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Benandanti
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Thebenandanti("GoodWalkers")weremembersofanagrarianvisionarytraditionintheFriulidistrictofNortheasternItalyduring
the16thand17thcenturies.Thebenandanticlaimedtotraveloutoftheirbodieswhileasleeptostruggleagainstmalevolentwitches
(streghe)inordertoensuregoodcropsfortheseasontocome.Between1575and1675,inthemidstoftheEarlyModernwitch
trials,anumberofbenandantiwereaccusedofbeinghereticsorwitchesundertheRomanInquisition,andtheirbeliefsassimilatedto
Satanism.
AccordingtoEarlyModernrecords,benandantiwerebelievedtohavebeenbornwithacaulontheirhead,whichgavethemthe
abilitytotakepartinnocturnalvisionarytraditionsthatoccurredonspecificThursdaysduringtheyear.Duringthesevisions,itwas
believedthattheirspiritsrodeuponvariousanimalsintotheskyandofftoplacesinthecountryside.Heretheywouldtakepartin
variousgamesandotheractivitieswithotherbenandanti,andbattlemalevolentwitcheswhothreatenedboththeircropsandtheir
communitiesusingsticksofsorghum.Whennottakingpartinthesevisionaryjourneys,benandantiwerealsobelievedtohave
magicalpowersthatcouldbeusedforhealing.
In1575,thebenandantifirstcametotheattentionoftheFriulianChurchauthoritieswhenavillagepriest,DonBartolomeo
Sgabarizza,beganinvestigatingtheclaimsmadebythebenandantePaoloGasparotto.AlthoughSgabarizzasoonabandonedhis
investigations,in1580thecasewasreopenedbytheinquisitorFraFelicedeMontefalco,whointerrogatednotonlyGasparottobut
alsoavarietyofotherlocalbenandantiandspiritmediums,ultimatelycondemningsomeofthemforthecrimeofheresy.Under
pressurebytheInquisition,thesenocturnalspirittravels(whichoftenincludedsleepparalysis)wereassimilatedtothediabolised
stereotypeofthewitches'Sabbath,leadingtotheextinctionofthebenandanticult.TheInquisition'sdenunciationofthevisionary
traditionledtotheterm"benandante"becomingsynonymouswiththeterm"stregha"(meaning"witch")inFriulianfolkloreright
throughtothe20thcentury.

Thenocturnalvisionarytraditionof
thebenandantiledtheRoman
Inquisitiontoaccusethemofbeing
witches,malevolentSatanistsdepicted
inthis1508woodcut.

ThefirsthistoriantostudythebenandantitraditionwastheItalianCarloGinzburg,whobegananexaminationofthesurvivingtrial
recordsfromtheperiodintheearly1960s,culminatinginthepublicationofhisbookTheNightBattles:WitchcraftandAgrarian
CultsintheSixteenthandSeventeenthCenturies(1966,Englishtranslation1983).InGinzburg'sinterpretationoftheevidence,the
benandantiwasa"fertilitycult"whosememberswere"defendersofharvestsandthefertilityoffields."Hefurthermorearguedthatitwasonlyonesurvivingpartofamuch
widerEuropeantraditionofvisionaryexperiencesthathaditsoriginsinthepreChristianperiod,identifyingsimilaritieswithLivonianwerewolfbeliefs.[1]Various
historianshavealternatelybuiltonorchallengedaspectsofGinzburg'sinterpretation.

Contents
1 Members
2 Visionaryjourneys
2.1 Relationshipwithwitches
3 Inquisitionandpersecution
3.1 Sgabarizza'sinvestigation:1575
3.2 Montefalco'sinvestigation:15801582
3.2.1 GasparottoandModuco
3.2.2 AnnalaRossa,DonnaAquilinaandCaterinalaGuercia
3.3 Subsequentdepositionsanddenunciations:15831629
4 Legacy
4.1 Folkterminology
4.2 Historicalinvestigationandinterpretation
4.3 Popularculture
5 Connectionsandorigins
5.1 ApreChristianshamanisticsurvival?
5.2 Relatedtraditions
6 References
6.1 Footnotes
6.2 Bibliography
7 Externallinks

Members
ThebenandantiatermmeaninggoodwalkerswhentranslatedintoEnglish[2]weremembersofafolktraditionintheFriuli
region.
Thebenandanti,whoincludedbothmalesandfemales,wereindividualswhobelievedthattheyensuredtheprotectionoftheir
communityanditscrops.Thebenandantireportedleavingtheirbodiesintheshapeofmice,cats,rabbits,orbutterflies.Themen
mostlyreportedflyingintothecloudsbattlingagainstwitchestosecurefertilityfortheircommunitythewomenmoreoftenreported
attendinggreatfeasts.
AcrossEurope,popularcultureviewedmagicalabilitiesaseitherinnateorlearnedinFriulianfolkcustom,thebendandantiwereseen
ashavinginnatepowersmarkedoutatbirth.[2]Specifically,itwasawidelyheldbeliefthatthosewhoinlaterlifebecamebenandanti
werebornwithacaul,oramnioticsac,wrappedaroundtheirheads.[3][4]InthefolkloreofFriuliatthetime,caulswereimbuedwith
magicalproperties,beingassociatedwiththeabilitytoprotectsoldiersfromharm,tocauseanenemytowithdraw,andtohelplawyers
wintheirlegalcases.[5]Insubsequentcenturies,arelatedfolklorictraditionfoundacrossmuchofItalyheldtothebeliefthatwitches
hadbeenbornwithacaul.[5]

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Locationofthehistoricalregion
FriuliinItaly.

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Fromsurvivingrecords,itisapparentthatmembersofthebenandantifirstlearnedaboutitstraditionsduringinfancy,usuallyfromtheirmothers.[6]Forthisreason,
historianNormanCohnassertedthatthebenandantitraditionhighlightshow"notonlythewakingthoughtsbutthetranceexperiencesofindividualscanbedeeply
conditionedbythegenerallyacceptedbeliefsofthesocietyinwhichtheylive."[7]

Visionaryjourneys
Althoughtheseweredescribedbybendandantiasspiritjourneys,theyneverthelessstressedtherealityofsuchexperiences,believingthattheywererealoccurrences.[8]
OnThursdaysbetweentheEmberdays,periodsoffastingfortheCatholicChurch,thebenandanticlaimedtheirspiritswouldleavetheirbodiesatnightintheformofsmall
animals.Thespiritsofthemenwouldgotothefieldstofightevilwitches(malandanti[9]).Thebenandantimenfoughtwithfennelstalks,whilethewitcheswerearmed
withsorghumstalks(sorghumwasusedforwitches'brooms,andthe"brooms'sorghum"wasoneofthemostcurrenttypeofsorghum).Ifthemenprevailed,theharvest
wouldbeplentiful.[10]
Thefemalebenandantiperformedothersacredtasks.Whentheylefttheirbodiestheytraveledtoagreatfeast,wheretheydanced,ateanddrankwithaprocessionofspirits,
animalsandfaeries,andlearnedwhoamongstthevillagerswoulddieinthenextyear.Inoneaccount,thisfeastwaspresidedoverbyawoman,"theabbess",whosatin
splendourontheedgeofawell.CarloGinzburghascomparedthesespiritassemblieswithothersreportedbysimilargroupselsewhereinItalyandSicily,whichwerealso
presidedoverbyagoddessfigurewhotaughtmagicanddivination.
Theearliestaccountsofthebenandanti'sjourneys,datingfrom1575,didnotcontainanyoftheelementsthenassociatedwiththediabolicwitches'sabbaththerewasno
worshippingoftheDevil(afigurewhowasnotevenpresent),norenunciationofChristianity,notramplingofcrucifixesandnodefilementofsacraments.[11]

Relationshipwithwitches
Ginzburgnotedthatwhetherthebenandantiwerethemselveswitchesornotwasanareaofconfusionintheearliestrecords.Whilsttheycombatedthemalevolentwitches
andhelpedhealthosewhowerebelievedtohavebeenharmedthroughwitchcraft,theyalsojoinedthewitchesontheirnocturnaljourneys,andthemillerPietroRotarowas
recordedasreferringtothemas"benandantiwitches"forthisreasonthepriestDonBartolomeoSgabarizza,whorecordedRotaro'stestimony,believedthatwhilethe
benandantiwerewitches,theywere'good'witcheswhotriedtoprotecttheircommunitiesfromthebadwitcheswhowouldharmchildren.Ginzburgremarkedthatitwas
thiscontradictionintherelationshipbetweenthebenandantiandthemalevolentwitchesthatultimatelyheavilyinfluencedtheirpersecutionatthehandsofthe
Inquisition.[11]

Inquisitionandpersecution
Sgabarizza'sinvestigation:1575
Inearly1575,PaoloGasparotto,amalebenandantewholivedinthevillageofIassico(modern
spelling:Giasscco),gaveacharmtoamillerfromBrazzanonamedPietroRotaro,inthehopeof
healinghisson,whohadfallensickfromsomeunknownillness.Thiseventcametotheattentionofthe
localpriest,DonBartolomeoSgabarizza,whowasintriguedbytheuseofsuchfolkmagic,andcalled
Gasparottotohimtolearnmore.Thebenandantetoldthepriestthatthesickchildhad"beenpossessed
bywitches"butthathehadbeensavedfromcertaindeathbythebenandanti,or"vagabonds"asthey
werealsoknown.Hewentontorevealmoreabouthisbenandantibrethren,relatingthat"onThursdays
duringtheEmberDaysoftheyear[they]wereforcedtogowiththesewitchestomanyplaces,suchas
Cormons,infrontofthechurchatGiasscco,andevenintothecountrysidearoundVerona,"wherethey
"fought,played,leapedabout,androdevariousanimals",aswellastakingpartinanactivityduring
which"thewomenbeatthemenwhowerewiththemwithsorghumstalks,whilethemenhadonly
bunchesoffennel."[13]

"Sometimestheygoouttoonecountryregionandsometimestoanother,
perhapstoGradiscaorevenasfarawayasVerona,andtheyappear
togetherjoustingandplayinggamesand...themenandwomenwhoare
theevildoerscarryandusethesorghamstalkswhichgrowinthefields,
andthemenandwomenwhoarebenandantiusefennelstorksandthey
gonowonedayandnowanother,butalwaysonThursdays,and...when
theymaketheirgreatdisplaystheygotothebiggestfarms,andtheyhave
daysfixedforthisandwhenthewarlocksandwitchessetoutitistodo
evil,andtheymustbepursuedbythebenandantitothwartthem,andalso
tostopthementeringthehouses,becauseiftheydonotfindclearwaterin
thepailstheygointothecellarsandspoilthewinewithcertainthings,
throwingfilthinthebungholes."
Sgabarizza'srecordofwhatGasparottoinformedhim,1575.[12]

DonSgabarizzawasconcernedwithsuchtalkofwitchcraft,andon21March1575,heappearedasa
witnessbeforeboththevicargeneral,MonsignorJacopoMaracco,andtheInquisitorFraGiulio
d'Assis,amemberoftheOrderoftheMinorConventuals,atthemonasteryofSanFrancescodiCividaleinFriuli,inthehopethattheycouldofferhimguidanceinhowto
proceedinthissituation.HebroughtGasparottowithhim,whoreadilyfurnishedmoreinformationinfrontoftheInquisitor,relatingthataftertakingpartintheirgames,
"thewitches,warlocksandvagabonds"wouldpassinfrontofpeople'shouses,lookingfor"clean,clearwater"thattheywouldthendrink.AccordingtoGasparotto,ifthe
witchescouldnotfindanycleanwatertodrink,theywould"gointothecellarsandoverturnallthewine."[14]

SgabarizzadidnotinitiallybelieveGasparotto'sclaimthattheseeventshadactuallyoccurred.Inresponsetothepriest'sdisbelief,Gasparottoinvitedbothhimandthe
Inquisitortojointhebenandantiontheirnextjourney,althoughrefusedtoprovidethenamesofanyothermembersofthebrethren,statingthathewouldbe"badlybeaten
bythewitches"shouldhedoso.[15]Notlongafter,ontheMondayfollowingEaster,SgabarizzavisitedGiassccoinordertosayMasstotheassembledcongregation,and
followingtheritualstayedamongthelocalsforafeastheldinhishonour.Duringandafterthemeal,Sgabarizzaoncemorediscussedthejourneysofthebenandantiwith
bothGasparottoandthemillerPietroRotaro,andlaterlearnedofanotherselfprofessedbenandante,thepubliccrierBattistaModucoofCividale,whoofferedmore
informationonwhatoccurredduringtheirnocturnalvisions.Ultimately,SgabarizzaandtheinquisitorGiuliod'Assisidecidedtoabandontheirinvestigationsintothe
benandanti,somethingthelaterhistorianCarloGinzburgbelievedwasprobablybecausetheycametobelievethattheirstoriesofnocturnalflightsandbattlingwitcheswere
"talltalesandnothingmore."[16]

Montefalco'sinvestigation:15801582
GasparottoandModuco
FiveyearsafterSgabarizza'soriginalinvestigation,on27June1580,theinquisitorFraFelicedaMontefalcodecidedtorevivethecaseofthebenandanti.Todosohe
orderedGasparottotobebroughtinforquestioningunderinterrogation,Gasparottorepeatedlydeniedhavingeverbeenabenandanteandassertedthatinvolvementinsuch
thingswereagainstGod,contradictingtheformerclaimsthathehadmadetoSgabarizzaseveralyearsbefore.Thequestioningover,Gasparottowasimprisoned.[12]That
sameday,thepubliccrierofCividale,BattistaModuco,whowasalsoknownlocallytobeabenandante,wasroundedupandinterrogatedatCividale,butunlike

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Gasparotto,heopenlyadmittedtoMontefalcothathewasabenandante,andwentontodescribehisvisionaryjourneys,inwhichhebattledwitchesinordertoprotectthe
community'scrops.Vehementlydenouncingtheactionsofthewitches,heclaimedthatthebenandantiwerefighting"inserviceofChrist",andultimatelyMontefalco
decidedtolethimgo.[17]

"IamabenandantebecauseIgowiththeotherstofightfourtimesayear,
thatisduringtheEmberDays,atnightIgoinvisiblyinspiritandthe
bodyremainsbehindwegoforthintheserviceofChrist,andthewitches
ofthedevilwefighteachother,wewithbundlesoffennelandtheywith
sorghumstalks."
Montefalco'srecordofwhatModucoinformedhim,1580.[18]

On28June,Gasparottowasbroughtinforinterrogationagain.Thistimeheadmittedtobeinga
benandante,claimingthathehadbeentooscaredtodosointhepreviousinterrogationlestthewitches
beathiminpunishment.Gasparottowentontoaccusetwoindividuals,onefromGoriziaandtheother
fromChiana,ofbeingwitches,andwassubsequentlyreleasedbyMontefalcoontheprovisothathe
returnforfurtherquestioningatalaterdate.[19]Thiseventuallycameabouton26September,taking
placeatthemonasteryofSanFrancescoinUdine.Thistime,Gasparottoaddedanextraelementtohis
tale,claimingthatanangelhadsummonedhimtojointhebenandanti.ForMontefalco,theintroduction
ofthiselementledhimtosuspectthattheactionsofGasparottowerethemselveshereticalandsatanic,
andhismethodofinterrogationbecameopenlysuggestive,puttingforwardtheideathattheangelwas

actuallyademonindisguise.[20]
AshistorianCarloGinzburgrelated,MontefalcohadbeguntowarpGasparotto'stestimonyofthebenandantijourneytofittheestablishedclericalimageofthediabolical
witches'sabbat,whileunderthestressofinterrogationandimprisonment,Gasparottohimselfwaslosinghisselfassuranceandbeginningtoquestion"therealityofhis
beliefs".[21]Severaldayslater,GasparottoopenlytoldMontefalcothathebelievedthat"theapparitionofthatangelwasreallythedeviltemptingme,sinceyouhavetoldme
hecantransformhimselfintoanangel."WhenModucowasalsosummonedtoMontefalco,on2October1580,hewentontoannouncethesamething,proclaimingthatthe
Devilmusthavedeceivedhimintogoingonthenocturnaljourneywhichhebelievedwasperformedforgood.[22]HavingbothconfessedtoMontefalcothattheirnocturnal
journeyinghadbeencausedbytheDevil,bothGasparottoandModucowerereleased,pendingsentencingfortheircrimeatalaterdate.[23]Duetoajurisdictionalconflict
betweentheCividalecommissionerandthepatriarch'svicar,thepronouncementofGasparottoandModuco'spunishmentwaspostponeduntil26November1581.Both
denouncedasheretics,theyweresparedfromexcommunicationbutcondemnedtosixmonthsimprisonment,andfurthermoreorderedtoofferprayersandpenancestoGod
oncertaindaysoftheyear,includingtheEmberDays,inorderthathemightforgivetheirsins.However,theirpenaltiesweresoonremitted,ontheconditionthatthey
remainwithinthecityofCividaleforafortnight.[23]
AnnalaRossa,DonnaAquilinaandCaterinalaGuercia
GasparottoandModucowouldnotbetheonlyvictimsofMontefalco'sinvestigationshowever,forduringlate1581hehadheardofawidowlivinginUrdinenamedAnna
laRossa.Whileshedidnotclaimtobeabenandante,shedidclaimthatshecouldseeandcommunicatewiththespiritsofthedead,andsoMontefalcohadherbroughtin
forquestioningon1January1582.Initiallydenyingthatshehadsuchanabilitytotheinquisitor,sheeventuallyrelentedandtoldhimofhowshebelievedthatshecouldsee
thedead,andhowshesoldtheirmessagestomembersofthelocalcommunitywillingtopay,usingthemoneyinordertoalleviatethepovertyofherfamily.Although
Montefalcointendedtointerrogateheragainatalaterdate,thetrialultimatelyremainedpermanentlyunfinished.[24]
Thatyear,MontefalcoalsotookaninterestintheclaimsregardingthewifeofatailorlivinginUdinewhoallegedlyhadthepowertoseethedeadandtocurediseaseswith
theuseofspellsandpotions.KnownamonglocalsasDonnaAquilina,shewassaidtohavebecomerelativelyrichthroughofferingherservicesasaprofessionalhealer,but
whenshelearnedthatshewasundersuspicionfromtheHolyInquisition,shefledthecity,andMontefalcodidnotinitiallysetouttolocateher.Later,on26August1583,
MontefalcotraveledtoAquilina'shomeinordertointerrogateher,butshefledandhidinaneighbouringhouse.Shewasfinallybroughtinforinterrogationon27October,
inwhichshedefendedherpractices,butclaimedthatshewasneitherabenandantinorawitch.[25]
In1582,MontefalcohadalsobeguninvestigatingaCividalewidownamedCaterinalaGuercia,whomhehadaccusedofpracticing"variousmaleficentarts".Under
interrogationon14September,sheadmittedthatsheknewseveralcharmswhichsheusedtocurechildren'ssicknesses,butthatshewasnotabenandante.Sheadded
howeverthatherdeceasedhusband,AndreaofOrsaria,hadbeenabenandante,andthatheusedtoentertrancesinwhichhisspiritwouldleavehisbodyandgowiththe
"processionsofthedead".[26]

Subsequentdepositionsanddenunciations:15831629
In1583,ananonymousindividualdenouncedaherdsman,ToffolodiBuriofPieris,totheHolyOfficeatUdine.ThevillageofPieriswasnearMonfalcone,acrossthe
IsonzoriverandthereforeoutsideofFriuliitwasneverthelesswithinthedioceseofAquileia.TheanonymoussourceclaimedthatToffoloopenlyadmittedtobeinga
benandante,andthathewentoutatnightonhisvisionaryjourneystobattlethewitches.ThesourcealsoassertedthatToffoloregularlyattendedconfession,recognising
thathisactivitiesasabenandantewerecontrarytotheteachingsoftheCatholicChurch,butthathewasunabletostopthejourneying.Havingheardthistestimony,the
membersoftheHolyOfficeofUdinemeton18MarchtodiscussthesituationtheyrequestedthattheMayorofMonfalcone,AntoniaZorzi,arrestToffoloandsendhimto
Udine.WhileZorzididorchestratethearrest,hehadnomensparetotransfertheprisoner,andsolethimgo.InNovember1586,theinquisitorofAquileiadecidedtore
investigatethematter,andtravelledtoMonfalcone,butdiscoveredthatToffolohadmovedawayfromtheareaoverayearbefore.[27]
On1October1587,apriestknownasDonVincenzoAmorosiofCesanadenouncedamidwifenamedCaterinaDomenattatotheinquisitorofAquileiaandConcordia,Fra
GiambattistadaPerugia.LambastingDomenattaasa"guiltysorceress",heclaimedthatshehadencouragedmotherstoputtheirnewbornchildrenonaspitinorderto
preventthemfrombecomingeitherbenandantiorwitches.Agreeingtoinvestigate,theinquisitortravelledtoMonfalconeinJanuary1588togaindepositionsagainstthe
midwife.WhenhecametointerrogatingDomenatta,sheopenlyadmittedtothepractice,andwascondemnedtopublicpenanceandanabjuration.[28]
In1600,awomannamedMaddalenaBusettoofValvasonemadetwodepositionsregardingthebenandantiofMoruzzovillagetoFraFrancescoCummoofVicenza,the
commissioneroftheInquisitioninthediocesesofAquileiaandConcordia.Claimingthatshewantedtounburdenherconscience,Busettoinformedthecommissionerthat
shehadvisitedthevillage,whereshemetafriendwhosechildwasinjured.Seekingouttheperpetratoroftheinjury,shetalkedtotheoldwomanshebelievedtobeguilty,
PascuttaAgrigolante,whoclaimedthatshewasabenandanteandknewwitches.Busettodidnotknowwhatthebenandantiwere,soenquiredfurther,towhichAgrigolante
obligedbyprovidingheranaccountofthenocturnaljourneys.Agrigolantealsonamedseveralotherbenandantewholivedlocally,includingthevillagepriestandawoman
namedNardaPeresut.BusettoproceededtoseekoutPeresut,whoadmittedtobeingabenandantebutwhostatedthatsheperformedherhealingmagicinGaotoavoid
prosecutionfromtheInquisition.Busettowouldinformthecommissionerthatshedidnotbelieveanyoftheseclaims,butwhileheagreedtoinvestigatefurther,thereisno
evidencethatheeverdid.[29]Thatsameyear,aselfprofessedbenandantenamedBastianPetricciofPercotowasalsodenouncedtotheHolyOffice,althoughitisnot
recordedthattheytookanyactionontheissue.[30]
In1606,GiambattistaValento,anartisanfromPalmanova,wenttothesuperintendentgeneralofthepatriaoftheFriuli,AndreaGarzoni,andinformedhimofhisbeliefthat
hiswifehadbeenbewitched.Garzoniwasconcerned,andsenttheinquisitorgeneral,FraGerolamoAsteo,toPalmanovatoinvestigate.Asteofoundthatthevillagers
widelyconcurredthatValento'swifehadbeenthevictimofwitchcraft,andabenandantewasimplicated,an18yearoldshopassistantnamedGasparo.TalkingtoGasparo,

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Asteoheardthestoriesofthenocturnaljourneys,buttheyoungbenandantewasinsistentthattheyservedGodratherthantheDevil.Gasparoproceededtonamesomeof
thevillagersaswitches,buttheinquisitordidnotbelievehim,andbroughtthecasetoaclose.[31]
In1609thiswasfollowedbythedenunciationofanotherbenandante,apeasantnamedBernardoofSantaMarialaLonga,tothereligiousauthorities.[32]In1614,awoman
namedFranceschinaofFrattuzzearrivedatthemonasteryofSanFrancescoinPortogruaroinordertodenounceafolkmagiciannamedMariettaTrevisanaofGhiaiasa
witch.Althoughnotdescribedasabenandante,Trevisana'sworkinclaimingtocombatwitchcraftmighthaveindicatedthatshewouldhaveconsideredherselftobeofthe
benandanti.[32]In1618,awomanfromLatisana,MariaPanzona,wasarrestedfortheft.Whileimprisoned,itwasrevealedthatshedescribedherselfasa"biandante"and
workedasaprofessionalhealerandantiwitch.Sheproceededtoaccuseanumberoflocalwomenofbeingwitches,butwhenquestionedfurtherinJanuary1619admitted
thatshehadpaidhomagetotheDevil,butonlytogainpowerswhichsheusedtohelppeople.[33]ShewassubsequentlymovedtoVenice,theretobetriedforheresyinfront
oftheHolyOffice,andtwowomenwhomsheaccusedofwitchcraftwerealsosummoned.Here,PanzonadeniedeverhonouringtheDevil,insistingthatsheandother
benandantiservedJesusChrist.ThemembersoftheHolyOfficedidnotbelievethatthestoriessherelatedevertookplace,allowingthetwoaccusedwitchestogofree,and
condemningPanzonatoathreeyearprisonsentenceforheresy.[34]In1621,awealthymannamedAlessandroMarchettoofUdinesubmittedamemorandumtotheHoly
OfficeaccusingbothafourteenyearoldboyandalocalshepherdnamedGiovanniofbeingabenandanti,eachofwhomhehadpreviouslytriedtoemploytocurehisown
cousin,whomitwasbelievedhadbeenbewitchedbysorcery.[35]
Ginzburgsuggeststhatbythe1620s,thebenandantiwerebecomingbolderintheirpublicaccusationsagainstallegedwitches.[36]InFebruary1622theinquisitorof
Aquileia,FraDomenicoVicoofOsimowasinformedthatabeggarandbenandantenamedLunardoBadouhadbeenaccusingvariousindividualsofbeingwitchesinthe
areaofGaglianoandRualis.Badouhadbecomeunpopularlocallyasaresult,withtheinquisitornottakinghisclaimsseriouslyandproceedingtoignorethesituation.[37]In
1623andagainin162829aseriesofdepositionsweremadeagainstGerolamoCut,apeasantandbenandantefromPercoto,whohadbeenhealingindividualswhowere
believedtohavebeenafflictedbywitchcrafthehadproceededtoaccusevariouslocalindividualsofbeingwitches,buthisaccusationslednowhere.[38]InMay1629
FrancescoBrandis,anofficialatCividale,sentalettertotheinquisitorofAquileiainforminghimthatatwentyyearoldbenandantehadbeenarrestedfortheftandwasthus
duetobetransferredtoVenice.[39]

Legacy
Folkterminology
Inthelate19thandearly20thcenturies,ItalianfolkloristssuchasG.Marcotti,E.FabrisBellavitis,V.Ostermann,A.LazzariniandG.Vidossiwhowereengagedinthe
studyofFriulianoraltraditions,notedthatthetermbenandantehadbecomesynonymouswiththeterm"witch",aresultoftheoriginalChurchpersecutionsofthe
benandanti.[40]

Historicalinvestigationandinterpretation
Duringthe1960s,theItalianhistorianCarloGinzburgwassearchingthroughtheArchepiscopalArchivesofUdinewhenhecameacrossthe16thand17thcenturytrial
recordswhichdocumentedtheinterrogationofseveralbenandantiandotherfolkmagicians.[41]HistorianJohnMartinofTrinityUniversityinSanAntonio,Texaswould
latercharacterizethisluckyfindasthesortof"discoverymosthistoriansonlydreamof."[41]
Since1970,thetrendforinterpretingelementsofEarlyModernwitchcraftbeliefashavingancientoriginsprovedpopularamongscholarsoperatingincontinentalEurope,
butfarlesssothanintheAnglophoneworldofGreatBritainandtheUnitedStates,wherescholarswerefarmoreinterestedinunderstandingthesewitchcraftbeliefsintheir
contemporarycontexts,suchastheirconnectiontogenderandclassrelations.[42]VariousscholarswerecriticalofGinzburg'sinterpretation.InEurope'sInnerDemons
(1975),EnglishhistorianNormanCohnassertedthattherewas"nothingwhatsoever"inthesourcematerialtojustifytheideathatthebenandantiwerethe"survivalofan
ageoldfertilitycult".[43]
TheGermananthropologistHansPeterDuerrbrieflydiscussedthebenandantiinhisbookDreamtime:ConcerningtheBoundarybetweenWildernessandCivilization
(1978,Englishtranslation1985).LikeGinzburgbeforehim,hecomparedthemtothePerchtenlaufenandtheLivonianwerewolf,arguingthattheyallrepresentedaclash
betweentheforcesoforderandchaos.[44]GborKlaniczayarguedthatthebenandantiwerepartofawidersurvivalofpreChristianrites,andpointstothesurvivalof
broadlysimilarpractices(differinginbothnamesandminordetails)intheBalkans,HungaryandRomaniaduringthesameperiod.[45]

Popularculture
TheBenandantiarethesubjectofNicoleMaggi(http://www.nicolemaggi.com)'sYoungAdultTwinWillowsTrilogy,beginningwithWinterFalls(http://www.amazo
n.com/WinterFallsNicoleMaggi/dp/1605426830/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1402519873&sr=81&keywords=winter+falls),publishedbyMedallionPress.
TheBenandantiareamajorforceinElizabethHand'surbanfantasyWakingtheMoon.
TheBenandantiarereferencedinKelleyArmstrong'sparanormalfantasyWakingtheWitch.
"TheAmazingBenandanti"wasthenameofasideshowescapeartist.[1](http://www.dailywriting.net/MoscosoBenandanti.htm)
AconceptverysimilartotheBenandanti,andbaseduponthem,appearsinGuyGavrielKay'shistoricfantasyTigana.[2](http://www.brightweavings.com)
HectorPlasmisacomicbookcharacterpublishedoccasionallythroughImageComicswhoisamodernportrayalofabenandanti.
TheBenandantiareasecretsocietyofindividualsintheoldWorldofDarkness,partoftheWraith:TheObliviongameline,whocrossthewallbetweenthelandsof
thelivingandthedeadwhileintrances.
Thereisasimilar'HoundofGod'characterinNeilGaiman'sfantasynovelTheGraveyardBook.
TheBenandantiarealsofeaturedinahauntedattractioninMesa,Arizona,calledShadowlands.
TheNightwalkerschapterofthe5thEditionArsMagicasupplement"HedgeMagicRevisedEdition"detailsthebenedantiandrelatedtraditionsasplayablemagic
traditions.
TheBenandantiappearinMajgullAxelsson'snovelTheAprilWitch.
TheBenandantiareamajorpartofthebackstoryofthemangaPilgrimJager
TwoofthemaincharactersinTheCallingbyKelleyArmstrongareBenandanti.

Connectionsandorigins
ApreChristianshamanisticsurvival?

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InTheNightBattles,Ginzburgarguesthatthebenandantitraditionwasconnectedto"alargercomplexoftraditions"thatwerespread"fromAlsacetoHesseandfrom
BavariatoSwitzerland",allofwhichrevolvedaround"themythofnocturnalgatherings"presidedoverbyagoddessfigure,varyinglyknownasPerchta,Holda,Abundia,
Satia,Herodias,VenusorDiana.Healsonotedthat"almostidentical"beliefscouldbefoundinLivonia(modernLatviaandEstonia),andthatbecauseofthisgeographic
spread"itmaynotbetoodaringtosuggestthatinantiquitythesebeliefsmayoncehavecoveredmuchofcentralEurope."[46]RomanianhistorianofreligionMirceaEliade
agreedwithGinzburg'stheory,describingthebenandantias"apopularandarchaicsecretcultoffertility".[47]
However,variousotherhistorianswerescepticalofGizburg'stheoriesin1975,EnglishhistorianNormanCohnassertedthatthattherewas"nothingwhatsoever"inthe
sourcematerialtojustifytheideathatthebenandantiwerethe"survivalofanageoldfertilitycult".[43]Echoingtheseviewsin1999wasEnglishhistorianRonaldHutton,
whostatedthatGinzburg'sclaimthatthebenandanti'svisionarytraditionswereasurvivalfrompreChristianpracticeswasanidearestingon"imperfectmaterialand
conceptualfoundations."[48]Explaininghisreasoning,Huttonremarkedthat"dreamsdonotselfevidentlyconstituterituals,andshareddreamimagerydoesnotconstitutea
'cult',"beforenotingthatGinzburg's"assumption"that"whatwasbeingdreamedaboutinthesixteenthcenturyhadinfactbeenactedoutinreligiousceremonies"datingto
"pagantimes",wasentirely"aninferenceofhisown".Hethoughtthatthisapproachwasa"strikinglateapplication"of"theritualtheoryofmyth",adiscredited
anthropologicalideaassociatedparticularlywithJaneEllenHarrison's'Cambridgegroup'andSirJamesFrazer.[49]

Relatedtraditions
Thethemesassociatedwiththebenandanti(leavingthebodyinspirit,possiblyintheformofananimalfightingforthefertilityofthelandbanquetingwithaqueenor
goddessdrinkingfromandsoilingwinecasksincellars)arefoundrepeatedinothertestimonies:fromthearmiersofthePyrenees,fromthefollowersofSignoraOrientein
14thcenturyMilanandthefollowersofRichellaand'thewiseSibillia'in15thcenturyNorthernItaly,andmuchfurtherafield,fromLivonianwerewolves,Dalmatian
kresniki,Serbianzduhas,Hungariantltos,RomaniancluariandOssetianburkudzauta.[45]
HistorianCarloGinzburgpositsarelationshipbetweenthebenandanticultandtheshamanismoftheBalticandSlaviccultures,aresultofdiffusionfromacentralEurasian
origin,possibly6,000yearsago.Thisexplains,inhisopinion,thesimilaritiesbetweentheItalianbenandanticultandadistantcaseinLivoniaconcerningabenevolent
werewolf.
Indeed,in1692inJrgensburg,Livonia,anareaneartheBalticSea,anoldmannamedTheisswastriedforbeingawerewolfhisdefensewasthathisspirit(andthatof
others)transformedintowerewolvesinordertofightdemonsandpreventthemfromstealinggrainfromthevillage.Ginzburghasshownthathisarguments,andhisdenial
ofbelongingtoaSataniccult,correspondedtothoseusedbythebenandanti.On10October1692,Theisswassentencedtotenwhipstrikesonchargesofsuperstitionand
idolatry.

References
Footnotes
1.Ginzburg1983.p.xx.
2.Thurston2001,p.57.
3.Cohn1975,p.223Ginzburg1983,p.15Thurston
2001,p.57.
4.Klaniczay1990.p.131.
5.Ginzburg1983,p.15.
6.Ginzburg1983,p.96.
7.Cohn1975,pp.223224.
8.Ginzburg1983,p.16.
9.Ginzburg1983.p.41.
10.Klaniczay1990.pp.129130.
11.Ginzburg1983.p.4.
12.Ginzburg1983.p.3.
13.Ginzburg1983.p.1.
14.Ginzburg1983.pp.12.
15.Ginzburg1983.p.2.
16.Ginzburg1983.pp.23.
17.Ginzburg1983.pp.68.

17.Ginzburg1983.pp.68.
18.Ginzburg1983.p.6.
19.Ginzburg1983.pp.89.
20.Ginzburg1983.pp.1011.
21.Ginzburg1983.p.11.
22.Ginzburg1983.p.12.
23.Ginzburg1983.p.14.
24.Ginzburg1983.pp.3336.
25.Ginzburg1983.pp.3738.
26.Ginzburg1983.pp.3839.
27.Ginzburg1983,pp.6971.
28.Ginzburg1983,pp.7374.
29.Ginzburg1983,pp.7980.
30.Ginzburg1983,pp.8081.
31.Ginzburg1983,pp.8286.
32.Ginzburg1983,p.81.
33.Ginzburg1983,pp.99102.
34.Ginzburg1983,pp.102106.

34.Ginzburg1983,pp.102106.
35.Ginzburg1983,pp.8689.
36.Ginzburg1983,p.89.
37.Ginzburg1983,pp.8992.
38.Ginzburg1983,pp.9295.
39.Ginzburg1983,pp.9697.
40.Ginzburg1983.p.xxi.
41.Martin1992.pp.613614.
42.Hutton2010,p.248Hutton2011,p.229.
43.Cohn1975,p.223.
44.Duerr1985.pp.3239.
45.Klaniczay1990.pp.132147.
46.Ginzburg1983,pp.xx,44.
47.Eliade1975,p.157.
48.Hutton1999,p.278.
49.Hutton1999,p.277.

Bibliography
Cohn,Norman(1975).Europe'sInnerDemons:AnEnquiryInspiredbytheGreatWitch
Hunt.SussexandLondon:SussexUniversityPressandHeinemannEducational
Books.ISBN9780435821838.
Eliade,Mircea(1975)."SomeObservationsonEuropeanWitchcraft".Historyof
Religions(UniversityofChicago)14(3):149172.doi:10.1086/462721.
Ginzburg,Carlo(1983)[1966].TheNightBattles:WitchcraftandAgrarianCultsinthe
SixteenthandSeventeenthCenturies.JohnandAnneTedeschi(translators).
Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsPress.ISBN9780801843860.
Ginzburg,Carlo(1990).Ecstasies:DecipheringtheWitches'Sabbath.Pantheon.
ISBN9780394581637.
Hutton,Ronald(1999).TheTriumphoftheMoon:AHistoryofModernPagan
Witchcraft.OxfordandNewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN978
0192854490.
Hutton,Ronald(2010)."WritingtheHistoryofWitchcraft:APersonalView".The
Pomegranate:TheInternationalJournalofPaganStudies(London:Equinox
Publishing)12(2):239262.doi:10.1558/pome.v12i2.239.
Hutton,Ronald(2011)."RevisionismandCounterRevisionisminPaganHistory".The
Pomegranate:TheInternationalJournalofPaganStudies(London:Equinox
Publishing)13(2):225256.doi:10.1558/pome.v12i2.239.

Klaniczay,Gbor(1990).TheUsesofSupernaturalPower:TheTransformationof
PopularReligioninMedievalandEarlyModernEurope.SusanSingerman
(translator).Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress.ISBN9780691073774.
Martin,John(1992)."JourneystotheWorldoftheDead:TheWorkofCarloGinzburg".
JournalofSocialHistory25(3):613626.doi:10.1353/jsh/25.3.613.
Pcs,va(1999).BetweentheLivingandtheDead:APerspectiveonWitchesandSeers
intheEarlyModernAge.Budapest:CentralEuropeanAcademicPress.
ISBN9789639116184.
Sheppard,KathleenL.(2013).TheLifeofMargaretAliceMurray:AWoman'sWorkin
Archaeology.NewYork:LexingtonBooks.ISBN9780739174173.
Simpson,Jacqueline(1994)."MargaretMurray:WhoBelievedHerandWhy?".Folklore
105:8996.doi:10.1080/0015587x.1994.9715877.
Thurston,RobertW.(2001).Witch,Wicce,MotherGoose:TheRiseandFallofthe
WitchHuntsinEuropeandNorthAmerica.London:Longman.ISBN9780
582438064.
Wilby,Emma(2005).CunningFolkandFamiliarSpirits:ShamanisticVisionary
TraditionsinEarlyModernBritishWitchcraftandMagic.Brighton:Sussex
AcademicPress.ISBN9781845190798.

Externallinks
TheAmericanHistoricalReview(http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/ahr/107.4/br_155.html)
TheBurningTimesEncyclopedia(http://www.summerlands.com/crossroads/remembrance/burning/secB.htm)
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MediterraneanFoodHistory(http://www.cliffordawright.com/history/fennel.html)
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