Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
time. The inverter size should be 25-30% bigger than total Watts of appliances. In case of appliance type is motor or
compressor then inverter size should be minimum 3 times the capacity of those appliances and must be added to the
inverter capacity to handle surge current during starting.
For grid tie systems or grid connected systems, the input rating of the inverter should be same as PV array rating to
allow for safe and efficient operation.
4. Battery sizing
The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep cycle battery. Deep cycle battery is specifically
designed for to be discharged to low energy level and rapid recharged or cycle charged and discharged day after day for
years. The battery should be large enough to store sufficient energy to operate the appliances at night and cloudy days.
To find out the size of battery, calculate as follows:
4.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day used by appliances.
4.2 Divide the total Watt-hours per day used by 0.85 for battery loss.
4.3 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.2 by 0.6 for depth of discharge.
4.4 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.3 by the nominal battery voltage.
4.5 Multiply the answer obtained in item 4.4 with days of autonomy (the number of days that you
need the system to operate when there is no power produced by PV panels) to get the required
Ampere-hour capacity of deep-cycle battery.
Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x Days of autonomy
(0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage)
5. Solar charge controller sizing
The solar charge controller is typically rated against Amperage and Voltage capacities. Select the solar charge
controller to match the voltage of PV array and batteries and then identify which type of solar charge controller is right for
your application. Make sure that solar charge controller has enough capacity to handle the current from PV array.
For the series charge controller type, the sizing of controller depends on the total PV input current which is delivered to
the controller and also depends on PV panel configuration (series or parallel configuration).
According to standard practice, the sizing of solar charge controller is to take the short circuit current (Isc) of the PV
array, and multiply it by 1.3
Solar charge controller rating = Total short circuit current of PV array x 1.3
Remark: For MPPT charge controller sizing will be different. (See Basics of MPPT Charge Controller)
Example: A house has the following electrical appliance usage:
One 18 Watt fluorescent lamp with electronic ballast used 4 hours per day.
One 75 Watt refrigerator that runs 24 hours per day with compressor run 12 hours and off 12 hours.
= 1,419.6 / 3.4
= 413.9 Wp
= 413.9 / 110
= 3.76 modules
Solar Cell or Photovoltaic (PV) cell is a device that is made up of semiconductor materials
such as silicon, gallium arsenide and cadmium telluride, etc. that converts sunlight directly into
electricity. When solar cells absorb sunlight, free electrons and holes are created at
positive/negative junctions. If the positive and negative junctions of solar cell are connected
to DC electrical equipment, current is delivered to operate the electrical equipment.
Polycrystalline Silicon
PV Module
Amorphous Silicon
PV Module
1. Crystalline Silicon PV Module: Two types of crystalline silicon (c-Si) are used to produce PV module; single
crystalline silicon or known as monocrystalline silicon and multi-crystalline silicon, also called polycrystalline silicon.
The polycrystalline silicon PV module has lower conversion efficiency than single crystalline silicon PV module but
both of them have high conversion efficiencies that average about 10-12%.
2. Amorphous Silicon PV Module: Amorphous silicon (a-Si) PV module or thin-film silicon PV module absorbs light
more effectively than crystalline silicon PV module, so it can be made thinner. It suits for any applications that high
efficiency is not required and low cost is important. The typical efficiency of amorphous silicon PV module is around
6%.
3. Hybrid Silicon PV Module: A combination of single crystalline silicon surrounded by thin layers of amorphous silicon
provides excellent sensitivity to lower light levels or indirect light. The Hybrid silicon PV module has highest level of
conversion efficiency about 17%.
Solar cell structure
The most semiconductor material currently use for solar cell production is silicon, which has some advantages as; it can
be easily found in nature, does not pollute, does not harm the environment and it can be easily melted, handled and
formed into monocrystalline silicon form, etc. The commonly solar cell is configured as a large-area p-n junction made
from silicon.
How solar cell works?
When sunlight strikes solar cell surface, the cell creates charge carrier as electrons and holes. The internal field
produced by junction separates some of positive charges (holes) from negative charges (electrons). Holes are swept into
positive or p-layer and electrons are swept into negative or n-layer. When a circuit is made, free electrons have to pass
through the load to recombine with positive holes; current can be produced from the cells under illumination.
The individual solar cells are connected together to make a module (called 'solar module' or 'PV module') to increase
current and the modules are connected in an array (called 'solar array' or 'PV array'). Depending on current or voltage
requirement, solar arrays are connected in a variety of ways:
If the solar arrays are connected in parallel, the output current will increase.
If the solar arrays are connected in series, the output voltage will increase.
Solar PV system
Solar cells produce direct current (DC), therefore they are only used for DC equipments. If alternating current (AC) is
needed for AC equipments or backup energy is needed, solar photovoltaic systems require other components in
addition to solar modules. These components are specially designed to integrate into solar PV system, that is to say they
are renewable energy products or energy conservation products and one or more of components may be included
depending on type of application. The components of solar photovoltaic system are
1. Solar Module is the essential component of any solar PV system that converts sunlight directly into DC electricity.
2. Solar Charge Controller regulates voltage and current from solar arrays, charges the battery, prevents battery from
overcharging and also performs controlled over discharges.
3. Battery stores current electricity that produces from solar arrays for using when sunlight is not visible, nighttime or
other purposes.
4. Inverter is a critical component of any solar PV system that converts DC power output of solar arrays into AC for AC
appliances.
5. Lightning protection prevents electrical equipments from damages caused by lightning or induction of high voltage
surge. It is required for the large size and critical solar PV systems, which include the efficient grounding.
Solar cell advantages
Solar cell or PV cell produces clean with non-polluting energy source of electricity that is environmental-friendly. Since it
uses no fuel other than sunlight, gives off no waste, no burning, and no moving part when it operates. It reduces collection
of gases such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbon and nitrogen, etc., which generated from fuel, coal and
fossil fuel burning power plants. All decrease the impacts of energy on the environment like greenhouse effect, global
warming, acid rain and air pollution, etc. It is easy to install and transportable. With the modular characteristic, it can be
constructed any sizes as required. Moreover, it requires minimal maintenance and has long life span (more than 30 years)
and stable efficiency.
Solar cell applications
Home
Lighting system
Water pumping
Battery charging system
Agriculture
Cattle
Health center
Communication
Indoor and outdoor lighting system, electrical equipment, electric gate opener,
security system, ventilator, water pump, water filter and emergency light, etc.
Bus stop lighting, telephone booth lighting, billboard lighting, parking lot lighting,
indoor and outdoor lighting and street lighting, etc.
Consumption, public utility, livestock watering, agriculture, gardening and farming,
mining and irrigation, etc.
Emergency power system, battery charging center for rural village and power
supply for household use and lighting in remote area, etc.
Water pumping, agricultural products fumigator, thrashing machines and water
sprayer, etc.
Water pumping, oxygen filling system for fish-farming and insect trapped lighting,
etc.
Refrigerator and cool box for keeping medicines and vaccines and medical
equipment, etc.
Air navigational aid, air warning light, lighthouse, beacon navigation aid, illuminated
road sign, railway crossing sign, street lighting and emergency telephone, etc.
Telecommunication
Remote area
Space
How to choose MPPT solar charge controller for PV module and battery
What is MPPT?
MPPT or Maximum Power Point Tracking is algorithm that included in charge controllers used for extracting maximum
available power from PV module under certain conditions. The voltage at which PV module can produce maximum power
is called maximum power point (or peak power voltage). Maximum power varies with solar radiation, ambient
temperature andsolar cell temperature.
Typical PV module produces power with maximum power voltage of around 17 V when measured at a cell temperature of
25C, it can drop to around 15 V on a very hot day and it can also rise to 18 V on a very cold day.
Figure 1 The I-V curves show maximum power from PV modules when exposed
to irradiance 1000 W/m2
Source: The parameters are measured by the IVTracer program by Sandia National Laboratories
Figure 2 The I-V curves show maximum power from PV modules when exposed to irradiance 100 W/m 2
Source: The parameters are measured by the IVTracer program by Sandia National Laboratories.
As the graphs in figure 1 and 2, we see that at the different solar radiations, PV modules deliver the variations in
parameters as follows:
(1) Maximum power; Pm
(2) Maximum power voltage; Vpm
(3) Open circuit voltage; Voc
(4) Maximum power current; Ipm
(5) Short circuit current; Isc
How MPPT works?
The major principle of MPPT is to extract the maximum available power from PV module by making them operate at the
most efficient voltage (maximum power point). That is to say:
MPPT checks output of PV module, compares it to battery voltage then fixes what is the best power that PV module can
produce to charge the battery and converts it to the best voltage to get maximum current into battery. It can also supply
power to a DC load, which is connected directly to the battery.
MPPT is most effective under these conditions:
Cold weather, cloudy or hazy days: Normally, PV module works better at cold temperatures and MPPT is utilized to
extract maximum power available from them.
When battery is deeply discharged: MPPT can extract more current and charge the battery if the state of charge in
the battery is lowers.
MPPT solar charge controller
A MPPT solar charge controller is the charge controller embedded with
MPPT algorithm to maximize the amount of current going into the battery
from PV module.
MPPT is DC to DC converter which operates by taking DC input from PV
module, changing it to AC and converting it back to a different DC voltage
and current to exactly match the PV module to the battery.
Model
Wp
Vpm
Ipm
Isc
Voc
SHARP
[View Specifications]
NE-78T1
ND-130T1
78
130
17.1
17.4
4.57
7.48
5.08
8.09
21.4
22
Kaneka
[View Specifications]
GPA
64
68
0.94
1.17
92
SANYO
[ View Specifications]
HIP-180B2
190
54
3.33
3.15
66.4
Bangkok Solar
[View Specifications]
BS 40
40
44.8
0.9
1.16
62.2
Standard Test Condition: Irradiance = 1000 W/m2, Cell temperature = 25C, Air mass = 1.5
How to set system configuration of MPPT solar charge controller
click to enlarge
How to choose MPPT solar charge controller for PV module and battery
Steps to consider for choosing MPPT solar charge controller
SPT-XXYY (XX is nominal battery voltage, YY is maximum charge current)
Find out what is nominal battery voltage that charge controller will charge and select XX
Find out what is Wp of PV module and
Select the suitable charge current (CC) = (Wp) / XX
Find out YY by multiply CC by safety factor (NEC requirement) = (CC) x 1.2
Select SOLARCON SPT-series model that covers YY
Check that Vpm(system) is in range that SPT-XXYY can handle (MPPT voltage range)
If PV modules are in series, need to check that Vpm(system) = Vpm(module) x Module in series
If PV modules are in parallel, need to check that Vpm(system) = Vpm(module)
Check that Voc(system) is not more than SPT-XXYY range (Maximum open circuit voltage)
If PV modules are in series, need to check that Voc(system) = Voc(module) x Module in series
If PV modules are in parallel, need to check that Voc(system) = Voc(module)
Examples of MPPT solar charge controller selection and calculation
Example 1: When Kaneka GPA PV modules are used for a 128 Wp solar home system
Example 2: When SHARP NE-78T1 (type 1) or ND-130T1J (type 2) PV modules are used for a 150-260 Wp solar home
system
Example 3: When BSC BS 40 PV modules are used for a 120 Wp solar home system
Example 4: When BSC BS 40 PV modules are used for a 800 Wp stand-alone solar system
Solar power is produced by collecting sunlight and converting into electricity, heat and lighting. This is done by using
solar panels to convert sunlight into electricity, and using solar thermal collectors to absorb solar energy for heating
water.
Advantages of solar power
The energy and heat from the sun is free and unlimited.
Solar power is non-polluting. Solar power usage does not emit any greenhouse gases or harmful waste.
Solar power is perfect and saving for power generation in remote areas or where the cost of expansion utility grid is
high.
Solar power is versatile. It can be used for low-power purpose as well as larger ones - from hand-held calculators,
watches, and solar powered garden lights to water heaters, cars, buildings and satellites.
Solar power system requires very little maintenance and last for many years.
Solar Thermal
Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating in homes or commercial and space heating or space
cooling for buildings. Solar water heating systems use different type of collectors to gather and store the solar
energy for heating water used in residential, commercial and industrial applications. For space heating and cooling
in warm temperature region, the thermal mass materials is needed to keep building cool by absorbing solar energy
during a day and radiate stored heat to cooler atmosphere at night. However they can be used in cold temperature
areas to maintain warmth as well.
Understanding Electricity
What is Electricity?
What is Electricity?
Any appliances that we use in our daily lives such as
household appliances, office equipments and
industrial equipments, almost all of those things take
electricity. Therefore, we should understand
electricity.
The first question that we will find out the answer is
"where does electricity come from?"
All matters are made up of atoms. Then ask the next question, "What are atoms?"
Atoms are the smallest part of an element. They are composed of nucleus and electrons, electrons surround nucleus.
Elements are identified by the number of electrons in orbit around nucleus of atoms and by the number of protons in
nucleus.
Nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons, and the number of protons and neutrons are balanced. Neutrons have no
electric charge, protons have positive charges (+) and electrons have negative charges (-). A positive charge of proton
equals a negative charge of electron.
Electrons are bound in their orbit by attraction of protons, but electrons in the outer band can become free of their orbit by
some external forces. These are referred to as free electrons, which move from one atom to the next, electron flows are
produced. These are the basis of electricity. Materials that allow many electrons to move freely are called conductors and
materials that allow few free electrons to move are called insulators.
All matters are made up of atoms that have electric charges. Therefore, they have electric charges. For the matter that
has a balanced the number of protons and electrons, positive charge force and negative charge force are balanced. It is
called neutral state of an atom. (The number of protons and electrons remains equal.)
What is resistance?
Electrons move through a conductor when electric current flows. All materials
impede flow of electric current to some extent. This characteristic is
called resistance. Resistance increases with an increase of length or decrease of
cross-section of a material.
The unit of measurement for resistance is ohms and its symbol is the Greek letter
omega (). The resistance of one ohm means a conductor allows a current of one
Experiment is made by measuring heat quantity of water by calorimeter. Increase voltage across wire by the variac
and connect ammeter and voltmeter to measure current and voltage.
Set the variac scale to adjust voltage and current value of nichrom wire and current is passed through periodically
and measure heat quantity from nichrom wire. There are any indications of voltage and current. If voltage, current and
time increase, heat quantity will also increase. They are expressed by the relation as below.
This is called Joule's law. Heat quantity depends on voltage time current and interval of time. From Ohm's law, V
(Voltage) = I (Current) x R (Resistance) therefore
Heat quantity depends on current squared times resistance and interval of time.
When current is passed through nichrom wire in water, current is converted to heat and temperature rises. Work is
done by heat generated in an electrical circuit, which is called Electric power.
Electric power is measured in Watts-hour (Wh) and heat quantity is measured in calories (Cal).
Work is done by heat generated in an electrical circuit is written in power, which it means that the rate work is done in
a circuit when 1 Amp flows with 1 Volt applied and its unit of measurement is Watt.
Conclusion
2. Electrochemistry
For example, when current is passed through sodium chloride (NaCl) solution, a chemical reaction called electrolysis
occurs. This is applied to produce electrolysis, galvanizing and battery, etc.
Experiment is made by soaking two platinum (Pt) plates in
molten salt. Connect batteries to two platinum plates,
current is passed through molten salt and produces
chlorine bubbles around positive plate (+) and hydrogen
bubbles around negative plate (-) since sodium chloride
composes of sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl). When sodium
chloride melts in water, the elements are separated.
Sodium has positive charges (+), while chlorine has
negative charges (-) and these charges are called ions.
The molten salt has both positive charges, called anodes,
and negative charges called cathodes. The state of
separated elements is called ionization. If salt is melted
by water, solution is available ions, called electrolyte
solution. And if current is passed through electrolyte
solution, a chemical reaction known as electrolysis occurs.
3. Magnetism
The example of this electric work is a current-carrying wire, magnetic lines of flux occur. This is applied to produce
electric motors, electric transformers and tape recorders, etc.
Understanding meaning of magnetism:
What is magnetism?
The compound formula of magnet is Fe3O4. All magnets have two characteristics.
First, they attract and hold iron. Secondary, if free to move like the compass needle,
they will assume a north-south position. Any materials have these characteristics, they
are calledmagnet.
The characteristics of magnet are
Every magnet has two poles, one north pole and one south pole.
Opposite poles attract each other, while like poles repel each other.
When magnetic needle is placed in wire coil with one loop (see
figure) and current is passed through wire coil, magnetic needle
turns on the direction as shown in above figure. And the directions
of magnetic lines of flux are shown by the arrows.
When a current-carrying wire coil is placed near iron bar, the iron
bar move slightly (see figure 1). If core is placed in a wire coil, the
iron bar is attracted strongly (see figure 2). Because core is a soft
iron, which conducts magnetic lines of force, when current is
passed through wire coil around core, the core becomes
magnetized with high power that is called electromagnets. This
function is widely applied for using in industries.
Basics of Current
Current is classified into two types:
Direct Current (DC): DC is unidirectional flow of electric charge that
means its direction remains constant.
Examples of DC power source are battery and solar cell, etc.
Direct Current or DC is suitable for using with DC appliances not to
reverse polarity.
of linear load and non-linear load with same input voltage at same power rating of load.
Current characteristic of
incandescent lamp,
which power factor = 1
Current characteristic of
a set of PC,
which power factor = 0.52
Filter is a device that serves as barrier to high frequency current that is often noise, while allowing the low
frequency power current to pass through unaffected.
Transients Diverter is a device that presents a very low impedance path to ground whenever voltage across the
device exceeds certain value, but reduces voltage that could be presented to the sensitive equipments.
MOV (Metal Oxide Varistor) composes of zinc oxide material, which is semiconductor with a variable resistance.
In normal condition, MOV presents itself as a high impedance device but when voltage is too high, the resistance
ofMOV drops rapidly to provide a low impedance path of flow. MOVs have finite life expectancy and degrade when
exposed to a few large transients, or many smaller transients. MOV is the most common component in AC surge
protector.
Gas Discharge Tube (GDT) can divert the excess current from line to ground by using inert gas as conductor from
hot line to ground line. In normal condition, the inert gas acts as poor conductor, but when voltage is above the
acceptable level, the inert gas is ionized to be effective conductor to pass on current to ground until voltage returns
to normal level. GDT will conduct at a voltage less than the high voltage that ionized the gas and able to conduct
more current for their size than other components. GDT has a finite life expectancy, and can take a few very
largetransients or a greater number of smaller transients.
Silicon Avalanche Diode (SAD) provides the perfect limiting action of protective component, but has a lower
current capability. When voltage increases above the limit level, SAD will tolerate avalanche breakdown resulting
voltage is conducted to ground.
Other important components, such as resistors, capacitors and/or inductors, are used in conjunction with these
protector components above.
Computers and peripherals such as printer, monitor, speaker, fax machine and modem, etc.
Entertainment components
Electrical equipments
Security systems
Category A: Defined as any outlets and long branch circuits extending more than 10 meters (30 ft.) from category
B location or 20 meters (60 ft.) from category C. Surge protector for this location category is applied at the outlets
or individual circuit level for individual protection of a specific piece of equipment such as computers, weighting
bridges, measuring equipments, process control equipments and DC power supplies, etc.
Category B: Defined as all major sub-feeders, bus systems, and short branch circuits such as distribution panels,
industrial busses and feeder systems, heavy appliance circuits, lighting systems in large building. The protection at
this location is very effective in suppressing the much more frequent internally generated transients, everchangingtransient conditions, especially, sensitive equipments and equipments which are fed from the
substations.
Category C: Defined as outside and main service entrance which includes main supply lines, transformer, service
connections, and feeder line to main service entrance panels, any overhead or sub-feeders lines, underground
lines to well pump. This surge protector type is applied to protect against externally caused power disruptions.
This installation will help guard against lightning strike entering a facility via the power line.
These three categories A, B and C determine which surge protector or TVSS should be used at which location.
Surge protector or TVSS (Transient voltage surge suppressor) is the equipment designed to protect your electrical
equipments (loads) and AC electrical circuits from power surge or voltage spike. Surge protector diverts the excess
voltage and current into grounding wire.
Your electrical equipments can be exposed to damaging surges from AC power line and telephone or signal lines. Surge
protector helps to protect equipments from lightning surges, switching surges and voltage spikes. Many factors
influence the selection of the right surge protector as follows:
Surge protector location
ANSI/IEEE C62.41-1991 standards provide the location categories for the correct selection of surge protector. It defines
three categories of surge level, based on strategic location within a facilities wiring network, where power problem may be
encountered.
Category A
Outlet and long branch circuit panels
All outlets at more than 10 metres (30 feets) from category B location.
All outlets at more than 20 metres (60 feets) from category C location.
Category B
Feeders and short branch circuits.
Distribution panel devices.
Bus and feeder industrial plants.
Heavy appliance outlets with short connections to service entrance.
Lighting systems in large building.
Category C
Outside and service entrance.
Service drop from pole to building
Run between meter and panel.
Overhead line to detached building
Underground line to well pump.
Exposed or critically important sites.
These three categories; A, B and C, determine that what level of surge protection each location need as shown in the
figure below.
Clamping voltage
Clamping voltage is the voltage at which a surge begins to work by conducting electricity to the ground line. A
lowerclamping voltage indicates better protection, but a shorter life expectancy. Clamping voltage is also often called
Let-through voltage, but the two are not actually the same thing. The let-through voltage is the voltage that is allowed to
pass on to your equipments by the surge protector.
Energy absorption/dissipation (Joule rating)
Joule rating indicates the amount of energy that surge protector can absorb without failure. A higher joule
rating indicates the better protection because surge protector will divert more energy elsewhere and absorb less energy
resulting in a lower voltage spike.
Response time
This rating indicates how fast a surge protector can react. The longer response time tells you that the connected
equipments will be exposed to surge for a greater amount of time. Choose a surge protector that responds in
nanosecond.
Indicator lights
Surge protector with indicator lights let you know the surge protector is functioning properly whether or not.
Surge protector connectivity
Choosing a surge protector depends on what sort of equipment you are connecting to power supply. Some surge
protectors can protect your equipments from surge damage on wall outlets connection and from telephone or signal
lines connection, too. Some surge protectors can protect only surge damage on signal lines connection.
Surge protection on all electrical wires: Make sure that surge protection is on all electrical wires. Surge
protectorshould indicate protection for Line to Neutral (L-N), Line to Ground (L-G) and Neutral to Ground (N-G)
Telephone line protection: Look for a surge protector with telephone jack for protecting telephone, computer,
fax and modem from power surge on telephone lines.
Coaxial line protection: Look for a surge protector with coaxial jack for protecting TV or VCR from power surge
on coaxial lines.
Site orientation
Climate and other geographical factors
Site preparation needs (e.g. tree or other shading at installation site, condition of roof or ground, etc.)
Shipping costs for equipments and parts
Contractor and professional services cost
Optional energy usage, management or monitoring services
addition of distilled water. The advantages of sealed batteries are that they can be placed in any orientation, easy to
transport and better performing in very cold temperatures or in very deep-discharge applications. In a remote area where
regular maintenance is not possible, sealed battery will be a better option.
What kind of load can I run on PV system?
With a correctly designed PV system you can power almost any electrical load. However, as the load size increases the
expense also increases. Air conditioning and electric heating equipments (hot water heaters, electric stoves) should be
avoided. Because of these loads use large amount of electricity. Propane or natural gas is a popular alternative to electricity
cooking which is less expensive than solar energy.
How long do solar photovoltaic (PV) systems last?
A well-designed, installed and maintained solar PV system will operate for more than 20 years. The PV module, with no
moving parts, can last 25-30 years. The best way to ensure and extend the life and effectiveness of your PV system is by
having it installed and maintained properly.
The most common cause of system problems is the poor installation and failure of electronic parts include in the Balance of
System (BOS) - the charge controller, inverter and protection components. In many PV systems, the batteries are
discharged and recharged slowly, maybe over a period of days or weeks. Batteries will fail quickly under these conditions.
Be sure the batteries specified for your system are appropriate for the application.
What is the payback for solar PV system?
Solar photovoltaic system can pay for themselves between 7-14 years. Much depends on the overall cost of the system,
which is the type and size of the installation.
How big a solar PV system do I need?
The size of a solar PV system depends on the amount of power that is required (watts), the amount of time it is used
(hours), the amount of solar energy available where you are, and how much you're willing to invest. To get an idea of solar
PV system sizing, see How to Design Solar PV System or you can contact our system engineer to determine what type of
system would suit you needs.
What is the difference between solar thermal and solar electric?
These are two most economical, technically advanced and easy to use. Solar thermal is an old technology but has efficiency
of 70%-80% where as PV or solar electric has efficiency in the range of 14-18%. Solar thermal is the best way to own a
system and appreciate the benefits of a solar energy system because it is cheaper than a PV system.
What is solar thermal or solar water heating system?
Solar thermal or solar water heating system is one of most cost-effective renewable energy systems. Solar thermal
systemsare designed to collect or absorb solar energy for heating water used in residential, commercial and industrial
applications. Solar thermal systems use different type of collector to gather and store the solar energy. The systems can
reduce the amount of electricity, gas or fuel required to heat water.
How do solar water heating systems work?
Solar water heating systems work very similar to solar electric systems, except they do not produce electricity. Solar water
heating systems include solar collectors and storage tanks. The solar collectors collect solar energy and transfer heat to the
storage tank via heat exchanger. The storage tank in hot water system is like the batteries in a solar electric system, storing
energy to provide hot water for your home and business.
How long do solar thermal systems last?
A well-designed and installed solar thermal system may last 15 years or more.
What is the average payback for a solar thermal system?
Solar thermal systems can save the home owner or business amount of money and can reduce the amount of electricity,
gas or fuel required to heat water. At current energy prices, these systems can pay for themselves in 4-6 years depending
on the application.
Can business benefit from a solar thermal system?
Businesses that use large quantities of hot water or use hot water to supplement a convention heating system can cost
saving by using solar. Solar thermal system can reduce the amount of electricity, gas or fuel required to heat water.
Hospitals, hotels, resorts, apartment buildings and restaurants are examples of some of most satisfied customers. You will
also be directly reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Leonics Support
FAQ
Energy Conservation
Products
Energy Conservation
Systems
Energy Conservation Guide
How to Design Solar PV
System
Basics of Solar Cell
Basics of MPPT Solar
Charge Controller
Advantages of Solar
Power
http://www.leonics.com/support/support/support_en.php
http://www.homepower.com/
Solar Photovoltaic System or Solar Power System is a system which uses PV modules to convert sunlight into
electricity. The electricity generated can be either stored or used directly, fed back into grid line or combined with one or
more other electricity generators or more renewable energy source. Solar PV systems are very reliable and clean source
of electricity that can suit a wide range of applications such as residence, industry, agriculture, livestock, etc.
Solar Island Hybrid Power System or Hybrid Solar System combines PV systems with diesel generator or
otherrenewable energy supply e.g. wind turbine to supply continuous electric power. The Hybrid system is
suitable for the remote areas or islands where the cost of expansion utility grid is high.
Solar Farm also known as PV power farm, BIPV and Roof top PV system is typically called for the large scale
centralized PV grid tie system that can produce large scale of electricity from sun and sell electricity back to the
utility grid, simulated by government incentives (different campaign in each country).
Stand-alone Solar Power System operates independent of the electric utility grid and most often use in remote
areas where the utility grid is not available. Stand-alone system is used to power remote home, school or village.
Solar Grid Tie System or Grid connected System is connected to utility grid and feeds power back into the grid.
Grid tie system varies in size from residential to solar power stations.
Solar Home System is a stand-alone system, suitable for residential applications such as home appliances,
lighting, computer and water pump. Solar home system is generally designed and sized to supply DC and/or AC
electrical appliances.
http://www.homepower.com/
ASK THE EXPERTS: Voltage Drop
Share
EmailPrint
By:
Justine Sanchez
Published In:
Issue #153, February / March 2013
Voltage drop is a function of voltage (regardless of DC or AC), amperage, distance, and the resistance of
the wire.
Is there a different voltage drop calculation for direct current (DC) as opposed to alternating
current (AC)? I have a project that will take my solar-electric module string wires about 300 to 400
feet, carrying 9 amps at 480 volts DC. What size of wire do you recommend, and how do I
calculate that?
Rance Macdonald Denver, Colorado
There is not a different calculation for AC versus DC voltage drop. Voltage drop is a function of voltage
(regardless of DC or AC), amperage, distance, and the resistance of the wire.
This equation calculates voltage drop by percentage:
By rearranging the voltage drop equation, you can solve for a specific ohms/Kft. value. Then, you can use
the National Electrical Code (NEC) Chapter 9, Table 8, to find the wire size having an ohm/Kft. value that
does not exceed the calculated ohms/Kft. value.
Lets say you are aiming for a maximum voltage drop of 2%. Assuming 480 V, 9 A, and 400 ft., you have:
On the NEC table, we find that #10 AWG stranded (uncoated) copper yields 1.24 Ohms/Kft., less than
1.33. This means we can use #10 AWG or larger diameter wire and not exceed a 2% voltage drop.
Step 2 is to add up the WattHour results for all of your appliances. This will give you the total
daily WattHours required.
Step 3 is to assume that you want at least 3 days of operation before the batteries need to be
recharged. So you multiply the total daily WattHours by 3. In practice, you will only have to be
concerned about this in bad weather or winter. See Meters and Monitors for more about keeping
an eye on things.
Step 4 is to find the total battery capacity required by multiplying the 3 day WattHour figure by
2. This way, if you run for 3 days without recharging, you will only discharge the batteries to
about 50% capacity. You can greatly increase performance and battery life by not going below
50% charge. (except of course for emergencies) Get more information about this in the Storage
Batteries tutorial.
SPECIAL NOTE: You can combine step 3 & 4 by simply multiplying the total daily WattHours (from step 2) by 6.
Step 5 will calculate the size of the battery bank in AmpHours. We use AmpHours because this is
how batteries are rated. (Kind of how much fuel they can hold). This is figured by dividing
the total battery capacity required (from step 4) by your system battery voltage, usually 12, 24,
or 48 volts. Simply stated, the higher battery voltage you use, the smaller (and therefore cheaper)
size copper wire can be used to connect the solar panels to the batteries. (The Wires and
Cables tutorial has a chart for calculating wire sizes.) Here is an example of this calculation: The
default values in the Estimator give you a total battery capacity of 21120/12 volts = 1760
AmpHours. Then divide the 1760 AmpHours by the 105 AmpHour rating of a typical 12 volt
battery (1760/105 = about 17). In this example you would need about 17 batteries rated at 12
volts & 105 AmpHours each. More information is available in the Watts & Power tutorial.
Step 6 is to determine the number of solar panels you'll need. For this step you will divide your
total daily WattHours by your solar panel wattage times the hours of sunshine. Example: 3520/
(90*5)=8. The Estimator uses the value of 450. This assumed a 90 watt solar panel times 5 hours
average daily sunshine for mid latitudes in the US. So, using the Estimator's default selections as
an example, you get 3520 daily WattHours divided by 450 = 8 solar panels rounded up to the next
panel. See Solar Radiation to find the number of average daily hours of sunshine for your area.
DISCLAIMER : Alway make sure that all of your equipment is properly fused and grounded for
safety. Also, be sure to read and follow the advice and instructions that come with your
equipment. Additionally, our Design Tools, while reasonably accurate, are not meant as a
substitute for the recommendations of a licensed electrician. We provide these Design Tools
as a guide only and to assist in the explanation of the information presented. We do not
warrant their accuracy where equipment is improperly installed or operated under extreme
or unusual conditions.
design; conductors, inverters, fuses, the size of the solar rates is based on how much
power will be passing through a specific component of the system. Because power is
measured in an instant, it can vary widely over time and from minute to minute.
Power (watts) = current (Amps) X voltage (volts)
Energy
Energy is the is the actual work done by power. It is measure in kilowatt-hours (kWh).
Consumers pay for kWh. Its a measure of power over time.
Power (kW) X Time (hours) = Energy (kWh)
Current
Electricity is the flow of negatively charged electrons. The current is the amount of
negatively charged electrons in a specific part of a circuit.
Many people find it useful to use a water analogy when discussing electrical terms. In
the water example, its useful to think of a dam with a pipe at the bottom that water
can flow out of. The amount of water that can pass through a slice of the pipe, in
other words the area of the cross section of the pipe, is analogous to electric current.
Voltage
Voltage is a measure of the force or pressure of the electric current in a circuit. Its
measured in volts. Electrons of the same material WANT to be homogeneous, i.e.
they want to be evenly spread out. Thus, if one area has less electrons then another,
the electrons will move in an attempt to equalize. This flow is what created a voltage
potential and causes electrons to move.
To use the water example with a dam. If the size of the pipe at the bottom of a dam is
a measure of current, the height of the dam is a measure of voltage. The higher the
water is one on side of the dam versus the other, the more pressure there is.
Resistance
Parallel Circuit
In a parallel circuit, all of the positives are connected together and the negative are
connected together, each separate.
In parallel circuits, CURRENT ADDS and voltage stays constant.
AC Current
AC refers to alternating current. It refers to electrical systems where the voltage and
current are constantly changing between positive and negative. A complete cycle is
completed when when the current reaches returns to either the peak, or trough of the
wave. Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz) and is measured in number of cycles per
second. The power in the US is operated at 60 Hz.
DC Current
DC means direct current. DC is the type of electricity where the voltage and current
stay constant over time. Typical DC applications are batteries, solar modules, and
wind turbines.
Horizontal Tilt
The tilt angle from the sun is the angle from the horizon to the sun. Solar PV modules
will produce the most energy when the sun is shining directly onto them, from a 90
degree angle. Thus, all else equal, for fixed PV modules the best tilt angle will be the
same as the latitude of the site. For example, if the PV site is at 44 N, the best tilt will
be 44 degrees. However, most roofs and and commercial racking are not at 44
degrees, so you must apply correction factors for projects that are not at perfect tilts.
We will discuss this in a later article.
Azimuth
The azimuth is the number of degrees from true south that the sun, or another object,
is facing. Its used when designing a solar PV system because due south will provide
the best production, all else equal, over the course of a year. Were not going to get
into tracking systems in this series so all of our arrays will be fixed. However, if the
object is not directly south, you will need to apply correction factors that we will get
to in later articles.
Magnetic Declination
Keep in mind that if youre doing site visits with a magnetic compass you will need to
correct your magnetic readings to find truth south. The process is simple.
Determine your declination by look at diagram like the one below and determining
your location.
If youre location has a eastern declination, youll need to add the numbers to reading.
If from the west, subtract.
EAST Subtract. If youre compass reading was 190 degrees and you lived in San
Francisco, about 17 degrees east, you would need to subtract 17 degrees to find true
south. Youre TRUE SOUTH reading is 173 degrees.
WEST ADD. If you live in Belfast, Maine (about 19 degrees west) and your compass
reading was 165 degrees, you would need to ADD 19 degrees to get TRUE SOUTH
of 184 degrees.
Solar Module Terms: The below terms are terms you will need to understand when
sizing your system.
Voc: Volts open circuit is the maximum voltage a solar module can ever make when it
has no load on it. Voc is used when sizing solar arrays along with temperature
coefficients to determine worst case voltage scenarios.
Vmp: Volts maximum power is the reading of the maximum volts a module can
produce when under load under standing testing condition, STC, irradiance levels
(1000 W / M2) . If you look at the below curve, the Vmp would be somewhere in
curve on the right in the bend. It will be on the place in the curve the creates the most
power (volts times amps). The number is actually rather to difficult to calculate
exactly and can change rapidly from second to second as the current changes.
Isc: Amps short circuits it the maximum amount of amps that a solar module could
produce. You will find Isc on the x axis of the above graph where there is no voltage
and thus no power being produced.
Imp: Amps max power, like volts max power, is the current point on the power curve
when the module is producing maximum power.
Youll find the above material on the back of every individual solar PV module and it
is standard information that manufacturers and distributors will tell about their
product. Below is a product description for two Sharp modules from AEE Solar. All
the data is public and available on AEEs website.
https://blog.heatspring.com/solar-basics/
http://www.builditsolar.com/
Off-Grid Systems:
Off-Grid systems are independent of the utility power grid. They generate
electricity, store it, and make it available for use without any connection to the
power grid.
Off-Grid systems use PV panels connected to a Charge Controller to charge a
set of batteries. The stored energy from the batteries is usually converted to
regular 120 volt, AC power by an inverter. But, some small systems just use
the DC power directly from the batteries.
Grid-Tied Systems:
Grid-Tied systems use PV panels to generate DC power. The DC power goes
to a grid interactive (grid-tied) inverter which converts the PV panel DC power
to 240 volt AC power that is compatible with the power grid. The power from
the PV panels goes (via the grid tie inverter) to supply the household power
needs. If the PV system is generating more power than the house can use,
the excess is sent out over the grid to supply others. If the house needs more
power than the PV system can supply, then the extra is drawn from the grid as
usual.
Grid tied systems only work when the grid is up. If the grid power goes out,
the grid tie inverter is required to shut down immediately.
Grid-Tied with Batteries:
A grid tied with batteries system is kind of a mix of the two system. It basically
operates like a grid tied system when the grid is up, but it also charges a set
of batteries. If the grid goes down, the inverter disconnects from the grid (to
protect line workers), but it continues to supply power to the house from the
batteries and inverter -- essentially behaving like an off-grid system when the
grid is down.
Here is a run down on the pros and cons of each system:
Grid-Tie:
Pro:
- Lowest initial cost (because there is no need for batteries and charge
controller)