
Exercise 1
Read the information about Musical Instruments and then complete the
note after it
Musical Instruments
There are many different kinds of musical instruments. They are
divided into three main classes according to the way that they are played.
For example, some instruments are played by blowing air into them. These
are called wind instruments. In some of these the air is made to vibrate inside
a woodwind instruments are the flute, the clarinet and the bassoon. Other
instruments are made of brass, the trumpet and the horn, for example. These
are also various other wind instruments such as the mouth-organ and the
bagpipes.
Some instruments are played by banging or striking them. One
obvious example is the drum, of which there are various kinds. Instruments
like this are called percussion instruments.
The last big group of musical instruments are the ones which have
strings. There are two main kinds of stringed instruments: those in which
the music is made by plucking the string, and those where the player draws a
bow across the strings. Example of the latter are the violin and the cello.
Musical Instruments
49
1. Wind instruments (played by blowing air into them)

a. .............................................................................
i) flute
ii) ............................................................................
iii) ............................................................................
b. brass
i) ............................................................................
ii) ............................................................................
c. other
i) mouth organ
ii) ............................................................................
2. ........................................................ instruments (played by banging or
striking)
e.g drum
3. Stringed instruments
a. played plucking
b. ...............................................................................
i) violin
ii) cello
Exercise 2
Read the following passage and then complete the notes after it
The Whale
Whales are sea-living mammals. They therefore breathe air but cannot
survive on land. Some species are very large indeed and the blue whale,
which can exceed 300 m in lenght, is the largest animal to have lived on
earth. Superficially, the whale looks rather like a fish, but there are important
differences in its external structure; its tail consist of a pair of broad, falt,
horizontal paddles (the tail of a fish is vertical) and it has a single nostril on
the top of its large, broad head. The skin is smooth and shiny and beneath it
lies a layer of fat (the blubber). This is up to 30 cm in thickness and serves to
conserve heat and body fluids.
There are two main groups of whale toothed and toothless. The
former includes the dolpin, the porpoise and the killer and sperm whales, the
latter the grey, humpback, right and blue whales. Some toothed species, like
the killer, feed on other large mammals such as the porpoise, while others
50
e.g the sperm whale eat smaller form of marine life. The mouth of the
toothless whale is adapted to from a kind of sieve in which tiny marine
animals are caught by a filtering process.
Most whales move about in schools. While swimming they take in air
and dive vertically, sometimes to graet depths. Large whales can stay under
water for up to 20 minutes. They then surface and expel air from their lungs,
making the characteristic spout, which is audible from some distance and
can be seen largely because of the concentration of condensing water vapour
in the expelled gases.
Whales
1. Family
2. Visible characteristics.
a) ....................................................
b) ....................................................
c) ....................................................
d) ....................................................
3. Main divisions
a) .................................................... e.g
b) .................................................... e.g
4. Food
a) .....................................................
b) .....................................................
Exercise 3
Make notes on the following passage by writing one sentence of each
paragraph on the lines provided.
A.
Cancer is a general term apllied to a malignant tumour or neoplasm,
known in medicine as a carcinoma or a sarcoma. A carcinoma is a malignant
growth of abnormal epithelial cells. A sarcoma is a malisnant growth of
abnormal cells in connective tissue. The typical symptoms are unusual
bleeding or discharge from any part of the body internal or external; a lump
or thickening in any area, but especially the breast; a sore taht does not heal;
a change in bowel or bladder habits; hoarseness or persistent cough;
indigestion or difficulty in swallowing; change in size or shape of
appearance of a wart or mole, unexplained loss of weight. The only
recognized effective methods of treatment for cancer are surgery, cytotoxic
agents, radium and X- rays.
51
B.
Cancer is most prevalent among people aged between 45 and 65. This
is the age when the tissues of the body have begun to degenerate. A hundred
years ago the number of people living through this age range was little more
than half what it is today, partly due to poor medical treatment and bad
nutrition. People died young of such diseases as bronchopneumonia and
tuberculosis. Now that the risk of dying from infectious disease has
diminished, the incidence of dying from some kind of degenerative disease
has increased.
C.
A carcinogen is a substance that has the potential to produce cancer.
There are actually very few substances which can be said to induce cancer.
However, tars that are distilled out of burning tobacco and inhaled during
smoking are associated with a higher evidence of lung cancer in smokers
than in non-smokers. Similarly exposure to nuclear radiation is associated
with leukaemia (hiroshima bomb during Word War II) coal tars with skin
cancer, vinyl chloride with liver cancer, aniline dyes with bladder tumours.
D.
Heavy smoker appear to be more likely to suffer from lung cancer
than non-smokers because they inhale tars that are distilled out of burning
tobacco. The cancer-producing(carcinogenic)effect of such tars has often
been shown in experiments on laboratory animals.
E.
The tissues of the body that appear to be more vulnerable to cancer are
those in which cell division is a normal activity. Such tissues include the
skin, where cell division ensures the replacement of cells that are worn away
by physical contact (or peeled away by excessive sunburn), the liver in
which cells damaged during the detoxication of poisonous substances such
as alcohol are replaced, and all kinds of epithelium or lining cells, such as
those lining the stomach and bladder, which are also worn away during
normal activity.
A.
...........................................................................................................................
B.
...........................................................................................................................
C.
...........................................................................................................................
D.
...........................................................................................................................
52
E.
...........................................................................................................................
Exercise 4
Make notes on the following passage by writing an outline on the lines
provided
The ancient Greek Olympic Games lasted five days and included four
different athletic contests. First, there was the stadion (from which we get
the word stadium). This was a foot race covering a distance of about 607
feet. Second there was the pentathlon, a contest in which each contestant
had to excel in five different events; ffot races, jumping, wrestling, throwing
the discus, and throwing the javelin. Third, there was boxing. In this contest,
the boxers fought with bare fists, and the match continued until one or the
other was knocked out or admitted defeat. The final event included horse
racing, both races with four-horse chariots and races with the contestants
riding bareback.
A_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
B. _______________________________________________
1. _____________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________
4. _____________________________________________
5. _____________________________________________
53
C. _______________________________________________
1. _____________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________
D. _______________________________________________
1. _____________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________
Exercise 5
On separate sheet of paper, make notes on the following passage
Thanks to oceanographers, we know that the bottom of the ocean is
diveded into three distinct areas: the continental shelf, the continental slope,
and the ocean floor. The continental shelf is a band of gradually sloping sea
bottom surrounding all the continents. Sunlight penetrates most of it.
Vegetation similar to land vegetation grows there, and the bottom is covered
with sand and soil washed from the land. Common species of saltwater fish
are found there. Beyond this shelf the continental slope drops off abruptly.
Here there is no light anmd no plant life. The pressure, cold, and silence
increse. The scenery is mud, clay, and rocks. Its is inhabited by large and
small carnivorous animals, such as those encountered only in nightmares. At
the foot of this continental slope lies the ocean floor. The bottom of the
ocean holds mysteries of a strange, unknown world. The ocean floor is the
last large area to be explored on the planet earth.
Exercise 6
On separate sheet of paper, make notes on the following passage
THE IMPORTANCE OF PETROLEUM
Petroleum or oil is the worlds most important source of energy. In the
1975, over 2000 million tonnes of crude oil (oil that is not yet refined) were
54
used throughout the world, outside the Communist countries. The total
consumption of energy in the same year was equal to 3855 mt/y (million
tonnes of oil a year). Therefore, more than half of the energy consumed
during 1975 was provided by oil.
The most important fuels after oil are natural gas and coal. In 1975,
the noncommunist countries of the world consummed natural gas equal to
731 mt/y. The consumption of coal in these countries was also equivalent to
731 mt/y
The consumption of nuclear energy was equal to only 79 mt/y. Finally,
in the same year, the same countries used other types of energy equivalent to
272 mt/y.
In 1938, the most important fuel was coal. At that time, oil provided
less than a quaeter of the worlds energy. In 1950, oil and natural gas gave
the world 39 per cent of its energy, but coal was still the most important fuel.
By 1964, however, under half of the worlds energy was provided by coal. In
that year, oil provided 39 per cent of the energy used in the world.
In 1975, petroleum provided more than half of the worlds energy
supply. In the same year, oil and natural gas together provided nearly three
quarters of the energy used in the world. Coal now supplies under 20 per
cent of the worlds energy. In 1975, the importance of coal was only about a
quarter of its importance forty years before. The importance of petroleum,
on the other hand, increased two and half times during the same period.
(from H
Coleman:Petroleum:Upstream,1980)
V. Summarizing
Summarizing is writing a short version of a text. The purpose of
summarizing is to give the reader a clear idea of the most important in the
text. A summary can be of any length, depending upon your goal in writing
it, Summaries generally range from one sentence to about one-fourth the
55
lenght of the original. A final characteristic of summaries is that they are

written in your own words rather than copied from the original. The
following are exercises on practicing in summarizing.
Here are some example of summaries written by students, from the same
text The secret few people guess:
The secret few people guess
Jenny Stevens writes about Brenda, one of two million adults with a secret
life :
Brenda Lison never goes anywhere without an empty spectacles case.
It is as vital to her as her purse. Yet, she doesnt wear glasses. The reason she
cant do without it is because she cant read and she cant write. If ever she
gets into any situation where she might be expected to do either of these
things, she wishes around in her bag for the specs case, finds its empty, and
asks the person concerned to do the reading for her. Brenda is now in her
late thirties. Shes capable and articulate and until a few months ago hardly
anybody knew she was illiterate. Her husband didnt know and her children
didnt know. The children still dont.
She had any number of tactics for concealing her difficulty, for
example, never lingering near a phone at work, in case she had to answer it
and might be required to write something down. But, in fact it is easier for
illiterates to conceal the truth than the rest of us might imagine. Literacy is
so much taken for granted that people simply dont spot the give away signs.
It has never occurred to the children that their mother cannot read. She
doesnt read them stories, but then their father doesnt either, so they find
nothing surprising in the fact. Similarly they just accept that Dad is the one
who writes the sick notes and reads the school reports. Now that the elder
boy Tom is quite a proficient reader, Brenda can skillfully get him to read
any notes brought home from simply by asking. Whats that all about,
then?
Brendas husband never guessed the truth in 10 years of marriage. For
one thing he insists on handling all domestic correspondence and bills
himself. An importer of Persian carpets, he travels a great deal and so is not
around so much to spot the truth. While hes away Brenda copes with any
situations by explaining that she cant do anything until shes discussed it
with her husband.
Branda was very successful in her job until recently. For the last five
yars she had worked as waitress at an exclusive private club, and had
56
eventually been promoted to head waitress. She kept the thing a secret there
too, and got over the practical difficulties somehow.
Sumarry 1
Summary 2
Summary 3
Exercise 1
Read the following passage and then complete the text after it with the
worlds provided
57
The struggle against malnutrition and hunger is as old as man himself,

and never across the face of our planet has the outcome been more in doubt.
Malnourisment afflicts as estimated 400 million to 1.5 billion of the worlds
poor. Even in the affluent US, poverty means undernourishment for an
estimated ten to twenty million. Haerdest hit are children, whose growing
bodies demand two and a half times more protein, pound for pound, than
those of adults. Nutrition experts estimate that 70 percent of the children in
low-income are affected.
counties
adults
low-income nutrition
undernourishment
estimation
children
malnutrition
bodies
poverty
(1) ............................... has been and still is a serious global problem. Even
in wealthy (2) ................................. like the US, being poor often means
being (3) ............................. (4)............................ suffer most because they
need more (5) .............................. than (6) .............................
Exercise 2
Here is a text with blanks. It summarizes the main points in the texts after it.
Complete the text with the correct words provided.
decrease
dark
individual
increase
rural
environment
light
industrial
Dr. Kettlewells observations clearly domonstrate that natural selection was

responsible for the replacement of (1) .................................... forms of the
Peppered Moth by dark form in (2) .................................. regions. They
theory of natural selection enables us to predict genetic changes in a
population from our knowledge of changes in the (3) ................................. If
population were controlled in industial areas, and if this allowed forests to
revert to their natural unpolluted state, we would predict than the frecquency
of the Peppered Moth would gradually begin to (4) ................................... In
fact, smoke control programmes have been introduced in industrial regions
in Britain since 1952, and the frequency of the (5) ......................................
form of the Peppered Moth has shown a highly significant increase.
The following text describes the process by which some creatures survive
and others die out.
58
On each tree there is a moth. They are both quite clearly visible. Any
predator would see his prey very clearly. But suppose the light moth was
sitting on the light tree and vice versa. The moth might survive, a dark moth
on a dark would be less visible and have a better chance of survival from the
attacks of predators. This is known as camouflage. Some animals, like the
chameleon, for instance, are able to change colour according to their
background. This kind of change is not evolutionary change (though of
course the chameleon has evolved the ability to make this change). However,
a change in colour is evolutionary if the new creacture is able to reproduce
itself so that its young also have the new colour.
The example of the moth is a real one and was investigated in England
in the 1950s by a scientist called Dr. Kettlewell. It is a very well known
example of evolutionary change.
The species of moth is the Peppered Moth. It was typically light
brown in colour and settled on the trunks of trees which were a similar
colour and camouflaged it. Then came a change in environment. Industry
began to grow up in parts of England with the result that smoke and other
froms of pollution began to fill the atmosphere. So the moths turned black.
The pollution from the factories covered the bark on the tree trunks
with soot and grime so the light brown. Peppered Moth became very visible
to their predators and were eaten. Then, gradually they began to change
colour. The darker ones were more likely to survive, so their colour
gradually became darker. How did they become darker? This is one of the
mysteries of science, but it has been called natural selection since Charles
Darwin published his famous book The Origin of Species in 1895. Natural
59
selection does not make anything happen. You cannot force a moth to
change colour, for instance, nor can a moth decide to change. The point is
that every creature has a genetic structure consisting of genes and
chromosomes. This structure can change naturally, by accident. Perhaps this
change does not matter Perhaps, on the other hand, it produces a deformed
individual which the other reject or even kill because it is different. These
things happen all the time. But if the change (or mutation) happens to fit
the new environment, then the new creature, instead of being rejected or
killed by the others will survive.
This is natural selection. A mutation (which is always possible)
happens to suit a new environment, and the odd creature survives because
it is better fitted. Then it reproduces and a new type of creature evolves.
Meanwhile the others have become unsuited to change environment. They
must either change their bahaviour, or become extinct.
Dr. Kettlewell wanted to discover whether the dark Peppered Moths
were in fact a new type of Peppered Moth which had adapted to its
environment. In the first experiment, he released light and dark months into
the woods near Birmingham (a large industrial city in England). In the
second he released his moths into the woods in the country district called
Dorset in the south of England. Finally, he placed example of each kind of
mouth on trees of the opposite colour and watched what happened. Here are
the result from his experiment in Birmingham:
Number of moths released
Number of moths recaptured
Percentage of moths
recaptured
light
201
34
16%
dark
601
205
34,1%
Dr. Kettlewells technique was to release moths which were specially

marked, then recapture as many as possible after a time.
Exercise 3
Use information from the text on Pollution to complete the labeling. An
example is given
Pollution
Pollution spoils our environment in many ways. The air we breathe,
for instance, is constantly polluted by smoke and by chemicals such as
carbon monoxide in the exhaust fumes of cars and other kinds of motor
vehicles.
60
For wild life, however, there are event greater dangers in the pollution
of water of rivers, for example, or lakes and seas. A good illustration of this
is the oil released from tankers at sea. It kills all kinds of sea animals,
including birds, whose feather become covered with oil so they cannot fly, as
well as fish and other forms of marine life. Other causes of water pollution
include power stations, which release warm water into rivers. This kills the
fish and plants which live there. These are only a few example: there are
many more.
For example: Rivers, lakes and seas are all examples of water. We
could express this as a diagram as follows.
Water
Rivers
Lakes
Chemicals in the
air
Oil released at sea
Seas
Air pollution
(diagram 1: Pollution)
Exercise 4
Using information from the two paragraph below, complete the following
diagram wich illustrates the effect of mulnutrition on appearance
Malnutrition effects on
appearance
61
kwashiorkor
(2)
(1)
(4)
belly
(7)
(8)
feet
belly
(3)
(5)
Bloated
(6)
emaciated (9)
(10)
eyes
(11)
(Diagram 2: Malnutrition Effectson Appearance)

Misshapen bodies tell the tragic story of malnutrition. Medical
science identifies two major types of malnutrion. The first, kwashiorkor, is
typified by the bloated look, the opposite of what we associate with
starvation. Accumulated fluids pushing againts wasted muscles account for
the plumness of hands, feet, belly, and face. Emaciated shoulders reveal
striking thinness. Caused by acute lack of protein, kwashiorkor (a West
African world) can bring brain demage, anemia, diarrhea, irritability, apathy,
and loss of appetite
On the other hand, stick limbs, a bloated belly, wide eyes, and the
stretched-skin face of an old person mark victims of marasmus, a world
taken from the Greek to waste away. Lacking calories as well as protein,
sufferers may weigh only half as much as normal. With fat gone, the skin
hangs in wrinkles or draws tight over bones. With marasmus comes anemia,
diarrhea, dehydration, and a ravenous appetite. Children, whose growing
bodies require large amounts of protein, are afflicted in greatest numbers, but
perhaps only three per cent of all child victims surffer the extreme stages
described.
Exercise 5
Read the following text on New Uses for Fly Ash and then write a summary
of it.
62
New Uses for Fly Ash

In an age when waste today means a lack tomorrow, making use of
every available resource becomes more and more important. As coal is being
used in greater and greater amounts ti produce electricity, larger amounts of
ash, a by product of coal, are produced.
When coal is burned is a boiler, two kinds of ash by product are
produced a heavy bottom ash and a tine as powder fly ash that is filtered and
captured bt precipitators. About 10 to 15 percent of the coal by product is
bottom ash which is used like sand on icy streets and highways and also on
highways as paving material.
It is the fly ash, however, that is receiving the greater amout of
attention. Once considered a waste, fly ash is now classified as a natural
resource in the US by the state of Maryland. In accordance with state and
federal environmental restrictions, fly ash in placed in controlled landfills,
where it is compacted and covered with soil. The seeds of various grasses
and plants are than placed in the soil to make the land productive and to
provide permanent storage.
Fly ash may be used as an additive to concrete in the construction of
dams, bricks, and roads, and can replace up to 20 percent of the cement used
in concrete. As a by product of burned coal, fly ash requires no additional
expenditure of energy to be produced, where cement production requires
great amounts of energy.
Using fly ash in building materials is not a new idea. The Romans
used a natural from of fly ash from volcanoes to build their roads and
aqueducts, many of which are still standing.
In addition to using fly ash as a concrete additive, the technology is
available to extract the main mineral components alumina, silica, and
magnetics. Today extracting these components is a very expensive process,
but the time may come when it is cheaper to extract these products from ash
than to mine new supplies.
Exercise 6
Do as exercise 5 above
Bioconversion The Poor Mans Oil
Bioconversion refers to the tapping of the solar energy that has been
capture and stored by nature through photosynthesis. There are numerous
methods of doing this, ranging from the relatively straightforward
combustion of wood or dung for cooking food to the more complicated
production of algae to produce methane via anaerobic digestion. There are
63
bioconversion processes for producing solid fuels (wood and charcoal),

liquid fuels (oil and alcohol), gaseous fuels (methane and hydrogen and
electrity)
Fossil fuels were once plants Bioconversion dramatically shortens the
time that it takes to make plants available for energy sources. We would have
to wait millions of years if we wanted coal or oil, but only six months or less
if we used the plants directly
There are two primary sources of organic material for conversion into
energy products; organic waste and refuse that has been generated as a by
product of human activities (such as garbage, sewage and livestock waste)
and energy crops grown specifically for producing energy.
Much of the solar and chemical energy that went into the production
of plants and manufactured goods still remains in organic waste and refuse
when it is disposed of as no longer useful. Reclaiming some of this energy
would greatly increase our overall energy use efficiency, plus reduce the
littering of the landscape with garbage dumps or smudging the sky with
incinerator smoke.
64

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MATA KULIAH

: Bahasa Inggris PSIKM

1. Sinopsis Mata Kuliah

IV. Taking Notes

In the next exercises you keep a record of your reading by yourself.

I. Improving Reading Speed and Comprehensions

Think of passage as a whole

4. The average untrained native speaker at the University of Minnesota

10. Titles and paragraph headings

2. Obstacles to Faster Effective Reading

3. Hints for Reading Practice (1)

Lightning speed exercise

5. Looking at your watch every 5 or 10 minutes

4. Hints for Reading Practice (2)

1. Preview using titles and headings

2.Reading and thinking in English

3.General Chemistry, Principal and

4.An Introduction to Biology

2. Previewing using illustrations

3. Previewing using an introduction, table of contents, blurb, and

1. Introduction to cell science

2. The molecules of cells

6. The soluble phase of the cell

In this book the authors consider the biochemistry and physiology of

in plant cell biology. The metabolic and structural ralationships between

III. Finding Main Ideas and Supporting Details

If a problem is given to the topic sentence, then the supporting

6. Antonie Lavoisier is important in the his story of modern chemistry. In the

First as a result of an organisms ingestion of oil, direct lethal toxicity,

(Topic sentence/ main idea)

1. Then you are ready to start looking for a job

(Topic sentence/ main idea)

9. He was the first person to do experiments about this problem

(Topic sentence/ main idea)

This is already true in some places

(Topic sentence/ main idea)

(Topic sentence/ main idea)

Another way to learn is from a book

8. There are number of ways to learn

(Topic sentence/ main idea)

(Topic sentence/ main idea)

IV. Taking Notes

we take notes we leave out unnecessary information, rearrange information,

1) cold ball passed through ring

1. Wind instruments (played by blowing air into them)

lenght of the original. A final characteristic of summaries is that they are

The struggle against malnutrition and hunger is as old as man himself,

Dr. Kettlewells observations clearly domonstrate that natural selection was

Dr. Kettlewells technique was to release moths which were specially

Oil released at sea

(Diagram 2: Malnutrition Effectson Appearance)

New Uses for Fly Ash

bioconversion processes for producing solid fuels (wood and charcoal),

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