Classroom Tips and Techniques: The

Partial Fraction Decomposition

Robert J. Lopez
Emeritus Professor of Mathematics and Maple Fellow

Maplesoft, a division of Waterloo Maple Inc., 2006

Introduction
Students typically meet the algebraic technique of partial fraction decomposition in their course in
integral calculus. It is presented as part of the methodology for integrating rational functions, but it is
really nothing more than an algebraic process independent of its use in integration. Indeed, the
second time students meet partial fractions is in a differential equations course, one where the
Laplace transform appears.
The classic technique for inverting Laplace transforms is to apply pattern recognition to the terms
produced by a partial fraction decomposition. When this process is implemented in some engineering
classes, the decomposition must be given strictly in terms of linear factors, even if these factors are
complex.
Maple provides tools for studying and implementing the partial fraction decomposition, and in this
column we describe how both objectives can be met.

Combining Fractions
To add the fractions in

(2.1)

either the simplify or normal commands can be used, as we see from

(2.2)

and

(2.3)

The normal command is more specifically designed to combine fractions, and therefore supports an
additional parameter, expanded, which causes the factors in the denominator to be multiplied out.
This is illustrated by

(2.4)

Both the simplify and normal commands are accessible from the pop-up menu that appears by rightclicking on the sum in (1.1). However, the expanded option for normal is not available in this pointand-click format.

The Partial Fraction Decomposition

The process of reversing the addition of fractions is called "partial fraction decomposition." To
decompose the fraction

(3.1)

use the Maple command

(3.2)

Conversion to "partial fraction" form is also available in the pop-up menu under the heading
Conversions.

Mechanics of the Decomposition

The Long-Division Step
Since the degree of the numerator in
is greater than the degree of the denominator, a long
division precedes the construction of the decomposition. This step is implemented in Maple via

(4.1.1)
to obtain the dividend, and

(4.1.2)
to obtain the remainder. Both these commands are provided in a Task Template, obtained from
the Tools/Tasks/Browse/Polynomials menu under the Polynomial Division Quotient and
Remainder option.
Incidentally, both the dividend and the remainder can be computed with the quo command, using
the syntax

(4.1.3)
The remainder has been assigned to the variable , as we see from

(4.1.4)
In either event, the actual target of the decomposition is the fraction

(4.1.5)

The factored form of the denominator can be obtained with the command

(4.1.6)

or with the pop-up menu menu option Factor.

Pedagogical Issues
The Template Fractions
It isn't enough to show students how to get Maple to provide a partial fraction decomposition.
Most instructors would want students to have some insight into the computational details of
the algebra used to evince the result.
To this end, the first thing the student needs to know is the set of template-fractions given in
Table 1.

(4.2.1.1)

(4.2.1.3)
Table 1 Template fractions for the decomposition of

Thinking back to when I first learned the "algorithm" as a student, I remember making the
association that fractions arising from linear factors took a simple numerator, namely, a
constant, but factors arising from quadratic factors took a "messier" or more complex
numerator. Somewhere between learning this as a student and articulating it for students, I
formulated the "rules"
simple - simple
messy - messy
Watch out for the repeats!
Few students I shared this with willingly acknowledged the irony of the repetitions, but no
student failed to grasp the concepts behind this terse summary of how to formulate the
template fractions in a partial fraction decomposition.

An Identity in x
There are several computational techniques for determining the coefficients in the template

fractions. They all hinge on the recognition that the sum of these fractions must identically
equal the fraction being decomposed.
Working by hand, students can be taught to formulate enough equations by substituting
"smart" numbers in for in the identity

where the left side is the fraction being decomposed and the right side is the sum of template
fractions. "Smart" numbers are values of for which one or more terms vanish, making the
resulting equations simpler. Incidentally, I observed over the years that irreducible quadratic
factors gave students the hardest time if they were dependent solely on this technique.
Alternatively, the right side can be combined over a common denominator, and the numerator
equated to
. If that numerator is multiplied out, the equations resulting from equating
coefficients of like powers determine the unknown coefficients.
The most straightforward Maple approach is to determine the unknown coefficients with

(4.2.2.1)
and to insert these values into the template fractions with

(4.2.2.2)

To implement the algebra at a more fundamental level, add the template fractions and select
the resulting numerator. In Maple, we get

(4.2.2.3)

Equating coefficients of like powers in this polynomial and

leads to the equations

(4.2.2.4)
The solution of these equations is again

(4.2.2.5)

Decomposition to Linear Factors

The denominator in

contains a reducible quadratic factor. Indeed, the quadratic factor

(5.1)
is reducible since its zeros are

(5.2)

Hence, in terms of linear factors, the partial fraction decomposition of (4.1.5) is given in Maple as

(5.3)

where the sums are over the zeros of (5.1). A more convenient representation of this
decomposition might be

(5.4)

where the zeros are explicitly given.

This process also works over the complex field, as we see when we decompose

(5.5)

to

(5.6)

As before, we can express the sum explicitly in terms of radicals, obtaining

(5.7)

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