PHYSICS

Year 12

SHADDY HANNA
EPPING BOYS HS

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

DISCLAIMER
The following set of notes has been compiled by Shaddy Hanna in the years 2012-2013.
These notes were intentionally written out for personal use and NOT as a teaching resource. For this reason,
bear in mind, that the quality of these notes were, and never have been, intended for publishing purposes.
Thus, due to the purpose of these notes, they are definitely not a full proof reference to the content covered in
the Board of Studies Higher School Certificate Syllabus for this subject, and should not be used as a point-ofcall reference. They were written as a personal reference and at times, cheat sheet, to help with personal
memory. On this note, use them at your own discretion.
Along the same notion, these were never intended to be sold. If you have been sold these set of notes, please
contact the seller and ask for a refund.
Finally, all ideas and diagrams expressed in this sheet are not my own and have been adapted from the
references listed at the end of this document. For more thorough explanations on any of the topics covered in
this document, refer to these textbooks.

A PERSONAL WORD FROM ME (:

If youre reading this, youre probably a year 12 student about to sit their HSC this year. You may skip through
all this, and that doesnt bother me, but if you havent, I hope this advice can be helpful.
The tip to succeeding in the HSC isnt a high ATAR. The reality is, that succeeding in the HSC comes down to
what you make out of this last year of high school, and every next one that follows. And that goes beyond the
ATAR you get. So what does make a successful year? Build your character. The rant will probably start about
now, just because I can since Im writing this, and youre choosing to read this, lol. By the way, please dont get
offended by my use of Bible quotes to back up what I believe. Im a proud Christian and profess that the
wisdom Ive learnt in the last few years of my life are straight from the Bible. I dont share them to arrogantly
bible-bash you. Again, remember, whether you choose to skip this or not, is up to you. So here goes:
Dont be remembered as the kid who was competitive all year round, who screwed others to get themselves
ahead, or maybe, you didnt actively screw others but you chose not to help them. Im not trying to judge you,
believe me, Im the last person to do this. I just want to give you advice I wish more people heard when I was
in high school. This quote from the bible well captures what I mean by the power of indifference:
So whoever knows the right thing to do and fails to do it, for him it is sin
Dont be remembered as the kid who cared more about his ATAR then the people around them. Let me frame
it this way, if you were to die tomorrow, what would people remember you for? What legacy do you want to
leave behind? That you got a 99 ATAR? That you got a band 7 in Ext 2 Maths? Heres another quote from the
bible which has often spoken truth into me:
Do not store up for yourselves treasures on earth, where moths and vermin destroy, and where
thieves break in and steal For where your treasure is, there your heart will be also.
Dont be remembered as the kid who never took anything serious. Theres a lot to reap from hard work which
extends beyond an ATAR. Hard work and diligence is what build character.
In Christ,
Shaddy Hanna

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

TABLE OF CONTENTS
GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS

PRACTICAL SKILLS

VALIDITY, RELIABILITY, ACCURACY

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL ERROR

6
6

SPACE

THE EARTH HAS A GRAVITATIONAL FIELD THAT EXERTS A FORCE BOTH ON IT AND AROUND IT
7
DEFINE: WEIGHT
7
EXPLAIN: GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY IS RELATED TO WORK DONE
7
DEFINE: GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
7
PRAC: DETERMINE THE ACCELERATION DUE TO GRABITY USING PENDULUM MOTION
8
MANY FACTORS HAVE TO BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT TO ACHIEVE A SUCCESSFUL ROCKET LAUNCH, MAINTAIN A STABLE ORBIT AND
RETURN TO EARTH
9
DESCRIBE: THE TRAJECTORY OF AN OBJECT
9
EXPLAIN: THE CONCEPT OF ESCAPE VELOCITY
10
OUTLINE: NEWTONS CONCEPT OF ESCAPE VELOCITY
10
IDENTIFY: G FORCES FORCES ACTING ON AN ASTRONAUT DURING LAUNCH
11
DISCUSS: THE EFFECT OF THE EARTHS MOTION ON THE LAUNCH OF A ROCKET
11
ANALYSE: THE CHANGING ACCELERATION OF A ROCKET DURING LAUNCH
12
ANALYSE: FORCES INVOLVED IN UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
13
COMPARE: LOW EARTH AND GEO-STATIONARY ORBITS
13
ACCOUNT FOR: ORBITAL DECAY OF SATELLITES IN LOW EARTH ORBIT
13
DEFINE: ORBITAL VELOCITY USING KEPLERS LAW OF PERIODS
14
DISCUSS: ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH SAFE RE-ENTRY INTO THE EARTHS ATMOSPHERE
14
IDENTIFY: THE OPTIMUM ANGLE FOR SAFE RE-ENTRY
15
CONTRIBUTION OF VON BRAUN TO SPACE EXPLORATION
15
THE SOLAR SYSTEM IS HELD TOGETHER BY GRAVITY
16
DESCRIBE: GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS
16
DEFINE: NEWTONS LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION
16
IDENTIFY: THE SLING SHOT EFFECT
16
CURRENT AND EMERGING UNDERSTANDING ABOUT TIME AND SPACE HAS BEEN DEPENDENT UPON EARLIER MODELS OF THE
TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT
17
OUTLINE: FEATURES OF THE AETHER MODEL
17
DESCRIBE AND EVALUATE: THE MICHELSON-MORLEY EXPERIMENT
17
OUTLINE: THE NATURE OF INERTIAL FRAMES OF REFERENCE
18
DISCUSS: THE PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY
18
IDNETIFY: IF C IS CONSTANT THEN SPACE AND TIME BECOME RELATIVE
19
EXPLAIN: CONSEQUENCES OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY
20
DISCUSS: EVIDENCE SUPPORTING THE THEORY OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY
22
DISCUSS: IMPLICATIONS OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY ON SPACE TRAVEL
22

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

MOTORS AND GENERATORS

23

MOTORS
DISCUSS: THE MOTOR EFFECT
DEFINE: TORQUE
DESCRIBE: THE FEATURES OF A DC MOTOR
MAGNETIC FLUX AND EMF
OUTLINE: FARADAYS LAW
ACCOUNT FOR: LENZS LAW
GENERATORS
COMPARE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF A GENERATOR TO A MOTOR
DISCUSS: ENERGY LOSS IN ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION
ASSESS: EFFECTS OF THE DEVELOPMENTS OF AC GENERATOR
ANALYSE: COMPETITION BETWEEN WESTINGHOUSE (AC) VS EDISON (DC)
TRANSFORMERS
DESCRIBE: THE PURPOSE OF TRANSFORMERS
DISCUSS: HOW HEATING EFFECTS OF EDDY CURRENTS ARE OVERCOME
EXPLAIN: ROLE OF TANSFORMERS IN AUSTRALIA TRANSMISSION
AC MOTORS

23
23
25
26
27
27
28
30
30
31
32
33
34
34
35
35
36

IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION

37

CATHODE RAYS LED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF TELEVISION

EXPLAIN: THE APPARENT INCONSISTENT BEHAVIOUR OF CATHODE RAYS CAUSED DEBATE AS TO WHETHER THEY WERE CHARGED
PARTICLES OR EM-WAVES PRAC: DEMONSTRATING PROPERTIES OF CATHODE RAYS USING DISCHARGE TUBES
EXPLAIN: CATHODE RAY TUBES ALLOWED THE MANIPULATION OF A STREAM OF CHARGED PARTICLES DISCHARGE TUBES
IDENTIFY: MOVING CHARGED PARTICLES IN A MAGNETIC FIELD EXPERIENCE A FORCE
IDENTIFY: CHARGED PLATES PRODUCE AN ELECTRIC FIELD
OUTLINE: J.J THOMSONS EXPERIMENT - CHARGE/MASS RATIO OF AN ELECTRON
OUTLINE: MAIN FEATURES IN CRT OF CONVENTIONAL TV DISPLAYS & OSCILLOSCOPES
THE MODEL OF LIGHT, THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT AND BLACK BODY RADIATION
OUTLINE: HERTZ EXPERIMENT
QUANTAM THEORY

37

SEMICONDUCTORS

37
38
39
39
40
41
43
43
45
48
48
48
49
49
50
50
51

IDENTIFY: ELECTRONS IN SOLIDS ARE SHARED BETWEEN ATOMS AND MOVE FREELY
DESCRIBE: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS
IDENTIFY: ELECTRON-HOLE PAIRS
IDENTIFY: THE USE OF GERMANIUM IN EARLY TRANSISTORS (SEMICONDUCTORS)
DESCRIBE: DOPING A SEMICONDUCTOR CAN CHANGE ITS ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
IDENTIFY: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN P-TYPE AND N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
DESCRIBE: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOLID STATE DEVICES AND THERMIONIC DEVICES
DISCUSS: SHORTCOMINGS IN AVAILABLE COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY LED TO AN INCREASED KNOWLEDGE OF THE PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS
53
ASSESS: THE IMPACT OF THE INVENTION OF TRANSISTORS ON SOCIETY
53
SUMMARISE: THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT ON SEMI-CONDUCTORS IN SOLAR CELLS
54
SUPERCONDUCTERS
55
IDENTIFY: METALS POSSESS A CRYSTAL LATTICE STRUCTURE
55
DESCRIBE: THE OCCURRENCE OF SUPERCONDUCTORS
56

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

ASTROPHYSICS

60

TELESCOPES
DISCUSS: GALILEOS USE OF THE TELESCOPE
DISCUSS: THE TERMS RESOLUTION AND SENSITIVITY OF TELESCOPES
ASTROMETRY: MEASUREMENT OF CELESTIAL OBJECTS POSITION IN THE SKY
EXPLAIN: HOW TRIG PARALLAX CAN BE USED TO DERMINE DISTANCE TO STARS
DISCUSS: LIMITATIONS OF TRIG PARALLAX MEASUREMENT
SPECTROSCOPY
ACCOUNT FOR: THE PRODUCTION OF VARIOUS SPECTRA
DESCRIBE: THE TECHNOLOGY NEEDED TO MEASURE ASTRONOMICAL SPECTRA
IDENTIFY: THE GENERAL TYPE OF SPECTRA PRODUCED BY CELESTIAL OBJECTS
DESCRIBE: FEATURES OF STELLAR SPECTRA USED IN CLASSIFYING STARS
PHOTOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS
EXPLAIN: HOW MAGNITUDE CAN DETERMINE DISTANCE TO CELESTIAL OBJECTS
BINARY AND VARIABLE STARS
DESCRIBE: BINARY STARS
CLASSIFY: VARIABLE STARS
LIFE-CYCLE OF STARS
OUTLINE: THE KEY STAGES IN A STARS LIFE
DESCRIBE: THE PROCESSES INVOLVED IN STELLAR FORMATION
DESCRIBE: THE TYPE OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS INVOLVED IN STARS
DISCUSS: THE SYNTHESIS OF ELEMENTS IN STARS BY FUSION

60
60
60
62
62
63
64
64
65
65
66
68
68
71
71
72
73
73
73
73
74

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS

Account for

State reasons for, report on. Give an account of: narrate a series of events or transactions

Analyse

Identify components and the relationship between them; draw out and relate implications

Apply

Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation

Assess

Make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or size

Calculate

Ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or information

Clarify

Make clear or plain

Classify

Arrange or include in classes/categories

Compare

Show how things are similar or different

Contrast

Show how things are different or opposite

Define

State meaning and identify essential qualities

Demonstrate

Show by example

Describe

Provide characteristics and features

Discuss

Identify issues and provide points for and/or against

Distinguish

Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from; to note differences between

Evaluate

Make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of

Examine

Inquire into

Explain

Relate cause and effect; provide why and/or how

Extract

Choose relevant and/or appropriate details

Extrapolate

Infer from what is known

Identify

Recognise and name

Interpret

Draw meaning from

Investigate

Plan, inquire into and draw conclusions about

Justify

Support an argument or conclusion

Outline

Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features of

Predict

Suggest what may happen based on available information

Propose

Put forward (for example a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion) for consideration or
action

Recall

Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences

Recommend

Provide reasons in favour

Recount

Retell a series of events

Summarise

Express, concisely, the relevant details

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

PRACTICAL SKILLS
VALIDITY, RELIABILITY, ACCURACY

Definition
Validity

Validity is how appropriate the

procedure and materials are to achieve
a desired experimental result.

Reliability

Reliability is how repeatable the

experiment is. Do you get very similar
results every time?

Accuracy

Accuracy is how close the value

calculated from the experiment is to the
accepted true value.

Examples
Fairly testing the hypothesis
Keeping the variables to a
minimum
Repeating several times and
taking the average value
Using computer simulation
Include a range of frequencies

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL ERROR

Random errors are caused by unknown and unpredictable changes in the experiment
o Repetition can reduce the effects.
To help reduce random errors:
Correctly take measurements
Take multiple measurements (repetition increases reliability!) take averages
Systematic errors are caused by errors in experimental equipment
o Limit accuracy
To help reduce systematic errors:
Instructions for the use of the instrument should be read and followed.
Corrections for instrument bias should be made (if necessary).

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

SPACE
THE EARTH HAS A GRAVITATIONAL FIELD THAT EXERTS A FORCE BOTH ON IT AND
AROUND IT
DEFINE: WEIGHT

Mass: the amount of matter in a body, it is static and does not change with any force exerted on it or
from it.
Weight: the force exerted upon an object or mass due to a gravitational field. It is measured in
Newtons.
= =

() = 6.67 1011 2 2

EXPLAIN: GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY IS RELATED TO WORK DONE

To change the gravitational potential energy of an object, work must be done in order for it to move.
To move the object against a gravitational field, energy is stored within the objects as a:
= = =
o

As object moves against the gravitational field, positive work is done is gained

As object moves with the gravitational field, negative work is done as is lost

DEFINE: GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

Gravitational potential energy: the energy required to move an object from infinity (a very large
distance away) to any point in a field.
As objects move further away from earth, increases and thus gravity pulls the object towards
energy, converting it back in to .
@ infinity is defined to be 0, therefore is considered to be negative

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

IDENTIFY: REASONS FOR VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF G

Geographical location
o The earths crust shows variations in thickness due to factors such as tectonic plate
boundaries
o The earth is not a perfect sphere (flattened at poles)
value of g will be greater at poles since they are closer to the centre
o As the earth rotates, the centripetal force is strongest at the equator.
o Density of the earth is not consistent due to elemental composition beneath the crust
Altitude
o As altitude increase, value of g decreases, dropping to zero when = 0

PREDICT: THE VALUE OF ACCELERATIO N DUE TO GRAVITY ON OTHER PLANETS

=

PRAC: DETERMINE THE ACCELERATION DUE TO GRABITY USING PENDULUM MOTION

Acceleration due to gravity can be determined by use of a pendulum.

= 2

Therefore,
=

4 2
2

METHOD

Measure the length string holding the mass

Make sure the swing has a max of a 30 variation from the vertical
Use a stopwatch to complete 10 full swings
o Divide this value by 10, to find T
Repeat the experiment with various values of
Graph the results
o 2 (should be a straight line)
o Gradient = g

RESULTS

A value of 9.5 ms-1 was calculated

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

MANY FACTORS HAVE TO BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT TO ACHIEVE A SUCCESSFUL

ROCKET LAUNCH, MAINTAIN A STABLE ORBIT AND RETURN TO EARTH
DESCRIBE: THE TRAJECTORY OF AN OBJECT

Projectile: any object launched into the air

o Assumes no air resistance
o Assumes no curvature of the earth
o At max height, vertical velocity = 0
o Negative sign indicates direction
o Horizontal velocity and vertical velocity are
independent of each
Trajectory: the path a projectile follows during its flight
in the shape of a parabola
o Horizontal motion: constant velocity motion: = cos
=
2 = 2
=
o Vertical motion: accelerating motion: = sin
= +
2 = 2 + 2

= +

1
2

DETERMINING MAXIMUM HEIGHT

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Resolve initial velocity, u, into component uy

Consider the vertical motion up to the peak.
Note that vy = 0 in this case.
Select an acceleration equation to suit the available data.
Calculate y, which will be maximum height.

DETERMINING TRIP TIME

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Resolve initial velocity, u, into component uy.

Consider the vertical motion up to the peak.
Note that vy = 0 in this case.
Select an acceleration equation to suit the available data.
Calculate ty, time to rise to the peak.
Double this time to find the trip time, since it takes just as long to fall as to rise.

DETERMINING THE RANGE

1.
2.
3.

Resolve initial velocity, u, into components uy and ux.

Analyse the vertical motion to find the trip time as shown above.
Now consider the horizontal motion and calculate the range using x = u xt.

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

DESCRIBE: GALILEOS ANALYSIS OF PROJECTILE MOTION

All projectiles move in a parabolic shape

All projectiles fall at the same rate, regardless of weight
Horizontal and vertical motion are separate

EXPLAIN: THE CONCEPT OF ESCAPE VELOCITY

The initial velocity required by a projectile to rise vertically and just escape the gravitational field of a
planet.
o For an object to escape a field its kinetic energy must be greater than the potential energy.

GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANT

We can see that

MASS AND RADIUS OF T HE PLANET

We can see that and

o
o

As mass increases, velocity increases

As the radius increases, velocity decreases

OUTLINE: NEWTONS CONCEPT OF ESCAPE VELOCITY

An object could be put into orbit, if it was

launched horizontally from a tall mountain.
Given enough speed, the curvature of the earth
would match the curvature of the projectiles
trajectory and thus go into orbit.

Type of orbit

Velocity

Partial Elliptical

< 8 1

Circular

= 8 1

Elliptic

8 1 < < 11.2 1

Parabola

= 11.2 1

Hyperbola

> 11.2 1

10

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

IDENTIFY: G FORCES FORCES ACTING ON AN ASTRONAUT DURING LAUNCH

The term g force is used to express a persons apparent weight as a multiple of their normal weight.
=
o
o
o

+
=

During launch: the apparent weight felt is = [gravity] + [thrust]

When on earth: you are only feeling apparent weight, which=true weight, 1g.
When in free-fall (orbit): you experience 0g since you have no apparent weight due to no
reaction force from the ground

G forces can cause:

o A black out where blood rushes to their feet if accelerate on is in the direction of persons
head
o A red out where blood rushes to their head and retina
Humans can withstand up to 4g, yet up to 20g are tolerable for short times when:
o They were lying down (stops blood draining from head or opposite)
o Face is upwards (prevents eyes from popping out)
o They recline in specially moulded seats (maximum body support)

DISCUSS: THE EFFECT OF THE EARTH S MOTION ON THE LAUNCH OF A ROCKET

Launch Windows: A specific period of time during which a spacecraft or projectile must be launched
If a rocket is launched it will gain a boost of velocity from such factors.
o From the equator
o Towards the east (in the same direction) from Earths rotational velocity
o Favourable time of the year when orbit of earth corresponds to desired direction
This results in less fuel needing to be used

11

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

ANALYSE: THE CHANGING ACCELERATION OF A ROCKET DURING LAUNCH

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

In any closed system, the total momentum of the system must remain unchanged.
Therefore, during horizontal flight, the change in momentum of the ignited gases backward must
equal the change in forward moment of the rocket itself.
= 0 =
= 0
= 0
=
() = ()
=

()

Therefore, since the mass of the rocket will decrease as fuel is burnt, velocity will increase due to the
equation.

FORCES EXPERIENCED BY ASTRONAUTS

Before take-off, the rocket is at rest and the net force = 0

o Therefore thrust must exceed the weight of the rocket body to lift=off
Acceleration > 0
g Force > 1g
=
=

=

=

Since mass decreases as fuel is burn, but thrust is constant, a non-uniform acceleration is produced
=

+1

Therefore since g is constant, as acceleration increases, the g-force felt also increases.

12

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

ANALYSE: FORCES INVOLVED IN UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

Centripetal force: the force that maintains circular motion, directed towards the centre of the circle.
o Uniform circular motion: uniform orbital speed which acts as a result of centripetal force
2
=

Motion

Source of Force

Spinning a ball on a string

The tension in the string

Electron orbiting atomic Nucleus

Electron-nucleus electrical attraction

Car cornering

Fiction between tyres and road

Moon revolving around Earth

Moon-Earth gravitational attraction

Satellite orbiting around Earth

Satellite-Earth gravitational attraction

COMPARE: LOW EARTH AND GEO-STATIONARY ORBITS

Low Earth Orbits

Geostationary Orbits

250 < Altitude < 1000km

Altitude

(just above 1000km is the Van Allen

radiation belts, avoiding intense levels of
radiation)

36000km

Velocity

27900 kmh-1

10600 kmh-1

Orbital Period

90 min

24 hrs

Orbit

Surveys the entire globe

Orbits fixed point

Use

Weather and imaging satellites

Communication satellites(AUSTAR
etc)

ACCOUNT FOR: ORBITAL DECAY OF SATELLITES IN LOW EARTH ORBIT

Orbital decay: the process which occurs when LEOs are affected by the upper atmosphere causing
atmospheric drag.
o Since LEOs are still in the Earths atmosphere, they collide into particles over time, causing
them to loose kinetic energy and form a more elliptical orbit over time
o Eventually, the satellite is unable to sustain the required velocity, and it spirals down to earth
at such a high speed that friction forces on the satellite burn it up.

13

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

DEFINE: ORBITAL VELOCITY USING KEPLERS LAW OF PERIODS

Orbital velocity: the velocity of an object, as it moves in circular motion, needed to maintain a
particular orbit about a central body.
=

Keplers Law of Periods:

3
=
2 4 2

=
2 2 4 2
(
)

This shows that the orbital velocity of a satellite depends on the radius of the orbit and the mass of
the central planet, independent of the mass of the satellite.

DISCUSS: ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH SAFE RE-ENTRY INTO THE EARTHS ATMOSPHERE
HEAT

The earths atmosphere provides aerodynamic drag on the spacecraft and high temperatures are thus
generated by friction with air molecules
Such high temperatures can cause the shuttle to burn up and endanger astronauts

SHAPE OF ROCKET

Shape must be curve and blunt

o Creates a shockwave in front of the spacecraft
which further absorbs heat generated
o This is succeeded by entering the earth with the
nose (opposite to the blunt bottom end) facing
upwards)

LAYER PROTECTION

Heat insulators are used:

o Ablation (ablative layers)
A skin made up of fiberglass or ceramic tiles
Absorbs heat and is made to be destroyed
Creates fireball effect
o Layer of porous silica tiles that consist of 90% air spaces
Air is a good insulator
Prevents tiles from absorbing moisture from the atmosphere

14

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

G FORCES

Extending the re-entry and slowing the rate of descent

o Control re-entry angle to avoid high g forces
Astronauts recline in contoured couches, face the direction of acceleration (upwards)

DE-ORBITING
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Thrust against the direction of the orbital motion (decrease velocity/set out of orbit)
Thrust to point the nose upwards
S-turn manoeuvres to slow shuttle down (20 min before landing = high heat)
Begin using wings to control lift (like airplanes)
Slowed with small parachute

RADIO BLACKOUT

Heat build-up around shuttle ionizes atoms around it

o Forms a layer which radio signals cannot penetrate
o Prevents communication
o Suffers 16 minute blackout of no communication

IDENTIFY: THE OPTIMUM ANGLE FOR SAFE RE-ENTRY

Optimum angle for safe re-entry is:

5.2 < < 7.2

If angle is too shallow (a < 5)

o Shuttle will bounce off the atmosphere (not able to penetrate atmosphere)
o Head back off into space (no fuel or direction)
If angle is too deep (a > 7)
o Shuttle will burn up in the atmosphere due to greater collisions with particles as the surface
area is more prone to particles.
o Further, this may pose greater threat to astronauts on board due to greater g-force
experienced

CONTRIBUTION OF VON BRAUN TO SPACE EXPLORATION

Von Braun was a German rocket scientist father of modern rocket science

Developed the V2 rocket in Germany for the Nazis to bomb London in WWII
o After the war, Von Braun was captured and developed for NASA USA
Developed US first ballistic missile called the Redstone Rocket
o First missile to carry a nuclear warhead
Assisted the launch of the Explorer 1 satellite
o First spacecraft to detect the Van Allen radiation belt
Developed the Saturn V Series rockets
o Heaviest rockets launched
o Rocket was used in Apollo and the Skylab 1 mission

15

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

THE SOLAR SYSTEM IS HELD TOGETHER BY GRAVITY

DESCRIBE: GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS

Field: a region in which something experiences a force without no necessary direct contact
o e.g. Magnetic fields
Gravitational field: any point in space where a gravitational force is felt
o An attractive force
o The bigger the mass=the stronger the field
o The further away two objects are separated, the less force they exerted on each other

DEFINE: NEWTONS LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

Every mass in the universe is attracted to every other mass in the universe by a force of gravitation
=

Satellites must have a certain velocity in order to stay in orbit

o This velocity depends on the force of gravity acting on the satellite
=

IDENTIFY: THE SLING SHOT EFFECT

When a satellite travels behind another planet, it can gain a boost in speed by the slingshot effect
This is an elastic collision between the craft and the planet (where momentum/ are conserved)
o The planet transfers its momentum and to the satellite
Due to the large size of the planet, this change in velocity is very insignificant
o The satellite gains velocity relative to the sun
o The satellite gains a change in direction due to the gravitational field of the planet
The final effect is a substantial gain in velocity without the consumption of fuel cost-efficient

16

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

CURRENT AND EMERGING UNDERSTANDING ABOUT TIME AND SPACE HAS BEEN
DEPENDENT UPON EARLIER MODELS OF THE TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT
OUTLINE: FEATURES OF THE AETHER MODEL

The luminiferous Aether was the proposed medium for light and other EM waves to travel through
before it was found that these waveforms do not need a medium in order to travel
o During the 19th century, Frenchman Descartes, and other scientists, believed that motion
could only be carried from one piece of matter to another through bodily contact
o Light was considered to be a compression wave
Proposed properties of The Aether should:
o Fill all of space and have a low density
o Be transparent and stationary in space
o Permeate all matter, yet be completely permeable to material objects
o Have great elasticity to support and propagate the light waves
o Have the consistency of wax; with both solid and liquid properties

DESCRIBE AND EVALUATE: THE MICHELSON-MORLEY EXPERIMENT

AIM

To measure the velocity of the earth relative to the Aether.

METHOD
PREVIOUS METHODS

Since the Aether was known to be stationary, scientists believed an Aether wind must therefore
exit. However, due to the Aether low density, it was too hard to detect.
Many experiments designed to test the Aether wind were disregarded along the assumption that
the equipment was not sensitive enough.

MM METHOD

The experiment was set on a bed of

mercury to allow for easy rotation since
the direction of the Aether was unknown.
Light from a monochromatic coherent
light source was shot to a half-silveredCoherent
mirror, which would split the ray into two
parts, travelling perpendicular to each
other.
Half of the light would travel to mirror B,
and the other half to mirror A
Here, one of the light rays would be
slowed by the Aether wind and thus meet
at the interferometer out-of-phase to reflect an interference pattern, implying the speed of the
Earth, relative to the Aether wind.
Interferometer

17

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

INTERPRET: RESULTS
EXPECTED RESULTS

Due to the extra distance the beam of light travelling towards A would need to travel, the waves were
expected to be out-of-phase and thus reveal an interference patter at the interferometer.

EVALUATED RESULTS

The experiment received a null result despite being extremely accurate and sensitive
o It was repeated many times during the year at different locations on the earth
o Nevertheless, no interference patter was ever detected.
However, the null result did not necessarily disprove the existence of the Aether.

DESCRIBE: COMPETING THEORIES

Due to the null result, scientists further tried to modify the Aether model rather than abandon it:
o a large object such as a planet could drag the Aether along with it
o objects contract in the direction of the Aether wind
Finally, scientists eventually abandoned the theory and as Einstein proposed his theory of special
relativity, the Aether model was made unnecessary to explain the properties of light

OUTLINE: THE NATURE OF INERTIAL FRAMES OF REFERENCE

An inertial frame of reference is one that is not accelerating.

o Therefore, it is either undergoing a constant velocity or is stationary.
All lays of physics hold true

PRAC: DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN FRAMES OF REFERENCE

A simple test is to hang a mass from a piece of string and hold into it.
o In an IF of R, the mass will appear to remain stationary relative to you
o In an N-IF of R, the mass will experience force acting upon it, therefore the mass will deviate
in an angle.
An accelerometer can also be used to measure the force acting upon an object; however the force
responsible may be a result of gravity.

DISCUSS: THE PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY

All steady motion is relative except the speed of light c which is constant in all reference frames
It is impossible to detect the motion of an IF of R without referring to a point outside that frame.
o No experiment can distinguish whether an object is moving or not without such reference

EINSTEINS POSTULATES
1.
2.

The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames
Speed of light c is constant in all inertial reference frames
Thus, space and time must become relative concepts

18

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

ANALYSE: EINSTEINS THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS

Einstein needed to use thought experiments to prove many of his theories

o Benefit: Due to the technical limitations, cost and conditions reality offers
o Limit: The expectations of the experiment are drawn from our past understanding
Imagine that you are sitting in a train facing forwards. The train is moving at the speed of light. You
hold up a mirror in front of you, at arms length. Will you be able to see your reflection in the mirror?
o Outcome 1 NO
The reflection will not appear because the train is travelling at the same speed as
the light, therefore the light would not catch the mirror
This violates the principle of relativity
o Outcome 2 YES
The reflection will be seen
As a result, an observer outside the train will see light travel at speed 2c
This is the result predicted by the Aether model
o Einsteins final outcome:
The reflection will be seen, because he believed the principle of relativity.
The observer on the embankment would observe light travelling as c, yet to hold
such statements time and length are dilated.

IDNETIFY: IF C IS CONSTANT THEN SPACE AND TIME BECOME RELATIVE

If the speed of light is seen to be constant, in any optical experiment the distance and time witnessed
by observers of different IF of R must be different:
=

The final conclusions were that the speed of light had to be constant, and thus space and time
became relative measurements.

DESCRIBE: THE SIGNIFICANCE OF EINSTEINS CONSTANT SPEED OF LIGHT

His special theory of relativity than stated two postulates:

o The laws of physics are the same for all IF of R
o The speed of light is constant for all IF of R
Thus Einstein proposed the space-time continuum where any event has four dimensions (three space
coordinates [x, y and z] and a coordinate of time) which fully define their position within its frame of
reference.
o Distance and time are relative terms
o Velocity (speed of light, c) is an absolute and fundamental quality

DISCUSS: THE CONCEPT OF LENGTH STANDARDS

The metre as a unit of length was defined in

o 1875: The distance between two lines scribed on a single bar of platinum-iridium alloy kept
in a French museum with copies sent out across the world
o Current: Incorporates the speed of light as a constant where the 1 metre = the distance
speed of light covers in one second (

299792458

19

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

EXPLAIN: CONSEQUENCES OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY

THE RELATIVITY OF SIMULTANEITY

Two events that appear simultaneous in one IF of R, are not necessarily simultaneous in all IF of R

THE EQUIVALENCE BETWEEN MASS AND ENERGY

As an object speeds up, it becomes heaver (seen in mass dilation)

o This is because to accelerate an object, work is done.
o Therefore, as work is done, is increased.
As the object approaches c, due to = 2 that energy is changed into mass
as an object is sped up, the energy used to accelerate becomes mass
as on object slows down, the mass is converted back into energy
Due to Einsteins = 2 , since 2 is such a large number, a lot of energy is needed in order to
produce only a small yield of mass and vice versa
= 2
= + 2

20

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

LENGTH CONTRACTION

A direct consequence of time dilation.

The shortening of an object in the direction of its
motion, as it approaches the speed of light
o : The length of an object within its IF
of R is called its real length
o : The length of an object for
observers in different IF of R is called its
relativistic length
As , 0 (in the direction of motion)

= 1

2
2

TIME DILATION

The slowing down of time it takes for an event

to occur, as it approaches the speed of light
o : The time taken for an event to occur
within its IF of R is called its real time
o : The time taken for an event to occur
in view of observers in a different IF of
R is called its relativistic time
As ,

=
2
1 2

MASS DILATION

As an object reaches a velocity of c, the mass

increases infinitely due to the Einsteins = 2 .
o : The mass recorded within its IF of
R, called its real mass
o : The mass recorded to an observer
outside the IF of R, called its relativistic
mass
As ,

=
2
1 2

21

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

DISCUSS: EVIDENCE SUPPORTING THE THEORY OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY

When Einstein released his special theory of relativity in 1905 and general theory of relativity in 1915,
the technological capability to verify such predictions had not yet existed.
Thus, as technology developed, scientists were able to prove such theories through:
o The use of very accurate atomic clocks
one clock would stay on the ground whilst the other would be flown into space over
a long distance
when compared, the clock that was flown around did slow down
o the analysis of muons
muons are particles create in the upper atmosphere by incoming cosmic rays
their life span is so short they should not live long enough to reach the earths
surface, yet they do
this is because they travel at 0.996c and due to time dilation they have a dilated
lifetime allowing them to reach the earth, and in their view the earths atmosphere
has contracted, allowing them to reach in time too
o = 2 can be seen in nuclear reactors and atomic weapons

DISCUSS: IMPLICATIONS OF SPECIAL RELATIVIT Y ON SPACE TRAVEL

Mass increase
o As a mass reaches a velocity of the speed of light, the mass increases indefinitely, thus
requiring an infinite amount of force to accelerate the space craft further
o This can also pose problems on the mass of the human occupants themselves being a hazard
Time dilation
o As the spacecraft reaches a velocity of c, time appears to slow down and
o This increases the practicality of long space journeys, making them possible for humans to
reach in a lifetime.
Length contraction
o As the spacecraft reaches a velocity of c, length contracts and thus the trip appears to
shorten.
o This making trips to distant planets more practical and possible tor each in human lifetimes
However, these are all impractical since the energy required to reach such speeds for time dilation or
length contraction to be noticeable is exceedingly high. = 2

22

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

MOTORS AND GENERATORS

MOTORS
DISCUSS: THE MOTOR EFFECT
A current-carrying conductor in an external magnetic field will experience a force

Size of force on an electric charge moving through a magnetic field:

o =
o =
o =
=

Magnitude of force on current carrying conductor is dependent on:

o Magnetic field strength: Force on charged particle in magnetic field is proportional to
strength

o Magnitude of current: Greater current means more electrons in motion, hence greater total

o Conductor Length: Greater length means more electrons available to feel a force, thus
greater

o Angle between magnetic field and conductor: Force is maximum at right angles to field, as
,

= ()

A current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field

o As a result, as it passes through an external magnetic field
both fields interact, and the conductor experiences a force

Can be determined using Right Hand Slap Rule

DESCRIBE: THE FORCE BETWEEN PARALLEL CONDUCTORS

Amperes Law: Two parallel current-carrying conductors will exert a force on each other due to the
magnetic field they product.
o
o

Current flowing in the same direction force will be attractive

Current flowing in opposite direction force will be repulsive

Where
=
=
= 2 107 2
1 = 1
2 = 2

23

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

DESCRIBE: FORCES ON A COIL

Forces action on the sides of the coil can be calculated by the right-hand palm rule and
= ()
o When the plane of the coil is parallel to the external magnetic field, the forces are in
opposite direction and thus will providing a turning moment
Maximum torque at this point

When the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the external magnetic field, the forces are in
opposite direction in the same line of action and thus cancel out.
Momentum pushes the coil a little further, and the commutator changes current
direction, and thus force direction leading in a continuous spin

Zero torque at this point

24

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

DESCRIBE: APPLICATIONS OF THE MOTOR EFFECT

GALVANOMETER

Device used to measure magnitude/direction of small DC currents

o When a current is applied to the pointer, the coil turns
Spring calibrated to provide a counter-balance force
and return the needle back to the starting point
o Soft iron core to amplify force felt
o Deflects either way depending on direction of current
o Radial magnets used to provide constant torque = uniform scale
= ()
Thus since n, B, L, ,

LOUDSPEAKER

Device used to produce/amplify sound

o Circular magnet with opposite poles on outside/inside
o Voice coil sits between these poles
Connected to AC current
As current direction changes, force on coil
(cone) reverses

IDENTIFY: TYPES OF MAGNETS USED IN MOTORS

Permanent ferro-magnets
o Normal Iron magnets
o Fixed to the body of the motor
Electromagnets (solenoids)
o Created by using a soft iron shape with coils of wire around it
o May access current from armature coil

DEFINE: TORQUE

The turning momentum of an object when force acts upon it

o It increases proportionally with the distance from the pivot, thus
=
=
=
= ()
( )

Radial Magnetic Fields

o As 0, () 1 and as 90, () 0
Thus, torque is maximum when the coil is
parallel to the field
o Thus, the coil will always lie parallel to the field,
providing a constant maximum torque

25

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

DESCRIBE: THE FEATURES OF A DC MOTOR

Feature
Axle

Role
Cylindrical bar of hardened steel providing centre of rotation for rotor.

Magnets
(stator)

Provide the external magnetic field which interacts with the internal magnetic fields
formed by the current to produce a form in the coiled wire
Can be provided by permanent ferro-magnets or electromagnets

Armature
(rotor)

Iron cylinder mounted on the axle to allow rotation motion of the motor
Carries the rotor coils.
Iron core concentrates external magnetic field.

Coil
(rotor)

The insulated wire wound around the armature.

Provides medium for the current to flow
Coils provide a force/torque for the motor (rotor) to rotate (motor effect)

Split-Ring
Commutator

Consists of a broad ring of metal mounted on the axle at one end of the armature.
Metal sheets are separated and attached to each side of the armature.
Changes the direction of the current from DC supply every half-turn
Change in current direction = change in force direction (motor effect)

Brushes

Used to maintain electrical conductivity between the external circuit and the coil
via the split ring commutator
Brushes made of Carbon (good lubricant = durable = less friction)

26

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

MAGNETIC FLUX AND EMF

OUTLINE: FARADAYS LAW

Electromagnetic Induction (opposite of motor effect): the induction of an EMF required:

o An external magnetic field
o A current-carrying conductor (closed circuit to conduct current)
o Relative motion (Change in rate of flux)
Cause of the induced EMF and current
o As conductor moves relative to magnetic field, the direction of force on electrons within the
conductor can be found using right-hand palm rule
Movement of electrons leaves a deficiency of electrons (a positive charge) at one
end of the conductor, i.e. there is an emf between the ends of the conductor
If this conductor is part of an external circuit, a current will flow through the circuit

DESCRIBE: MAGNETIC FLUX

Magnetic flux density, also known as Magnetic field strength, B, is the amount of magnetic flux
passing through per unit area
o Deals with the strength of the overall field
=

= 2
()

Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field passing through a given area
= () =

DESCRIBE: EMF

The generated potential difference (or voltage/EMF) is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux.

()
=

This can be interpreted graphically as the derivative of Magnetic Flux:

= []

= [()]

= [ sin()]
= sin()

27

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

ACCOUNT FOR: LENZS LAW

An induced EMF (and current) is always in a direction such that its magnetic field opposes the
change in flux that created it.

A result of conservation of energy:

o If the current induced aided the motion the conductor would thus accelerate infinitely
o Results in creation of kinetic energy which cannot happen
Thus the negative sign in the EMF equation is to note the opposite direction

EXPLAIN: BACK EMF IN MOTORS

Lenzs Law in Motors:

o Electric motors use an input voltage (supply EMF) to produce the current in the coil
o Due to a change in flux/relative motion between the coil & magnetic field an EMF is induced
o Thus if EMF was to occur in the direction of the motor, the speed will increase infinitely
Opposing the principle of conservation of energy
o Therefore, back EMF induced must oppose the direction of the supply EMF

In a motor, supply EMF is constant, back EMF increases proportionally to the speed of the motor
o In an ideal motor (no friction) the coil will accelerate until Back EMF = Supply EMF
o Net EMF = 0, Law of Inertia will allow the coil to continue rotating at constant speed
=

When back EMF is low (due to slow speed/change in flux), net EMF is high.
o At start-up, the motor rotates to slowly due to inertia of the coil to spin
o When a heavy load is on the motor it rotates to slowly
o This results in the motor drawing a higher current, which can burn out the motor:
Starter Motor: smaller motor which draws less current is used to turn the larger
motor
This provides some back EMF for the larger motor when it starts up
Thus drawing less current
Load Resistors at start-up high resistors are placed in circuit
Thus draws up current
As coil speeds up, back EMF increases, resistor is removed

28

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

EXPLAIN: THE PRODUCTION OF EDDY CURRENTS

Produced between the relative motions of a conductor

(sheet of metal) and a magnetic field
o Small circular paths of current
Direction is due to Lenzs law
o Due to resistance, the produce heat
Right hand palm rule
o Force on positive charges is to the right
Thus left (due to Lenzs Law)
Right hand grip rule
o Relative motion is moving from magnetic field
Thus induce current will oppose this
Thus will form North pole behind metal
Thus current is clockwise

EXPLAIN: HOW INDUCTION IS USED IN COOKTOPS

Formation of eddy currents:

o A coil connected to an AC supply exists below the cooktop.
o This provides a changing magnetic field (constant change in flux)
o Thus inducing an EMF (producing an eddy current) on the metal base of the pan
o Due to resistance (property of eddy currents) the pan heats up, cooking the food
Advantages:
o Cooktop does not get hot less danger of burns
o No naked flames less danger of burns
o Heat is produced in the pan No loss of heat
Disadvantages:
o Cookware must be made of ferrous material
o Requires flat-bottomed pans

IDENTIFY: EDDY CURRENTS IN ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKING

Formation of eddy currents

o Electromagnets are positioned either side of the rotating disc
o Thus there is relative motion between the conductor and the
o electromagnets
o Thus eddy currents are induced on the spinning disc
The eddy currents produce their own magnetic field
to oppose the electromagnets
Electromagnets are used since they can be strengthened, weakened and/or turned off
o The magnets induce a smaller eddy current as the speed of the disc slows
o Thus resulting in a very smooth breaking

29

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

GENERATORS
COMPARE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF A GENERATOR TO A MOTOR

A generator is simply the reverse of a motor

o Generators harness kinetic energy to produce electrical energy (by Faradays law)
Has load and external torque
o Motors use electrical energy to produce kinetic/mechanical energy
Power supply provides torque
As a coil rotates through the magnetic field, there is a change in flux and thus an EMF is induced
(Faradays Law). Due to Lenzs law the EMF is induced in order to oppose the change in flux.
o Magnetic Field is used to induce a current
Usually the rotor
o Coils are stationary situated around the magnet e.g. 3-phases generator

DESCRIBE: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GENERATORS

DISCUSS: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EACH

Disadvantages

Advantages

Function

AC

DC

Connected to circuit by slip rings

Connected to circuit by split-ring

commutator

EMF produced periodically alternates

direction (AC current) since each
terminal is connected to the same side
of coil

Current always flows in one direction

(DC current) since commutator reverses
link between terminals every half-turn

Slip rings have a smooth surface, dont

wear out fast

Many appliances use DC

No possibility of short circuits

Magnetic field is stable (no back EMF)

Voltage can be stepped up/down

-use of transformers in transmission

No shielding needed from EMR

Back EMF opposes supplied EMF

Commutator brushes wear easily

Emits EMR so wires need shielding

Require high maintenance

AC current travels at edge of conductors

(slightly inefficient)

Cannot be transmitted

30

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

DISCUSS: ENERGY LOSS IN ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION

As electricity is transmitted through wires, Ohmic heating occurs

o Energy is lost in the form of heating
=
=
= ()
= 2
= 2

Minimizing energy loss:

o Low resistance conductors
o Step up transformers
o Thick conductors (=less resistance)

IDENTIFY: PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINES

Insulation from supporting structures

o Suspension insulators are used to prevent arcing (current jumping between conductors)
o Ceramic plates are used - good insulators
Porous material
90%air
Protection from lightning strikes
o Shield conductors are non-current carrying wires placed at the very top
Conducts charges from lightning strikes and earths to ground
Prevents damage to tower, nearby substations and transmission lines
o Towers are widely spaced, in case a tower falls

31

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

ASSESS: EFFECTS OF THE DEVELOPMENTS OF AC GENERATOR

SOCIETY

Advantages
o Improvements in technology/communication
Led to the parallel development of transformers which have allowed the longdistance transmission of electricity; beneficial to society
o Improved standards of living
Many tasks performed mechanically, can now be accomplished by electricity
Less labour intensive jobs
Disadvantages
o Development of mass generators have forced the disturbance of many environments home
to humans
o Reliance on electricity; vulnerable to system loss due to electrical failure

ENVIRONMENT

Advantages
o Electricity has replaced older more-polluting tech
Electric trains instead of steam trains
Disadvantages
o Powered by fossil fuels to produce torque
Contributes to greenhouse effect and global warming
o Production of hydro-plants has disturbed tribes of indigenous people land clearing

ASSESSMENT

The advantages on society AC generators have caused and the technological improvements they have
caused outweigh the environmental damage they may have caused

32

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

ANALYSE: COMPETITION BETWEEN WESTINGHOUSE (AC) VS EDISON (DC)

EDISON SUPPORTED DC

Invented a meter to allow customers to be billed for energy proportional to consumption

Attempted to sabotage transmission of AC
o Published books describing fatal AC incidents using Westinghouse AC generator:
Electrocuting animals in public via public demonstration
Used AC to create the electric chair
o Lobbied against use of AC in state legislatures
Advantages:
o Doesnt cause energy loss through EM induction or radiation
o Worked well over short distances
o Solid state switching allows change from DC -> AC
o DC transmissions requires minimum two conductors reducing cost
Disadvantages:
o Power loss was too significant cannot be minimized by transformers

WESTINGHOUSE SUPPORTED AC

Advantages:
o Worked efficiently over long distances
Power loss could be made insignificant
Via use of transformers
Transmission lines were made thinner/lighter
o Economic advantages outweigh the safety concerns
Proven by the generation of electricity at Niagara Falls in 1896
Disadvantages:
o Power loss occurs by releasing EM radiation
o Skin effect where AC travels through outer portion of conductor;
Reduces cross-sectional area
Increases resistance; heat loss
o AC transmission requires at-least 3 conductors = higher cost

33

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

TRANSFORMERS
DESCRIBE: THE PURPOSE OF TRANSFORMERS

Transformers are used to change voltage in appliances

so they can function
o When voltage increases, current decreases
Transformers rely on the principle of induction
o Require continual change in EMF
o Therefore, an AC current is used to
produce a continual change of magnetic
flux
DC current only produces a change in EMF
when it is turned on and off.
= =

In the primary coil:

In the primary coil:

Thus, since the change in magnetic flux in the primary coil is equal to that in the secondary coil:

COMPARE: TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS

Step Up (more turns)

Step Down (less turns)

>

>

Higher output voltage

Low output voltage

Lower output current

Higher output current

Used in power stations to reduce

current for long-distance transmission

Used at substations to reduce

transmission line voltage for
domestic/industrial use

Used in TVs and computer monitors

operate cathode ray tubes

Used in computers, radios, CD players

to reduce 240V to lower V.

EXPLAIN: CONSERVATION OF ENERGY IN TRANSFORMERS

Power is defined as the rate of energy utilization, or joules per second.

Energy cannot be created, thus the input power and output power must be conserved
=
=
=

=

34

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

DISCUSS: HOW HEATING EFFECTS OF EDDY CURRENTS ARE OVERCOME

Due to the large heat eddy currents give off; heat is minimized in the following ways:
o Insulated layers (laminations) in the iron core
Numerous smaller eddy currents form
Give off less heat
Improves transformer efficiencies
o Ferrites - Impure mixtures of iron ores
(substances are bad conductors of heat)
More efficient (cooler) transformer
o Coolant - Does not minimize eddy currents nor efficiency yet it does prevent overheating

EXPLAIN: ROLE OF TANSFORMERS IN AUSTRALIA TRANSMISSION

Substations are used to step down/step up voltage as they are transmitted

o Since power generated is only at 23 kV, transformers step up voltage to 330 kV
This is optimal for transmission, since it has low current (P=VI)
o At the entrance of cities, substations step down voltage to 33kV and then to 11kV
Pole transformers step down voltage to 415 V (industrial) and 240 V (domestic use)

DISCUSS: USE OF TRANSFORMERS WITH DC APPLIANCES

Mains domestic power supply is 240 V

o Some appliances only require 12-24V
Transformers are used to step down the voltage.
E.g. laptops, phone chargers
o Some appliances require more than 240 V
Transformers are used to step up the voltage.
E.g. Fridges, Microwaves

DISCUSS: IMPACT OF DEVELOPMENT ON SOCIETY

Advantages:
o Allowed different voltage appliances to exist e.g. toasters, computers etc
o Resulted a National Power Grid
o Spread of population due to increased efficiency of long-distance transmission
Minimising of power loss due when transmitting due to transformers
Disadvantages:
o Increased dependency on electricity
Lack of power supply can compromise safety E.g. Hospitals etc

35

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

AC MOTORS
AC SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

Similar to a DC motor, yet slip rings are used instead of a split-ring commutator
External magnetic field is supplied by electromagnets that are connected with coils of armature

DESCRIBE: FEATURES OF AN AC INDUCTION MOTOR

Magnetic Field: produced by 3-phase paired electromagnets

o
o AC current of each solenoid is out of phase by 120 degrees
o Therefore, the variation in the magnetic field strength of each electromagnet creates a
virtually rotating" magnetic field
Thus an EMF (and current) is induced on the squirrel cage
Squirrel Cage: a circular arrangement of conductors connected to end rings
o No current is direct supplied to the rotor
o As an EMF is induced in the conductors of the cage, current flows to oppose the change
o A force is experienced by the squirrel cage causing rotation of the cage in direction
Slip Time: measure of the difference in rotational speed of the rotating magnetic field
o Ensures a constant relative motion between conductor and field
Increasing load = increase in slip time
= = = =

Advantages
o No brushes/commutator less frictional wear, no electrical discharges across gaps
More efficient
Easier to maintain
o Ability to easily control speed (changing frequency)
o Higher power output than normal AC motors
o Not possible to burn out
Due to no back EMF
Disadvantages
o Requires an AC supply, which determines maximum speed (supply frequency)
o More expensive to build

36

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

IDEAS TO IMPLEMENTATION
CATHODE RAYS LED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF TELEVISION
EXPLAIN: THE APPARENT INCONSISTENT BEHAVIOUR OF CATHODE RAYS CAUSED
DEBATE AS TO WHETHER THEY WERE CHARGED PARTICLES OR EM-WAVES
PRAC: DEMONSTRATING PROPERTIES OF CATHODE RAYS USING DISCHARGE TUBES
CATHODE RAYS FITTED THE WAVE MODEL
CONTAINING A MALTESE CROSS

Cathode rays were shone on a solid object.

The shadow produced behind the object suggested that the waves travelled in straight lines
o Suggests that cathode rays obeyed diffraction rays (shadow) bent around the cross

WITH A FLOURESCENT DISPLAY SCREEN

Cathode rays were shone through a phosphorus screen

o Allowed their path to be observed
o Suggested that cathode rays transferred energy

WITH THIN METAL FOILS

Cathode rays were shone through a sheet of thin metal foil

o Cathode rays penetrated through

CATHODE RAYS FITTED THE PARTICLE MODEL

CONTAINING ELECTRIC PLATES/MAGNETIC COILS - DETERMINING THE CHARGE SIGN ON CR S

Cathode rays were shone through an electric field

o The cathode ray was attracted to the positive plate
Cathode rays were shone through a magnetic field
o The cathode rays were deflected accordingly
Suggest that cathode rays were negatively charged particles

CONTAINING A GLASS WHEEL

Cathode rays were shone onto a glass wheel that was free to move
o It was observed that the glass wheel moved
o Suggested that cathode rays had momentum (and mass)

37

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

EXPLAIN: CATHODE RAY TUBES ALLOWED THE MANIPULATION OF A STREAM OF

CHARGED PARTICLES DISCHARGE TUBES

Cathode ray tubes were glass tubes (vacuums) containing two electrodes
o They produced a stream of charged particles through it
Emitted from the cathode and collected by the anode
Particles were attracted to the anode due to potential difference
o Cathode rays (charged particles) caused the glass to glow green upon interaction

PRAC: OBSERVE THE OCCURRENCE OF DIFFERENT STRIATION PATTERNS FOR

DIFFERENT PRESSURES IN DISCHARGE TUBES

When electrons collided with gas particles, particles ionised, causing the emission of light
The pressure of the discharge tube affects how cathode rays travel:
At lower pressures, there were less gas particles to collide with, allowing electrons to travel further
without ionising a gas particle through collision
o At normal air pressure nothing is observed inside the tube.
o As the air is evacuated, purple streamers begin to appear that are continuous from the
anode to the cathode.
o Next striations appear, the colour is now dull pink and there is a gap between the cathode
and the first striation.
o The gap increase and the striations become dimmer.
o Eventually no striations are seen anymore, only a green glow on the glass.
Safety Precaution: Induction coil used to generate power for the CRT emits X-rays
o Thus, students should stand at least 3m away from the apparatus

38

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

IDENTIFY: MOVING CHARGED PARTICLES IN A MAGNETIC FIELD EXPERIENCE A FORCE

A moving charged particles in a magnetic field will experience a magnetic force

DESCRIBE (QUANTITATIVELY): THE MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CHARGED PARTICLE

= ()

IDENTIFY: CHARGED PLATES PRODUCE AN ELECTRIC FIELD

An electric field is set up by a potential difference between two oppositely charged parallel plates

DESCRIBE (QUANTITATIVELY): ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO OPPOSITE PARALLEL PLATES

=

= 1

Where:
o Potential Difference in Volts (V)
o Distance in Metres (m)
o Electric Field Strength in Volts
per Metre (Vm-1)

= 1

Where:
o Force in Newtons (N)
o Charge in Coulombs (C)
o Electric Field Strength in
Newtons per Coulomb (NC-1)

DISCUSS (QUALITATIVELY): ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH DUE TO CHARGED PARTICLES

AND OPPOSITE PARALLEL PLATES

An electric field is any point where a charged particle will experience a force
o Within the field, the force on the particle will be equal no matter where it is

The strength of the

electric field due to a
positive or negative
point charge diminishes
with distance from the
object.
The more lines drawn
around a given charge,
the stronger the field

The electric field

between two oppositely
charged parallel plates is
uniform in strength and
direction. The field
direction is defined as at
right angles to the plates
and away from the
positive plate.

39

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

OUTLINE: J.J THOMSONS EXPERIMENT - CHARGE/MASS RATIO OF AN ELECTRON

Tape Measure

Aim: To measure the charge to mass ratio of cathode rays

Equipment:
o Anode: used as a velocity filter (refer to CRT section)
o Tape Measure: to measure the deflection of electrons under different fields
Method:
o Magnets were placed either side of the CRT to produce a uniform magnetic field which
exerted an upward force on the cathode rays measured according to:
= sin() = sin(90) =
o

Thompson recognised that the force due to the magnetic field caused the cathode rays to
travel in a circle; thus implying uniform circular motion
=

2
=

=

o

Thomson then balanced out the magnetic field force by that of an electric field until the
cathode ray beam passed through both fields un-deflected (showing that the two forces
were equal)
=

1
=

Conclusion: By calculating the charge-to-mass ratio (formula above) of cathode rays, Thompson
concluded that Cathode Rays were in fact particles since they had a charge and mass, now called
electrons.

40

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

OUTLINE: MAIN FEATURES IN CRT OF CONVENTIONAL TV DISPLAYS & OSCILLOSCOPES

ELECTRODES IN THE EL ECTRON GUN

Cathode: source of electrons

o Supplied with very high voltage released electrons by thermionic emission
o Electrons are accelerated to the anode (due to their attraction and high diff. in potential)
Anode: filters out slow electrons and focuses electron beam
o Slow/faster electrons are deflected due to magnetic/electric force imbalances
o Thus they are deflected and a final focus beam of electrons with the same speed are left

THE DEFLECTION PLATE S (OR COILS)

Electrons can be made to deflect through the use of an electric plates or magnetic coils
o One set can be used to move the electron in a vertical direction
o The other set can used to direct the path of the electron horizontally

THE FLOURESCENT SCREEN

The glass screen is made up of some fluorescent material.

o Thus when struck by an electron, they give off EMR in the form of visible light

TV DISPLAYS

3 electron guns exist (one for each of the primary colours red, green, blue)
A grid also exists to vary the brightness of a pixel by altering the flow of electrons
Deflection system occurs by the use of exterior coils which deflect by magnetic force
Fluorescent screen has three different types of coloured phosphors for each corresponding e-gun
o Electrons emit visible light upon interaction with corresponding phosphor
o Shadow mask is placed before the screen to prevent electrons hitting the wrong spot

41

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

OSCILLOSCOPES (CRO S )

Displays a signal which allows voltage to be visualised

o Converts an analogue signal into a voltage vs. time graph
Internal deflection system occurs by the use of a horizontal plates which deflects the electrons
according to a controllable time base and vertical plates which vary according to the voltage signal by
varying the strength of the plates

42

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

THE MODEL OF LIGHT, THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT AND BLACK BODY RADIATION
OUTLINE: HERTZ EXPERIMENT
RECALL: MAXWELLS THEORY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

In 1984, Maxwell showed that light was an electromagnetic disturbance by four equations
o His work unified the field of electricity, magnetism and optics
o It predicted that the EM spectrum consisted of much more than just light
EM waves are a self-propagating electric and magnetic disturbance
Hertz then experimentally showed this by discovering radio waves (the first non-light EM waves)

DESCRIBE: HERTZS OBSERVATIONS OF THE EFFECT OF A RADIO WAVE ON A RECEIVER

Hertzs experiment consisted of three parts

o Primary loop (Transmitter)
The induction coil stepped up the voltage from the power source to provide a great
potential between the spark gap producing a spark
o Secondary loop (Receiver)
Hertz noted that a spark would jump across the gap in the receiving loop when held
near the primary loop
Hertz then altered the distance between both gaps until the frequency of the
secondary loop was in sync with the primary loop (representing a standing wave)
o Parabolic mirrors
Parabolic mirrors were set up around the apparatus using each spark gap as a focus
to channel EMR waves from all directions, back to the secondary loop
Thus making the spark more noticeable for observation.

43

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

DESCRIBE: THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT HERTZ PRODUCED BUT FAILED TO INVESTIGATE

a negatively charged object loses its charge more readily when illuminated by UV light
o Hertz noticed that when UV light was shone on the receiving loop, the spark gap could be
made greater with the same size spark occurring
i.e. the spark seemed greater

OUTLINE: HOW HERTZS SHOWED RADIO WAVES RELATE TO LIGHT WAVES (SPEED C)

Hertz showed that these radio waves behaved like light since they could:
o Reflect, refract, interfere, diffract, be polarized
Hertz also proved that the radio waves travelled at the speed of light, , by the formula: =
o The frequency of the waves was known by the use of a LCP
o By altering the distance between the loops, Hertz was able to calculate the wavelength of
the radio waves using the principle of interference (getting a standing wave)

PRAC: DEMONSTRATE THE PROUCTION/RECEPTION OF RADIO WAVES

When an induction coil was set up and placed beside an AM radio tuned on a cannel that had no
broadcast, the radio gave of lots of static, proving that radio waves were in fact being produced

44

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

QUANTAM THEORY
RECALL: BLACK BODY RADIATION

A black body is a theoretical object that is able to perfectly absorb and emit EMR at all frequencies
o Therefore; black body radiation is the radiation black bodies emit

UV CATASTROPHE

Classical theory could not explain two characteristics of the nature of black body radiation curves:
1. Assumed the hotter an object , the more energy released, the greater the intensity of
radiation Violating the principle of Conservation of Energy
2. Was unable to explain the peak in curves as the wavelength decreased

IDENTIFY: PLANCKS HYPOTHESIS QUANTUM THEORY

Energy occurred in discrete packets he called quanta

o Disproving the previous theory that energy was continuous
These discrete levels of energy also increased at integer multiples of a single base unit
o Plancks constant, = 6.626 1034
Plancks hypothesis derived a new black body law to explain the curves:
o Each quanta is able to interact differently with the black body
o The peak intensity is due to the black body itself being able to interact most optimally with a
specific wavelength of energy (changing with temperature)
=
1
: = (
)

45

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

IDENTIFY: EINSTEINS CONTRIBUTION TO QUANTUM THEORY/BB RADIATION

THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

The photoelectric effect is the phenomenon whereby electrons are emitted from the surface of a
material due to the absorption of energy from EMR
Phillip von Lenard was the first to notice and study the photoelectric effect (other than Hertz)
1. The energy of an electron is dependent on the frequency of the EMR
o However, is independent on the intensity of the EMR
2. The photocurrent is dependent on the intensity of the EMR
The experimental data could not be explained by classical physics, and thus the need for Quantum
theory to explain the observations shown by Einsteins explanation

THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT: EINSTEINS EXPLANATION

Einsteins explanation was based on the Quantum theory to explain the phenomenon:
o He explained that each photon interacted in an elastic collision with an electron on the
surface of a metal
o Consequently, energy and momentum are entirely transferred from the photon to the
electron
o As a result, an electron will absorb enough energy to be emitted from the surface of the
metal, so long as the photon energy is greater than the work function of the material
The work function is the energy needed to remove an electron from a material
As a result, Einsteins explanation proved many un-explained aspects of von Lenards studies:
o The max. energy of the electron is only dependent on the frequency of the photons
o The number of electrons emitted (photocurrent) is dependent on the intensity of the
photons, explaining a threshold frequency.
From this explanation, Einstein also predicted
there would be a cut-off frequency (threshold
frequency) where no electrons would be emitted
as a result of the incident photon energy being
too low for the work function
Finally, Einsteins explanation could calculate the kinetic energy of an ejected electron:
For stopping voltage:
=
= ()

= =

1
2
2

ASSESS: EINSTEINS CONTRIBUTION TO QUANTUM THEORY

One of Einsteins greatest contributions to Quantum theory was using Plancks hypothesis (that
energy was quantised) in his explanation of the photoelectric effect to provide explanations to many
mathematical concepts which Planck hypothesised yet could not prove, further leading to the
accepted theory of a wave-particle duality and establishing the particle model of light

46

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

SUMMARISE: THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT IN PHOTOCELLS

A photocell is a device which produced current to flow in the presence of light ( or any other EMR)
o In the presence of EMR, the metal cathode will emit electrons.
o These electrons are then accelerated towards the anode and a complete circuit is produced.
o If the light beam stops (i.e. if the EMR is blocked by a solid object), the current stops

EXPLAIN: THE PARTICLE MODEL OF LIGHT

The particle model of light stated that all EMR (including light) travels in photons (packets of energy)
o Photons are a massless particle (no rest mass) and thus can travel at speed
o Explained how waves could have momentum wave-particle duality
o The model claimed that a photons energy is directly proportional to the frequency of the
radiation, according to Plancks formula:
=

DISCUSS: DIFFERING POLITICAL VIEWS OF EINSTEIN AND PLANCK

Einstein was a German-born Jew

o He remained a pacifist during WWI. It may seem that he put these views aside when Hitler
came into play due to his letter to the USA president to build the atomic bomb; however that
was a direct response to the fear that the Germans would build it first, causing more
detrimental damage to society. It is important to note, however, that after Hitler was
deposed, Einstein wrote another letter to USA to never use the atomic bomb, EVER.
o He believed that the political and social barriers to scientific research should be removed
since scientific research/experimentation was integral to the development of scientific
theory which would one day benefit society.
o Government and science must be separated
o Government should not push their political agenda on society
Planck was a nationalist, a proud German
o Supported the use of science for political and social gain as it benefited society.
o However, he did not support the war and the persecution of Jews, rather continued to teach
Einsteins theories.
o Government and science must be together

47

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

SEMICONDUCTORS
IDENTIFY: ELECTRONS IN SOLIDS ARE SHARED BETWEEN ATOMS AND MOVE FREELY

In metallic solids, a crystal lattice of positive metal ions are bonded together (covalently)
Valence electrons are delocalised and shared between the atoms to move freely
o For this reason they conduct electricity

DESCRIBE: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS

BAND STRUCTURE

The Exclusion Principle: No two electrons in a system can occupy the exact same energy level
o Furthermore, the larger the system, the greater the width of the band
Valence band: the outermost shell of electrons which are determine the reactivity of a substance
Conduction band: the band where electrons are able to move freely and hence conduct electricity

RELATIVE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

Insulators: the conduction band and full valence band is separated by a large forbidden energy band
o This gives the material a high electrical resistance since it requires energy to force valence
electrons to move into the conduction band
Conductors: the conduction band and valence band overlaps allowing valence electrons to easily
move into the conduction band
o This gives the material a low electrical resistance since no energy is needed to conduct
Semiconductors: conduction band and valence band are separated by a small forbidden energy band
o With enough energy (often thermal energy), valence electrons can be excited to move up
into the conduction band.
o Thus, electrical resistance decrease as thermal energy increases and more valence electrons
are forced into the conduction band.

48

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

COMPARE: RELATIVE NUMBER ELECTRONS THAT CAN DRIFT BETWEEN ATOMS

IDENTIFY: ELECTRON-HOLE PAIRS

When an electron leaves the valence band (by moving to a different atom or being excited into the
conduction band, it leaves a hole
o A hole is the absence of an electron.
Holes act as a positive flow of current in the valence band moving towards the negative potential
Electrons act as a negative flow of current in the conduction band moving towards the positive
potential.
NOTE: The speed of the electron-current flowing through overlapping conduction bands is much
greater than the hole-current moving from atom to atom.

PRAC: ELECTRON-HOLE PAIR DEMONSTRATION

To model the electron-hole behaviour in semiconductors we take:

o students as electrons; and
o chairs as holes
When a hole is created, this can be represented as an empty chair amongst students sitting on chairs
o The electrons (students) will move into the hole, leaving a hole in their current seats
o As a result, neighbouring electrons (students) will then move that hole until the hole is at the
end of the chain

IDENTIFY: THE USE OF GERMANIUM IN EARLY TRANSISTORS (SEMICONDUCTORS)

Germanium was widely used as a semiconductor in early transistors since it was easier to extract and
purify, despite being relatively scarce
Silicon is more difficult to purify, however it is very abundant making it relatively cheap to extract
o Retains semi-conducting properties at higher temp, allowing higher electric currents
o Forms a silicon dioxide layer than can be doped, made into thin layers, and acts as a coated
insulator for the conducting silicon inside

49

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

DESCRIBE: DOPING A SEMICONDUCTOR CAN CHANGE ITS ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

Doping involves the addition of a tiny amount (up to 1ppm) of an impurity atom (having a different
valence level) added to pure crystal structure to alter its electrical properties
o Thus allowing for extra energy bands to exist between the energy gap, reducing the energy
required to excite electrons into the conduction band and thus electrical resistance

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

Semiconducting properties of a material (such as silicon) will occur naturally without doping
o However, some form of thermal energy is necessary to excite valence electrons into the
conduction band

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

Semiconducting properties of a material are modified by the addition of a

dopant atom allowing them to conduct in room temperature
o An element is chosen with one more or one less valence electron
then the atoms of the original material

IDENTIFY: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN P-TYPE AND N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

The dopant is a group 3 atom gallium (or boron, aluminium)

As a result, there is a hole in the crystal structure
Under the influence of an electric field, electrons will move into
the hole, consequently creating new holes in adjacent atoms
o Therefore, alongside other electron-hole pairs, there is
an excess of positive holes as charge carriers over electrons
These extra holes allow the conduction band to accept electrons with less energy lowering the
acceptor level of the conduction band reducing the energy gap between the bands

N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

The dopant is a group 5 atom phosphorus (or arsenic)

Since there is one extra electron, it is forced into the conduction
band
o Therefore, alongside other electron-hole pairs, there is an
electrons
as charge carriers over positive holes
These extra electrons allow the valence band to donate electrons with less energy rising the donor
level of the conduction band reducing the energy gap between the bands

Conduction band

P-type

N-type

Valence band

50

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

DESCRIBE: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOLID STATE DEVICES AND THERMIONIC DEVICES

THERMIONIC DEVICES

Thermionic devices use thermal electron emission in order to perform various tasks by altering and
controlling the flow of current
Diode: involved a thermionic device of only two electrodes in a evacuated glass tube
o Cathode: coated in a metal which easily produces thermionic electrons
When heated sufficiently, electrons are emitted from the surface and travel towards
the anode
o Anode: metal which does not easily produce thermionic electrons
o If we attempt to reverse the cathode/anode polarity, no thermionic electrons are produced
and the device is a diode thus acting as a switch
Diodes allowed only unidirectional conduction: useful for converting AC DC

Triode: involved a thermionic device of multiple electrodes

o A third electrode was added: the grid
When a voltage is placed on the grid (i.e. from a microphone), the flow of electrons
can be controlled and varied
Small changes of the grid voltage cause large changes to the main electron current
passing through the valve, i.e. small changes are amplified
If the grid voltage is large enough, it can also block the main current i.e. acting like a
switch
o Triodes were useful for use as a current amplifier or switch

51

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

SOLID STATE DEVICES

Solid state devices use semiconductors to perform their tasks

P-N JUNCTION (DIODE)

A junction between the p-type and n-type semiconductor

Only needs to be a few atom layers thick

At the junction:
o Electrons cross and fill the holes near the junction, creating a potential difference across it
An equilibrium is eventually reached
o Since there are now no charge carriers left near the junction, it is an insulator layer

Forward Bias
o Conventional current flows into the p-type (electrons flow into the n-type)
e will flood the n-type semi-conductor with excess electrons
Thus, e fill most of the holes near the junction narrowing the depletion zone.
o Furthermore, since the depletion zone (insulator layer) has been narrowed, current now
flows across the junction

Reverse Bias
o Conventional current flows into the n-type (electrons flow into the p-type)
e are dragged out of the n-type, decreasing the amount of mobile charges
Thus, widening the depletion zone.
o Furthermore, since the depletion zone (insulator layer) has been widened, current is now
obstructed from flowing across the junction

52

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

DISCUSS: WHY SOLID STATE DEVICES REPLACED THERMIONIC DEVICES

Thermionic Devices
Very bulky (few centimetres tall)
Very fragile (due to the glass envelope)
Very inefficient (due to thermal emission)
Switching was very slow
Dangerous vacuum tubes could explode

Solid State Devices

Much smaller (less than 1 nm in length)
Less fragile
Far more efficient (no thermal emission )
Faster, more responsive switching
Able to be mass produced

DISCUSS: SHORTCOMINGS IN AVAILABLE COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY LED TO AN

INCREASED KNOWLEDGE OF THE PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Before the development of semiconductors, thermionic devices were used as a means for radio
communication. However, these devices were relatively bulky, non-responsive and in-efficient
Thus, due to shortcomings in radio communication technology, there was a great need for more
research into other materials e.g. semiconductors.
This eventually led to the development of silicon for use as a feasible semi-conductor for use in solidstate devices as opposed to the use of thermionic devices.
Furthermore, this eventually led to the design of transistors: which involve 3 extrinsic semiconductors joined together (npn or pnp) divided into 3 parts (collector, emitter and base)
o By applying a voltage to the base, the size of the depletion zone are altered to either increase
or stop the flow of current
o Forward bias allows the transistor to act as an amplifier
o Reverse bias allows the transistor to act as a diode
Consequently, due to the shortcomings in available radio communication tech (thermionic devices),
the transistor was developed as a product of much research and development into the products of
materials, thus leading to the micro-chips and microprocessors which now comprise almost all
communication technology since they are much smaller, more responsive and efficient.

ASSESS: THE IMPACT OF THE INVENTION OF TRANSISTORS ON SOCIETY

A transistor is a tiny switch that changes the size or direction of electric current in response to very
small changes in the voltage across it.

ADVANTAGES

Have reduced the size and increased the efficiency of technology

o Leading to improvement in industries such as medicine and communication
o Increased the quality of life due to the ease of production replacing human labour
Heavily improved the computer by the development of microchips and microprocessors
Also led to the creation of new industries such as electronics
Spurred on more employment and wealth

DISADVANTAGES

Has led to greater environmental damage and landfill

Overdependence on technology consequently leading to less social interaction in humanity

53

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

SUMMARISE: THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT ON SEMI-CONDUCTORS IN SOLAR CELLS

A solar cell consists of a p-n junction where EM radiation is converted into electrical energy
o Metallic grid contacts (electrodes) exist above and below the cell to conduct electricity
o Anti-reflective coating is applied to the top of the cells to reduce reflection loss
o NOTE: multiple cells can also be combined in series or parallel to attain higher voltage or
current

The p-n junction creates an electric field as electrons diffuse across the junction, creating a depletion
zone until an equilibrium is reached
When the cell is exposed to sun light (infra-red to UV radiation photons) , there is an elastic collision
between each photon and an electron in the material (the photoelectric effect)
o Consequently, if the electron is energised enough that it overcomes the work function of the
material, it will travel beyond the n-type, leaving behind a hole which will travel in the
opposite direction (beyond the p-type)
As the electron-hole pair travels through the circuit, through a load, and then recombining to
maintain electrical neutrality.
o NOTE: Electrons can only travel unidirectional in the circuit due to the natural potential
difference set-up in the p-n junction, thus only allowing DC current to occur in the solar cell

54

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

SUPERCONDUCTERS
IDENTIFY: METALS POSSESS A CRYSTAL LATTICE STRUCTURE

A crystal lattice is defined as any substance in which the atoms/molecules are arranged in a 3-D
lattice (repeating) pattern

DESCRIBE: CONDUCTION IN METALS

Conduction in metals occurs when the electrons in the lattice structure flow through the metal
unimpeded by the lattice

IDENTIFY: RESISTANCE IN METALS

By impeding the flow of electrons, resistance is increased

o Impurities often exist in most metals, and can distort the crystal lattice structure
These impurities often act as barriers against the flow of electrons
o Increasing temperature of a metal will allow the atomic lattice to vibrate more
Consequently, electrons are more likely to collide with the lattice, impeding the flow
of electrons

OUTLINE: THE BRAGGS EXPERIMENT X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

Collimator

The Braggs brothers helped determined the crystal lattice structure of many materials by the
following method:
1. A 40kV X-ray tube was set up to produce scattered X-rays
2. The X-rays were then made parallel using a collimator
3. The collimated X-rays then interacted with the crystal lattice and diffracted and then recombined
4. The X-rays were then collected by photographic film, which produced a diffraction pattern.
5. The Braggs brothers were then able to determine the lattice spacing by altering the angle of the
diffracted X-rays until constructive interference occurred on the diffraction pattern and
assuming the Braggs Law.

55

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

BRAGGS LAW

The extra distance that Ray 2 will travel can be determined to equal 2()
In order to get constructive interference, this distance must have been an integer number of
wavelengths extra, allowing the waves to still be in phase when recombined.
o X-rays were used since they offered a wavelength relative to the spacing between atoms
Thus, by altering the angle of the reflected X-rays until constructive interference appeared on the
diffraction pattern, the Braggs brothers could calculate the spacing between atoms by assuming:
= 2()

IMPACT ON SCIENCE

Provided a method to determine simple crystal structure of materials

Metallic materials:
Non-metallic materials:
o Atoms arranged into a crystal
o Atoms far more widely spaced
lattice
o Much lower electron density
o Very high electron density
Revealed the following:
o The symmetrical arrangement of atoms in crystals
o The packing arrangement of atoms in crystals
o The separation between the layers of atoms in crystals
Crucial in determining the structure of DNA and the development of transistors/microchips

DESCRIBE: THE OCCURRENCE OF SUPERCONDUCTORS

Superconductors are materials which exhibit absolutely zero electrical resistance and exclude all
external magnetic fields at specific critical temperatures ( )
o The critical temperature is the temperature where the resistance of a material falls to zero
Above this temp., the metal acts normally and has some resistance proportional to
its temp.

IDENTIFY: EXAMPLES OF SUPERCONDUCTORS

Type I: are metals and metal alloys that are able to super-conduct at extremely low critical
temperatures (<10K)
o Thus requiring liquid Helium to cool them below their critical temperature
o These superconductors can be explained by the BCS theory and is irrelevant to a materials
conductivity at room temperature (such as gold and copper which do not super-conduct),
rather their lattice structure.
Type II: are compounds that are able to super-conduct at relatively high critical temperatures
o Made from synthetic , complex ceramics
o Requiring liquid Nitrogen (much cheaper than liquid Helium) to cool them
o Explanation for superconductivity is not completely understood yet

Type I
Type II

Material

Elements

Critical Temp

Metals

1K

Metal Alloys

20K

Compounds

2 3 2

90K

56

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

DISCUSS: THE BCS THEORY

The BCS theory (Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer) is used to

explain superconductivity in Type I superconductors
At a specific critical temperature, lattice vibrations in a
material are decreased
o Cooper pairs cannot exist above the critical
temperature since lattice vibrations disrupt the
path of electrons
As an electron passes through cations (positive metal
atoms which make up the lattice) (a), the lattice will
be attracted towards the electron, creating a net
positive region around it. (b)
o Also, as a result of this distortion, phonons are
released (packets of vibrational energy)
Another e (up to 1000 intra-atomic spacing apart)
moving in the opposite direction and with opposite
spin will be attracted to the net positive region (c) and
absorb the phonon (giving it enough energy to
overcome the electrostatic repulsion with the other
e in this region)
o NOTE: The electrons are continually breaking apart and reforming as they move.
Electrons must be travelling in opposite directions and spin to ensure total momentum
(linear) is zero
Thus, a Cooper Pair is now formed as a new entity which possesses the ability to travel through
the lattice without colliding with it, thus allowing the material to have 0 resistance

EXPLAIN: THE MEISSNER EFFECT

The Meissner Effect is the phenomenon whereby a superconductor (below its critical temperature)
expels any magnetic field. The magnetic field inside the superconductor is zero.
o A magnetic field induces perfect surface currents to circulate the conductor.
o The currents will flow in the direction so as to produce a magnetic field which expels the
external magnetic field causing the magnet to repel and levitate above the superconductor
Unlike a regular magnet with a fixed North and South pole, a superconductor can
create many poles to ensure that all poles are repelled
o As superconductors have no resistance, the flow of surface currents is not impeded and thus
continues opposing the magnetic field as long as the superconductor and magnetic field
exists.
However, there are 3 criteria that must be met in order to ensure a superconductor will exhibit this
feature:
1. Critical temperature ( ): the temperature must be below
2. Critical magnetic field ( ): there is a limit to the size of the external magnetic field that can
be applied, thus the field must be below
3. Critical current density ( ): the current flowing in the superconductor must not exceed

57

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

PRAC: DEMONSTRATE MAGNETIC LEVITATION

1.
2.
3.
4.

A tin (or Ni-Al-Ge) material was placed in a dish.

The teacher then used temperature-controlled gloves and goggles to pour liquid nitrogen over the
material so that it goes below its temperature
Once the material has achieved its superconducting state, a magnet was placed above the material
o NOTE: The stronger the magnet, the higher it will levitate
As the material warmed back to room temp, the magnet lowered back onto the material

DISCUSS: POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS OF SUPERCONDUCTORS

Computers:
o Currently, computer chips cannot be made smaller because of heat due to resistance.
With superconductors, no heat is produced, thus allowing wires and transistors to
be packed closer together, reducing the distance electrons need to travel and thus
producing quicker processing
Also, since no heat is produced due to resistance, no energy is needed to cool
processors, making computers more efficient
Generators and Motors:
o Superconductors can be used as rotor coils in generators.
As a result, no power loss will occur in the coils, resulting in 100% efficiency
o Superconductors can also be used as magnets in AC induction motors to generate much
larger magnetic fields at 100% efficiency
Power Transmission:
o The main limitations of current power transmission is related to the power loss occurring
o Since superconductors exhibit zero electrical resistance, they have the ability to transmit
current with zero power loss according to:
= 2 @ = 0 , = 0

This could potentially impact the transmission of DC current in society

DISCUSS: ADVANTAGES

No power loss
Huge magnetic fields can be generated

IDENTIFY: LIMITATIONS

Expensive to manufacture
Not very ductile
Very brittle
Require lots of energy (since they must be kept cold)

58

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

DESCRIBE: THE MAGLEV TRAIN

The Maglev train is a train which operates on the phenomenon of superconductivity and the Meissner
Effect, allowing much higher speeds to be attained due to the elimination of friction as the train
levitates.
o Acceleration: Opposite permanent magnets are placed alongside each other on the sides of
the train tracks and electromagnets on the sides of trains directly opposite each other
The electromagnets on the train change polarity in phase with the changing track
permanent magnets. Thus, the magnets on the train always repel the external
magnets opposite it, yet are attracted to the magnets adjacent to them.
This pair of attraction and repulsion accelerates the train forward so long as forward
momentum exists which is initially provided by the standard wheel propulsion of
normal trains
o Levitation: Provided by superconductors acting as electromagnets or by the Meissner effect
Permanent magnets are placed along the train tracks
Due to the Meissner effect, the superconductors situated below the train exclude
the magnetic field of the permanent magnets so that the train then levitates
Otherwise, these superconductors can be used to create very strong
electromagnets

59

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

ASTROPHYSICS
TELESCOPES

A telescope is any device that is used to detect EM radiation from distant sources
Refracting telescope: uses lenses and the law of refraction to form an image
o Restricted to visible light spectrum usually used in hand-held telescopes
o Chromatic aberration occurs when the waves are diffracted at the lens differently due to the
wavelength of EMR, making the image hard to focus (due to more than 1 focus pt.)
Reflecting telescope: uses parabolic mirrors to focus EM radiation onto a point (focus).
o Useful due to ability to resolve whole EM spectrum
o Larger the lens, the better the telescope

DISCUSS: GALILEOS USE OF THE TELESCOPE

A telescope is an instrument that uses a lens to gather EMR for analysis.

o Galileo did not invent the telescope, but was the first to use it to observe celestial objects by
making a better telescope
Through observation, Galileo identified a few feature of space which insulted the Catholic Church:
o The surface of the moon was rough: This observation suggested that what the Catholic
Church saw as the heavens, were imperfect.
o Jupiter had other moons orbiting around itself: This suggested that Earth was not the centre
of the universe conflicting with the geocentric model.
o As a result, Galileos observations of the moon by his use of the telescope led to his arrest
and the slow progression of science in the 1600s

DISCUSS: THE TERMS RESOLUTION AND SENSITIVITY OF TELESCOPES

Resolution is the ability of a telescope to distinguish two objects that are close together
o Resolving power: smallest angle between two stars that results in the formation of 2 images

o The smaller the resolution angle ( ) is, the better the resolution
Larger the diameter of the telescope, the better the resolution
Smaller the wavelength, the better the resolution
Sensitivity is a measure of the light gathering ability of a telescope how many photons it can gather
o Sensitivity is proportional to the surface area of the telescope
Larger surface area (or diameter) corresponds to greater sensitivity
Higher exposure time leads to great photons gathered increasing sensitivity
In both cases, a larger diameter of the telescope corresponds to great resolution and sensitivity

PRAC: DEMONSTRATE WHY IT IS LARGE DIAMETER OBJECTIVE LENS/MIRRORS ARE

DESIRABLE FOR TELESCOPES IN TERMS OF BOTH SENSISITIVITY AND RESOLUTION

Method: Two different telescopes with different lens diameter were used to observe an object
o Sensitivity was evaluated by comparing the brightness of the object on each telescope
o Resolution was evaluated by analysing the telescopes ability to distinguish the two objects
Results: the larger telescope was more sensitive and had a higher resolution

60

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

DISCUSS: PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH GROUND-BASED ASTRONOMY

Although ground-based astronomy is much cheaper and more accessible than space-based
astronomy, it is prone to lower resolution and less sensitivity due to the Earths atmosphere
Absorption of Radiation
o The Earths atmosphere absorbs most high freq. radiation emitted from celestial objects
Therefore, at the surface of the earth, only some wavebands (mostly wavelengths at
visual spectrum) are detected and viewed by optical telescope
o Thus, these other wavebands can be detected by placing satellites above the atmosphere:
The Hubble Space telescope examines infrared and visible light
The Chandra X-Ray observatory studies X-ray emissions
Atmospheric Distortion
o Seeing refers to the distortion of images due to random atmospheric conditions
Seeing is why stars twinkle
o Since different areas of the atmosphere cause EM waves to bend/refract differently, the final
wavefronts of EMR produce a distorted image

OUTLINE: METHODS TO IMRPOVE RESOLUTION AND SENSITIVITY

(GROUND-BAS ED TELESCOPES )

INTERFEROMETRY RESOLUTION/SENSITIVITY

Interferometry is the use of several telescopes and superposition to simulate a larger mirror/lens
o Here, computers are used to combine data to resemble one large telescope
By increasing the diameter of the EM-gathering surface, the sensitivity and resolution is improved

ADAPTIVE OPTICS RESOLUTION

Adaptive optics aims to compensate for the seeing effect in the atmosphere
o It does this by using a reference star (or LASER) to understand the atmospheric conditions
o The reference data is then fed into a computer, processed and set to a deformable mirror
This mirror is a piezoelectric material that distorts mechanically under the influence
of electric current
o The deformable mirror corrects the shape of the wave to make it smooth (up to 1000 times a
second), and thus, improving resolution

ACTIVE OPTICS RESOLUTION

Active optics aims to correct for the deformation within the mirror
o Occurs due to binding in the mirror due to mass
o Again, piezoelectric actuators move in order to force the mirror in the correct shape
Occurs only 1 time a second by real-time computing

GATHER INFORMATION ON: NEW OPTICAL TELESCOPES

The Keck twin telescopes (Hawaii) are the largest optical/near-infrared telescopes in the world
o They have a 10m diameter mirror each (with 36 hexagonal mirrors)
o They use adaptive optics to overcome seeing effects
o Connected using interferometry to gain a resolution of less than 20 microacr-seconds

61

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

ASTROMETRY: MEASUREMENT OF CELESTIAL OBJECTS POSITION IN THE SKY

EXPLAIN: HOW TRIG PARALLAX CAN BE USED TO DERMINE DISTANCE TO STARS

Trigonometric parallax is a method of using trigonometry to solve the triangle formed by the parallax
to determine distance.
o Parallax is the apparent change in position of a nearby object against a distant background
due to a change in position of the observer
o Parallax angle (or annual parallax) is half the angle through which a nearby star appears to
shift against a distant background over a particular 6 month period

By the use of basic trigonometry, the distance from the star and Earth can be measured
tan() =

1
;

1
tan()

; tan() = 0
1
=

=
=

UNITS TO MEASURE DISTANCE IN ASTROPHYSICS

Astronomical unit (AU): the distance from the sun to the Earth
Light-year: the distance light would travel in a vacuum in one year (365.25 days)
Parsec (pc): the distance from the Sun to an astronomical object at a distance such that the orbital
radius of Earth (1 AU) subtends an angle of one arc second.
o parallax of one arcsecond

62

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

DISCUSS: LIMITATIONS OF TRIG PARALLAX MEASUREMENT

A major limitation is the lack of accuracy when measuring the very small parallax angle of the stars
o This can be overcome by increasing the baseline from which measurements are made by
recording observations at a larger orbit from the sun, so that the annual parallax would
increase; e.g. the larger orbit of Mars or some distance outside Earths orbit
The seeing effects of the atmosphere limits the ability to measure small angles.
o Reduced by placing the telescopes out in space
The resolution of telescopes affect their ability to distinguish the small angle
o Placing the telescopes into space increases the resolving power
o Space-based telescopes can observe stars at shorter wavelengths

DETERMINE: LIMITS OF PARALLAX WHEN USING GROUND-BASED VS SPACE-BASED T

Ground-based telescopes are limited to parallax angles of = 0.01" and thus, = 100 away due
to seeing affects from atmospheric distortion limiting the measure of small angles
This can be overcome by placing telescopes out in space, away from the seeing effects of the
Earths atmosphere
The Hipparcos orbiting telescope is an example of a space-based telescope which is capable of
resolving parallax angles of = 0.001 " and thus, = 1000 away.
o More recently, the Gaia Telescope is planned for launch in late 2013. This launch will place
the telescope much further out of the Earths orbit, resolving parallax angles of =
0.000001 " and thus, = 1 away; up to 20 times more accurate than Hipparcos

63

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

SPECTROSCOPY

Spectroscopy is the study of stars and other celestial objects by examining the EMR they emit

ACCOUNT FOR: THE PRODUCTION OF VARIOUS SPECTRA

A continuous spectrum is produced by blackbodies since they are releasing all wavelengths

EMMISSION SPECTRA

The spectra formed when an element is forced to release energy

due to some kind of interaction
o When an electron is excited, it moves from a lower energy
level to higher energy level
o In accordance with conservation of energy, it then must
return to a lower level
It releases a photon of radiation of certain
wavelength; with energy according to
= 2 1 =

The spectra consists of only radiation at a number of discrete wavelengths which appear as bright
lines against a dark background.
o Further, the relative intensity of each lines conveys the composition of the gas

ABSORBTION SPECTRA

The spectra formed when the EMR from a continuous spectrum is absorbed by an electron from some
source
o As a result, the electrons in that source move to a higher energy level
o In accordance with conservation of energy, they then must return to a lower level
o Thus, they will re-emit the absorbed photon in all directions, resulting in a much lower
intensity of light transmitted at the corresponding wavelengths
The spectra consists of a broad range of bright lies with black lines corresponding to the absorbed
photon wavelength
o Consequently, the missing lines convey the composition of the gas that makes up the star

PRAC: EXAMINE A VARIETY OF SPECTRA PRODUCED BY DISCHARGE TUBES, REFLECTED

SUNLIGHT, AND INCANDESCENT FILAMENTS

Method: Point a spectroscope at the following objects:

o Neon discharge tube
o Incandescent filament (light globe)
o Reflected sunlight (off a white paper safety precaution)
Results: the following spectra was produced:
o Discharge tube:
Emission Spectra
o Incandescent filament:
Continuous Spectra
O Reflected sunlight:
Absorption Spectra

64

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

DESCRIBE: THE TECHNOLOGY NEEDED TO MEASURE ASTRONOMICAL SPECTRA

Inside telescopes, spectroscopes exist to split up EMR into individual wavelengths

These spectroscopes disperse wavelengths using three main parts:
o A collimator forms a parallel beam often by using a narrow slit
o A dispersive element (prism or diffraction grating) is then used to split the light beam into its
spectra by dispersing the beam into component wavelengths.
Diffraction gratings are more efficient since they are not restricted to visible EMR
o A detector is then used to view or save the EMR image (telescope or spectrograph)

IDENTIFY: THE GENERAL TYPE OF SPECTRA PRODUCED BY CELESTIAL OBJECTS

SPECTRA OF STARS

Closest object to a black body thus should have a continuous spectra

o However, we usually detect absorption spectra:
This is because elements in the atmosphere of stars absorbing some EMR and then scattering
them off over a large area, explaining the dark lines present in the spectra.

SPECTRA OF EMISSION NEBULAE

Large gas clouds and plasma that exist in galaxies

o Generally the birth place of new stars or remnants of supernova
Produce an emission spectra when gas particles are ionised by EMR from a nearby star
o May produce absorption spectra by reflecting the light of nearby stars

SPECTRA OF GALAXIES

Large groupings of stars held together by gravity

Should produce a continuum spectrum due to superposition of spectra of its containing stars
o However, there is often an absorption spectra due to the great abundance of H and He

SPECTRA OF QUASARS

An extremely distant object which is being extremely red-shifted

Produces a continuous spectrum with emission lines that fluctuate regularly

65

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

DESCRIBE: FEATURES OF STELLAR SPECTRA USED IN CLASSIFYING STARS

A stellar spectra is the spectra of radiation emitted by a star

Class

Colour

Surface Temp (K)

Strength of H lines

Spectra Features

O
B
A
F
G
K
M

Blue
Blue/White
White
White/Yellow
Yellow
Orange
Red

25 000+
12 000 25 000
9 000 12 000
7 000 9 000
5 000 7 000
4 000 5 000
3 000 4 000

Weak
Medium
Strong
Medium
Weak
Very weak
Very weak

Strong Ionised He lines

Ionised He lines
Strong Ionised metal lines
Ionised Ca+ lines
Strong Ionised Ca+ lines
Ionised metal lines
Molecular lines

Oh Be A Fine Girl, Kiss Me

DESCRIBE: HOW SPECTRA PROVIDES INFORMATION ON:

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STARS

By analysing the absorption spectra of stars, we can compare the missing lines in the spectra to
known elements and thus infer which elements are absorbing the initial EMR.

SURFACE TEMPERATURE (DIRECTLY RELATED TO COLOUR)

By analyzing the dominant wavelength in the spectra, we can determine the surface temperature
according to black body curves
o Furthermore, the surface temperature of a star is directly proportional to its colour which
can also be inferred from the Spectral Class Table

TRANSLATIONAL VELOCITY

The translational velocity refers to how fast a star is moving away or towards Earth
o Measured by the degree of Doppler shift in the stars spectra
o sDoppler shift: the change in frequency of EMR due to relative motion

ROTATIONAL VELOCITY

Due to stars rotation;

o The side moving away will be red shifted
o The side moving towards us will be blue shifted
Apparent by a slight broadening of spectral lines with faster velocity

DENSITY

Density is proportional to the concentration of elements in the star

If density is high, more elements exist which will result in much stronger dark (and define) lines
o Here, there is greater absorption occurring, thus the intensity of missing frequencies are
much lower producing a more define line

66

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

ANAYLSE: BLACK BODY CURVES TO PREDICT THE SURFACE TEMP. OF A STAR

=

2.9 103

Wiens Law: the maximum wavelength emitted is proportional to its temperature

o Therefore, the highest intensity wavelength on a BB-curve, can be subbed into Wiens
formula to calculate the temperature

( )4

Stefans Law: the energy radiated per unit surface area is proportional to ( )4
o Therefore, the higher the temperature, the greater the intensity of energy given out

67

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

PHOTOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS

Photometry is the investigation of a stars magnitude to gain more info about it

Brightness is the intensity of EMR as measured from Earth
o Magnitude is a measure of brightness
Luminosity is the total power emitted by a source (measured in Js1)

EXPLAIN: HOW MAGNITUDE CAN DETERMINE DISTANCE TO CELESTIAL OBJECTS

Apparent magnitude (m) is the magnitude or brightness as seen from Earth

o

Each difference of 1 magnitude corresponds to a 100 -fold difference in brightness

Thus the lower the magnitude of a star, the brighter it is.
This occurs since magnitude was initially measured by the eye (a logarithmic scale)
Thus, the relative brightness between two objects can be measured by:

= 100 5

= = log ( )
2

=
;
o

Finally, by graphing the logarithmic equation as magnitude vs. brightness ratio:

()

where: =

Region I

<1

< 0
< 0
<

Since < , B
is the brighter star

Region II

=1

= 0
= 0
=

Since = ,
both stars are equal
brightness

Region III

>1

> 0
> 0
>

Since > , A
is the brighter star

Absolute magnitude (M) is the magnitude or brightness as view from a standard distance of 10pc
away
o Absolute magnitude is necessary to overcome the distance variable which affects the true
magnitude of the star
If a star is closer than 10 pc, it will appear brighter, indicating a lower magnitude:
Thus m<M
If a star is greater than 10 pc, it will appear duller, indicating a higher magnitude:
Thus m>M
o Thus, the distance modulus is used to derive the absolute magnitude of a star based on its
apparent magnitude and known distance (measured in parsecs, pc):
= 5 log (

)
10

68

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

OUTLINE: SPECTROSCOPIC PARALLAX

Spectroscopic parallax is a technique which uses the stars spectra and spectral class to determine
accurately approximated absolute magnitude from a HR diagram; and thus, its distance from Earth.

EXPLAIN: HOW TWO-COLOUR VALUES ARE OBTAI1NED AND WHY THEY ARE USEFUL

The colour index is a relative measure of the brightness of a star according to specific
o The colour index can be seen as an approximate representation of a stars peak, which is
proportional to its temperature (according to BBR-curve) and thus can be placed along the
same axis as temperature on the HR-diagram.
The colour index is calculated by obtaining two colour values by the use of filters:
o B- Filter (Bolometric): used to detect blue-wavelengths using photographic film
o V- Filter (Visual): used to detect yellow-wavelengths by the human eye
=

69

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

DESCRIBE: THE ADVANTAGES OF PHOTOELECTRIC VS PHOTOGRAPHIC PHOTOMETRY

Photographic photometry provides a qualitative measure of the amount of photons.

Photoelectric photometry uses photo-detectors to provide a quantitative measure.
Advantages:
o More accurate measurements of magnitude
o More sensitive measurements
o Ability to eliminate interference
o Easier to store and higher lengths of storage time
o Quicker to obtain and process measurements

ASSESS: THE IMPACT OF IMPROVEMENTS IN TECH ON OUR UNDERSTANDING OF

CELESTIAL OBJECTS

The use of electronic data collection and storage has allowed us to better store data
CCDs and computerized technology have allowed for larger quantity and quality of data
Higher resolution and sensitive telescopes have further increased our ability to see stars

70

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

BINARY AND VARIABLE STARS

DESCRIBE: BINARY STARS

Binary stars are a pair of stars orbiting around a common centre of mass
They can be described in terms of their detection:
o Visual binaries refer to binary stars which can be resolved using a telescope
By observing the stars over time it can simply be determined that they are binary
o Eclipsing binaries are detected by fluctuating light intensity received from a star periodically
It is noted the light intensity varies periodically as the stars eclipse each other

o
o

Spectroscopic binaries rely on the change in spectra of a system

As the stars orbit each other, they are periodically red/blue-shifted
Astrometric binaries occur when one star is much smaller than the other
These can be detected by observing a small wobble in the light received from
the system due to the brighter stars gravitational influence on the smaller star

EXPLAIN: THE IMPORTANCE OF BINARY STARS IN DETERMINING STELLAR MASSES

By re-arranging Newtons form of Keplers Third law and assuming the mass of the system is the
combined mass of both stellar objects, we can derive the following equation:
1+2 =

4 2 3
2

o Mass can be represented as solar mass - (divide the mass by the mass of the sun)
The mass of the individual stars can then be calculated by looking at their mass ratio which relates to
the ratio of their rotational velocities.

71

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

CLASSIFY: VARIABLE STARS

Variable stars are those whose intrinsic luminosity, and thus, absolute magnitude vary over time.
o Periodic variables are stars whose luminosity varies with a definite period;
o Non-periodic variables are stars that have a one-off change caused by an stellar event
o Intrinsic variables are stars that change luminosity due to internal processes or properties
o Extrinsic variables are stars that change luminosity due to an external event

VARIABLE STARS

Periodic

Extrinsic

Eclipsing Binary

Intrinsic

Cepheid Variable

Non-periodic
When the view is obstructed
(i.e. by a comet or dust cloud)
Supernova or Planetary
Nebula

EXPLAIN: THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PERIOD-LUMINOSITY RELATIONSHIP FOR

DETERMINING THE DISTANCE OF CEPHEIDS

Cepheids (type of supergiants) are extremely luminous, periodic intrinsic variable stars.
o They have a period of 1-100 days
o The hydrostatic equilibrium is unstable; thus the
star swells up and down in a regular period
Period-Luminosity Relationship: Henrietta Leavitt
discovered that the period of fluctuation is directly
related to the luminosity of the star.

Thus, the absolute magnitude of a star can be

automatically inferred assuming the period of
variation of the star
o Further, by measuring the apparent magnitude,
the distance to the star can then also be
measured using spectroscopic parallax techniques
The true importance of calculating the distance to Cepheids allow us to determine the distance to
distant galaxies with Cepheids

72

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

LIFE-CYCLE OF STARS
OUTLINE: THE KEY STAGES IN A STARS LIFE

I
S
M

Runs out of H in core

Giant

Giants

He fusion

Nuclear fusion begins

Gas cloud
collapse

Protostar

>
Radiation
reaches star

ZAMS

atmosphere

(Main Sequence)

<

Planetary
Nebula

Type II
Supernova
5 < < 10

> 10

< 5

Neutron Star

Black Hole

White Dwarf

DESCRIBE: THE PROCESSES INVOLVED IN STELLAR FORMATION

Stars are born out of interstellar medium (ISM).

o Gravitational forces between atoms cause a collapse into local areas (usually due to a chance
disturbance in the moving gas particles e.g. supernova explosion)
o Gravitational Agglomeration: once the area of gas begins to contract, increasing in density,
and gravitational forces increase attracting more gas
Thus, the gas continues to condense and the core of the gas continues to heat up
since GPE is converted into KE which then turns into heat due to friction as gas
atoms collide. The increasing KE also results in the cloud rotation, resulting in the
formation of an accretion disc (leads to the formation of solar systems)
The star formed is now a protostar and nuclear fusion begins
o As such, it eventually stops collapsing as the outward radiation energy (increasing as the star
is collapsing) balances the inward gravitational force to stabilize the size of the core.
The star moves onto the ZAMS part of its life once outward EMR reaches the stars surface

DESCRIBE: THE TYPE OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS INVOLVED IN ST ARS

Hydrostatic equilibrium: the balance of radiation and gravitational pressure in a star

o Radiation pressure (outward force)
The fusion reactions in the stars core emits high energy EMR which forces its way to
the surface of the star
The EMR is continually being absorbed and re-emitted so that the gamma rays are
eventually reduced to heat and light energy at the surface
o Gravitational pressure (inward force)
Dependant on the mass of the star
Larger stars, burn their fuel at a higher rate and have shorter lives

73

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

MAIN SEQUENCE STARS

PROTON-PROTON CHAIN

The dominant type of nuclear reaction in lower mass main sequence stars ( < 2)
+ + + +

CNO CYCLE

The dominant type of nuclear reaction in higher mass main-sequence stars

o Due to the hotter temperatures, fusion of heavier elements can occur
o Quicker and produces more energy
+ + + +

POST MAIN-SEQUENCE STARS

HELIUM BURNING (TRIPLE ALPHA REACTION)

The dominant type of nuclear reaction in post main-sequence stars (red giants)
o After the supply of H is exhausted nuclear reactions cease, radioactive pressure decreased
and thus, gravitational force is no longer counteracted.
As such, the star collapses again.
This collapse results in greater pressure and thus higher temperatures which allow the fusion of
Helium to carbon to produce more radiant pressure
o Helium fusion occurs in the inner core, and hydrogen fusion still occurs in the shell above
o Helium flash: the temperature for this process to begin occurring

DISCUSS: THE SYNTHESIS OF ELEMENTS IN STARS BY FUSION

During the highly energetic explosion, nucleo-synthesis occurs.

o This is due to the huge energies which allow for the fusion of heavier elements.

74

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

EXPLAIN: THE CONCEPT OF STAR DEATH

As a result of Helium burning, a red giant is formed

o Radiation pressure exceeds the gravitational pressure (due to multiple nuclear reactions)
o The star swells up to a giant size and thus its surface temperature decreases
Over time, star death then occurs where the fusion of elements in the core is exhausted and ceases.
o The outward radiative pressure is insufficient to prevent the gravitational collapse of the
star, thus causing a collapse.
o The process that follows is dependent on the stars mass smaller stars live longer

SMALL STARS ( < 5)

As Helium runs out, the core of a star begins to contract allowing two things to happen:
1. A planetary nebula is formed
The core dies since the temperature is not sufficient for fusion of heavier elements
Although the core is now dead, the heat created initiates another shell of H-fusion
which lifts-off to form a ball of gas around the white dwarf
2. A white dwarf is formed
As a result of the dead core, the force of gravity collapses the core to form a very
dense white dwarf
The Chandrasekhar limit is the greatest mass a non-rotating white dwarf can have:
I.e. ( < 1.3)
Overtime, the nebular disperses into space and the white dwarf cools down to form a black dwarf

LARGE STARS ( > 5)

Supernova: As there is no more radiation pressure stops because the fusion has stopped, the
gravitation pressure dominates causing the star to collapse
This collapse in the most massive stars causes a violent implosion and then explosion.
After this stage, either two things may occur:
1. A neutron star forms ( 5 < < 10)
The core continues to collapse until it reaches a point of such high density to forma
neutron star (so dense that one teaspoon = one billion tonnes)
Thus, they have an extremely strong gravitational field
Some neutron stars also spin very rapidly, with enormous magnetic fields
Thus, their spin and magnetic field forces charged particles along the axis
of the magnetic field, sending pulses of EMR to Earth (like a lighthouse)
2. A black hole forms ( > 10)
If mass is extremely large, a black hole is formed (which is at a point of singularity).
This gravity is so great that nothing, including light, can escape it from within a
certain radius (thus why they are black)

75

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

EXPLAIN: HOW THE AGE OF A GLOBULAR CLUSTER CAN BE DETERMINED FROM ITS
ZERO-AGE MAIN SEQUENCE PLOT FOR A HR DIAGRAM

Clusters are a large group of stars held together by gravitational attraction. They are useful to study
because:
o All stars have a common origin, and thus similar initial composition
o The stars were born at the same time
o The stars are close together, and thus equal distance away from the earth
Open clusters: an irregular formation of population 1 stars that are loosely held together
o Population I stars are young stars formed from the remains of older stars (supernova)
Global clusters: a spherical arrangement of population 2 stars held together tightly.
o Population II stars are older stars near the end of their lives
The age of a cluster can be determined by noting the turn-off point where stars leave the main
sequence, indicating the age of the oldest main sequence star and thus the age of the cluster
o Thus, the lower the turn-off point, the older the cluster

76

of

77

Physics
Shaddy Hanna

REFERENCES
Boydell, Sydney. HSC physics. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Print.
Butler, Mark S.. HSC physics. South Yarra, [Vic.: Macmillan Education Australia, 2003. Print.
McCallum, Yoka, and Michael Andriessen. Physics 2 HSC course. 2nd ed. Milton, Qld.: John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
Print.
Warren, N. G.. Excel HSC physics. Glebe, N.S.W.: Pascal Press, 2000. Print.

77

of

77