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Training Unit
Protective Measures
against Excessive Contact
Voltage
Theory
No: EE 017
Training Unit
Protective Measures against Excessive
Contact Voltage
Theoretical Part
No.: EE 017
Edition:
2008
All Rights Reserved
Editor:
CONTENTS
Page
GENERAL ....................................................................................................................7
1.1
1.1.1
1.1.2
Indirect contact.................................................................................................7
1.2
2
The protection of humans and animals against direct and indirect contact .........7
Legal regulations..................................................................................................7
DEFINITIONS...............................................................................................................9
2.1
Active components...............................................................................................9
2.2
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
Earth fault.......................................................................................................10
2.4
Electrical equipment...........................................................................................10
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
Earth voltage......................................................................................................13
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
3.2
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
Double insulation............................................................................................19
3.3.4
Types of AC plug............................................................................................19
3.3.5
3.4
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.3
3.4.4
3.5
3.5.1
3.6
3.7
3.7.1
3.7.2
3.7.3
3.8
3.8.1
3.9
3.9.1
3.10
3.10.1
3.10.2
3.10.3
3.11
3.11.1
breaker
38
3.12
4
EARTHS .....................................................................................................................40
4.1
General ..............................................................................................................40
4.2
4.2.1
4.3
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
4.4
4.4.1
4.4.2
6.2
Formulary...........................................................................................................49
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
GENERAL
1.1
1.1.1
The protection of humans and animals against direct and indirect contact
Direct contact
This means contact with the active conductors in electrical circuits. Protection is provided
by all equipment for normal sale. In most cases appliance and equipment will be marked
with a safety symbol.
1.1.2
Indirect contact
This refers to contact with inactive components of electrical equipment which are at a high
voltage due to a defect (i.e. insulation fault). The laws regarding Electrical Engineering
specify protective measures in which the maximum permissible contact voltage may not
exceed:
50 V for humans and 24 V for animals.
(Various protective measures are listed in paragraph 3, page 17).
1.2
Legal regulations
The material design of all high-voltage installations must meet the latest standards of
electrical engineering technology.
In all industrialized countries, laws and regulations have been established to protect
persons working with electrical equipment and appliances.
It has been assumed that, in the countries where this text book will be used, laws and
regulations exist which are the same or similar to the regulations outlined and the
instructors will be able to point out the differences without difficulty.
The laws for Electrical Engineering make the observation of certain regulations
compulsory. Failure to comply with these regulations is often punishable (by fine).
The law shows little leniency towards trained people, such as electricians, who should be
aware of such dangers.
The specialist must protect the layman!
The following regulations must always be observed when installing and operating
electrical installations:
2.1
DEFINITIONS
Active components
Active components are all those components (parts) or conductors (wires) which have a
current-carrying capability and which make up the electrical circuit.
Direct contact with active conductors is prevented by operational insulation (insulated
conductors in cables), protective covering (covered terminals), or installations which are
out of reach.
The following are examples of active conductors:
Electric lines, switches, fuses, neutral conductors, plugs and terminals.
2.2
Inactive components
Inactive components are conducting components which are not a part of the working
circuit, e g a motor housing.
2.3
Types of fault
2.3.1
Housing contact
2.3.2
Short circuit
2.3.3
Earth fault
2.4
Electrical equipment
Electrical equipment includes items which, as a whole or in part, are intended for
generating, transmitting or using electrical energy.
NOTE:
Electrical equipment must be protected against mechanical damage to from high
temperature, which could cause damage to the insulation. lf, as the result of an insulation
fault, connection is made between an active conductor and an inactive component in an
item of electrical equipment, then there will be a potential difference between the housing
of the equipment and earth.
10
2.5
Overloading, failure to allow for expansion, dust and dampness, incorrect handling and
repair by unqualified persons can cause excessive voltage on the housing of equipment.
2.6
Operational insulation
This is achieved by covering conductors along their full length with insulating material
(Varnish, enamel or oxide coatings are not permissible. Such conductors may only be
used on the Inside of electrical equipment or behind a protective covering).
2.7
Fault voltage
2.8
Contact voltage
This is the part of the fault voltage which can be bridged by a human.
11
Re
Ro
resistance
Rf
= fault resistance
Rtoc
Rh
= human resistance
Uc
= contact voltage
Uf
= fault voltage
Ut
= line voltage
2.9
It is that part of the general mass of earth where, in case of a short circuit to earth, a
noticeable voltage exists between any point in this area and a reference point of the earth
(a sufficient distance away from earth electrode).
12
13
14
NOTE:
A distance of 2500 mm must exist between the standing area (floor) and a live conductor
or conducting element.
15
16
3.1
The following are examples of active protective measures, apart from the connection of
the protective conductor to the equipment, which will excessive contact voltage:
-
The following are examples of inactive protective measures, when a protective conductor
is connected to the equipment, which prevents excessive contact voltage from remaining:
-
Safety earthing.
3.2
17
3.3
The function of protective insulation is to protect all inactive components in the equipment
by additional insulation when a fault (housing contact) occurs which would result in
excessive contact voltage.
3.3.1
18
3.3.2
3.3.3
Double insulation
Double insulated equipment need not have a protective conductor connection. However,
the AC plug on the connecting cable of a piece of double insulated equipment must fit into
an earthed AC socket.
3.3.4
Types of AC plug
Contour AC plugs or flat AC plugs (with partially insulated pins) must be inseparably
connected with the AC cable. When such plugs or the cable are to be replaced, earthed
plugs should be used with the protective contact not connected.
19
NOTE:
Electrical hand tools, electric razors and household appliances etc.; are items which are
commonly constructed with double insulation.
20
3.3.5
21
3.4
The protective low voltage may not be more than 42 volts; in children's toys it may not
exceed 24 volts nominal rate. This voltage is not high enough to allow a dangerous
amount of current to flow through the human body.
3.4.1
22
3.4.2
Rotary converters with separate windings (motor and generator are separate)
Primary cells
3.4.3
23
Prohibited:
Autotransformers
3.4.4
Plugs for low-voltage equipment must not be capable of being fitted into sockets for
higher voltage.
Extra-low voltage circuits and conductors must be insulated for a nominal 250 V.
For children's toys, driven by electric motors, the supply must be 24 V or lower
Extra-low voltage equipment for treating and keeping animals must have a rated
voltage of 24 V or lower.
3.5
The purpose of protective Isolation is to isolate the electrical circuit completely from the
electrical mains and earth, through an Isolation transformer with a maximum 660 V
nominal rating for the primary and a secondary with from 42 V to a maximum 380 V
nominal rating.
24
3.5.1
The movable connecting cable on the secondary must have a minimum performance
equal to GMM or YMM cables.
The housing of electrical equipment (non isolated electrical hand drills) silvated in
electrically conducting areas must be connected in an easily visible manner to this
area with a minimum of 4 mm copper cable.
25
The connection to the secondary electrical circuit must not be too long. The maximum
conductor length is 250 m at 250 V.
Should several items of equipment be driven with an isolation transformer, then their
housings must be connected with a potential equalizing conductor.
3.6
Protective earthing
All inactive components of electrical equipment which might receive excessive contact
voltage in case of a housing contact are connected through a protective conductor to an
earth electrode installed in the earth.
26
Rs
The fault current flows through the protective earth electrode to earth. The resistance of
the safety earthing Rs must be sufficiently low, so if a fault voltage of 50 V (24 V for
animals) is reached, the preceding protective component operates and shuts off the
supply.
Rs
Ib
In
27
Fault current Ib in
component
consumer plant In x k
Fuse, quick-acting
In x 3.5
Fuse, rating up to
50 A (slow-acting) over
In x 3 5
63 A (slow-acting)
In x 5
Circuit breaker
Type L
In x 5
Type G
In x 10
28
As the calculations have shown, the earth electrode resistances must be very low.
It is very expensive to lay safety earthing and almost impossible to keep the regulations in
earth which conducts poorly.
NOTE:
With the safety earthing, there must be a very low resistance to earth. It is forbidden to
replace an over-current protection component with one of a higher nominal rating.
3.7
29
3.7.1
The PEN-conductor must be connected to the water pipes and must also bridge the
water meter in every household.
30
3.7.2
Copper: same cross section the PEN-conductor, for conductor sizes up to 16 mm.
All of the conducting components (foundation earth, central heating and oil tank etc.) are
also connected to the potential equalizing strip.
3.7.3
Neutralisation must only be used in the complete installations when the following four
neutralisation conditions can be met:
-
The cross section of the conductor between power supply and consumers must be of
a sufficient size, so that in case of short circuit between the live and PEN-conductors,
a current, larger that the operating current of the preceding over-current protection
circuit breaker, flows.
The PEN-conductor must be earthed near the power source (transformer) and near
the terminal of the mains branch.
The PEN-conductor may not be interrupted (switched) and must also be laid to the
same regulations as the live wire.
All available earths in the area of the installation are to be connected to the PENconductor.
3.8
These protective measures may only be used in factories or workshops which have a
power generator or a transformer with the windings isolated from earth (neutral point of a
star connection must not be connected to earth!).
31
3.8.1
All exposed metalwork in buildings and construction sites and all inactive components
of electrical equipment must be connected to the protective conductor.
A supervisory device must be installed to monitor the insulation condition between live
conductors and earth.
The total earth electrode resistance of the protective conductor system must not
exceed 20.
Electrical equipment remains operative in the event of an insulation fault in one phase.
There is no contact voltage on the inactive components. The fault, however, will be
indicated on the insulation supervisory equipment. Only when there is a second housing
contact in an electrical component in another phase will the over-current protection device
be activated.
32
3.9
33
With the test button one can only determine whether the breaker is operating or if the
auxiliary earth conductor and the auxiliary earth are good. The condition of the protective
conductor and its proper connection is not tested by the Operation of the test button.
3.9.1
Auxiliary earth
Earthing rods driven 1.5 m into the earth may serve as auxiliary earth, or an earthing band
3 m long laid below the frost line can be used. The connecting cable from the auxiliary
earth to the voltage-operated circuit breaker must be insulated when laid
With a contact voltage of 50 V, the auxiliary earth resistance may be up to a maximum of
800 and the circuit will operate correctly.
NOTE:
The voltage-operated circuit breaker will not function when there is a direct connection
between the protective conductor and the auxiliary earth. In new installations the voltageoperated circuit breaker is no longer authorized for use.
34
If the insulation resistance of the electrical installation is good, the sum of the current
flowing through the balanced current transformer will be equal to zero (Kirchhoff's First
Law).
Should a housing contact exist in an item of electrical equipment which is connected after
the current-operated circuit breaker, then fault current flows from protective earth to
supply transformer earth. As a result, the sum of the currents flowing through the current
transformer is no longer zero.
35
Depending on the amount of fault current in the primary, a current will be induced in the
secondary. This current reduces the strength of a permanent magnet in the switch, the
switch will operate and turn off the supply.
Re
= earth electrode
If
Calculate the following earth electrode resistance Re for the protection of humans and
domestic animals using a current-operated circuit breaker.
Fault release
0.015
003
0.1
current If [A]
Max. Re []
4333
with Uc 150 V
Max. Re []
1600
with Uc 24 V
36
0.3
0.2
All metal installation components are to be protected and must be earthed according
to regulations. The minimum cross section of the protective conductor is 1.5 mm.
All of the conductors after the current-operated circuit breaker must be well insulated
from earth.
The current-operated circuit breaker must be tested monthly. The following information
is to be posted with good visibility.
NOTE:
This test cannot determine whether the electrical equipment is properly connected and
earthed. A current-operated circuit breaker with a fault release current up to 100 mA will
also protect one against earthing in case of contact with active components (live parts).
37
All live conductors and the neutral conductor must be wired through the circuit
breaker.
The neutral conductor after the switch must be insulated from earth.
38
The auxiliary earth conductor will be connected to terminal "H" of the protective circuit
breaker. The auxiliary earth conductor is to be insulated from earth.
Foundation earth
Gas pipes
39
EARTHS
4.1
General
Earthing means creating an electrical, conducting connection between earth and the
earthing system. The earth electrode resistance near the earthing system is very high.
The greater the distance from the earthing electrode, the larger the earth's cross section
available for current flow.
After a distance of approximately 20 m from the earthing system, the earth can be rated
as an excellent current conductor because of the large cross section.
4.2
This is dependent on the specific earth resistance (see paragraph 2.11, page 13) and on
the cross section and length of the grounding item.
4.2.1
30 m
100 m
Damp sand
300 m
500 m
Dry sand
1000 m
Dry gravel
3000 m
Rock
10000 m
Area of risk:
See paragraph 2.9, page 12.
40
4.3
Types of earth
The type of earth which will be used depends on the composition of the earth and on the
actual requirements (protective measures) in each case.
4.3.1
Made of galvanized steel band, the minimum cross section is 90 mm; dimensions 3 x 30
mm.
Made of galvanized steel cable, the minimum cross section is 95 mm; diameter of each
wire minimum 2.5 mm.
Made of copper cable the minimum cross section is 35 mm.
The earthing strip should be buried a minimum of 0.5 - 1 m deep, depending on the
properties of the soil.
The strip earth may be laid as a ray, ring or mesh.
With a ray earth, the spacing should be even.
The angles between the rays should not exceed 60.
41
10
25
50
100
16
7.5
4.5
2.5
[m]
earth electrode
resistance Reel []
4.3.2
Foundation earths
These are very economical as later digging is not required Foundation earths are laid as a
ring under the outer foundation walls of a building (when necessary under middle walls as
well).
42
No point in the ground level plan of the building may be more than 5 m from the earth.
Strip steel must be laid an edge and there must be a minimum of 5 cm of concrete
beneath the strip.
Concrete-cased steel components and reinforcing steel can be connected to the
foundation earth by welding, screws or clamps.
43
4.3.3
These are used when it is impossible to lay a horizontal earth or when good conducting
earth is found at a deep level. The material used is galvanized rod or sectional steel which
is vertically driven into the earth. Earth rods may also be connected in parallel. However,
the distance between the rods in the earth must be twice the length of the original rods.
Approximate values of the earth electrode resistance for earth rods when the specific
earth resistance
equals 100 m.
40
30
20
Reel []
44
4.3.4
Earth plates
These are sheet plates at least 3 mm thick and buried vertically 1 m deep in the earth.
They are rarely used as a main earthing electrode due to the high earth electrode
resistance but may be used as an auxiliary earth.
Approximate value of the earth electrode resistance Reel for earth plates when specific
resistance
equals 100 m.
Plate size [m]
0.5 x 1
1x1
45
35
Earth electrode
resistance Reel []
4.4
The contact surface of the connecting points must be cleaned. A connecting strip must be
laid between the earthing terminal and the water pipes. All connections open to be
protected from corrosion. Earthing connectors should not be laid under driveways or
paths. The earth electrode resistance can vary during the course of the year by a ratio of
approximately 1 : 2.
4.4.1
Water pipes
Metal water pipes may only be used as a sole earth when their components are
electrically well connected with each other and the earth electrode resistance must be as
low as normal earth electrode resistance. It must also be ensured that a change from
metal to plastic pipes will not be made at a later date.
45
4.4.2
Central heating pipes, pipes from distant heating plants, pipes from the gas system and
drain pipes must not be used as sole earths. They must be connected to the protective
earth.
46
The applied protective measures are to be tested by the installer before the Installation is
made operative.
The test must include all measurements and a complete visual inspection of all of the
protective circuit components.
If line voltage is used during the test, attention should be paid to the danger arising
through contact voltage, i.e. surface voltage gradient. If the test with a low test current
already shows that the protective measures are not in order, then the current must not be
increased. The test is to be interrupted.
The installer must advise the consumer to have the protective measures tested at suitable
intervals.
47
6.1
Explanation of symbols
Formula Symbol
Name
Unit
Abbreviation
Ib
Breaking current
Ampere
In
Nominal current
Ampere
It
Ampere
Ohm
Ohm
current-operated circuit
breaker
k
Reel
Re
customers
Rt
Ohm
Rh
Human resistance
Ohm
Ro
Ohm
electrode resistance
Rs
Ohm
Rloc
Ohm
Ohm metre
Uc
Contact voltage
Volt
Ue
Earth voltage
Volt
Uf
Fault voltage
Volt
Ul
Line voltage
Volt
Us
Volt
48
6.2
Formulary
49
EE 017
50
EE 017
PROTECTIVE MEASURES AGAINST CONTACT WITH EXCESSIVE VOLTAGE
TEST 1
1. Name three possible ways in which humans may be protected from making contact
with active conductors.
2. What is meant by "short circuit"?
3. State three safety principles which must be observed when installing and operating
electrical installations?
4. What is an active component?
5. What is meant by "earth fault"?
6. Which insulating materials may only be used on the inside of electrical equipment?
7. What is contact voltage?
8. State the formula for calculating specific earth resistance.
9. What distance must there be between a live conductor and the standing area, to
ensure safety?
10. What is the purpose of the PE-protective conductor?
51
EE 017
PROTECTIVE MEASURES AGAINST CONTACT WITH EXCESSIVE VOLTAGE
TEST 2
52
EE 017
PROTECTIVE MEASURES AGAINST CONTACT WITH EXCESSIVE VOLTAGE
TEST 3
53
EE 017
PROTECTIVE MEASURES AGAINST CONTACT WITH EXCESSIVE VOLTAGE
TEST 1
(Solution)
1. By insulation of the conductor, protective covering of conductors and machinery, by
placing the conductors out of reach.
2. A conducting connection between active conductors with different potentials.
3. The safety to life may not be endangered.
Electrical installation must not cause any damage (e.g. fire).
Safety standards must be as high as possible.
4. Any component or wire used to carry current.
5. A conducting connection between a live conductor and earth or earthed (grounded)
component.
6. Varnish, enamel or oxide coatings.
7. The part of the fault voltage which can be bridged by a human.
8.
9. 2500 mm.
10. The PE-conductor is installed to protect the equipment housing from excessive
voltage.
54
EE 017
PROTECTIVE MEASURES AGAINSTCONTACT WITH EXCESSIVE VOLTAGE
TEST 2
(Solution)
1. Yellow and green.
2. Protective insulation; protective low voltage; protective isolation of one item of
equipment.
3. Protective isolation for several items of equipment; safety earthing; neutralisation;
protective conductor system; voltage-operated circuit breaker; current-operated
circuit breaker; combined current-voltage-operated circuit breaker; controlling the
earth potential.
4. To protect all inactive components from excessive contact voltage.
5. The Operation of all protective measures must be inspected and tested.
6. By the standard symbol (a square within a square) which all such equipment must
carry.
7. Maximum 42 volts.
8. Protective transformers with separated windings; rotary converter with separate
windings; storage batteries; dry batteries.
9. Autotransformers; series resistors; voltage dividers; rotary converters with
connections between windings.
10. Because of the danger of voltage from other faulty equipment passing over the
conductor to the low-voltage equipment.
55
EE 017
PROTECTIVE MEASURES AGAINSTCONTACT WITH EXCESSIVE VOLTAGE
TEST 3
(Solution)
1. To provide complete Isolation from the mains and earth.
2. 50 V
3. 90 mm cross section
10 mm diameter
16 mm cross section
4. 20 ohms.
5. 800 ohms.
6. 30 m; 300 m; 1000 m; 10000 m.
7. The composition of the soil (earth) and the requirements of the installation.
8. Between 0.5 and 1 m, depending on soil conditions.
9. Ring earth; ray earth; mesh earth.
10. The distance between them must be equal to twice their length.
56
KEY TO EVALUATION
PER CENT
MARK
88 100
75 87
62 74
50 61
0 49
57