Theoretical and Mathematical Physics, 175(1): 454474 (2013)

PAULI THEOREM IN THE DESCRIPTION OF n-DIMENSIONAL

SPINORS IN THE CLIFFORD ALGEBRA FORMALISM
c D. S. Shirokov


We discuss a generalized Pauli theorem and its possible applications for describing n-dimensional (Dirac,
Weyl, Majorana, and MajoranaWeyl) spinors in the Cliord algebra formalism. We give the explicit
form of elements that realize generalizations of Dirac, charge, and Majorana conjugations in the case of
arbitrary space dimensions and signatures, using the notion of the Cliord algebra additional signature
to describe conjugations. We show that the additional signature can take only certain values despite its
dependence on the matrix representation.

Keywords: Pauli theorem, Cliord algebra, Dirac conjugation, charge conjugation, Majorana conjugation, MajoranaWeyl spinor, Cliord algebra additional signature

1. Introduction
In 1936, Pauli proved [1] the so-called fundamental theorem on Dirac gamma matrices. This theorem
states that any two tuples of four square complex matrices of fourth order that anticommute and whose
squares equal the identity matrix or the identity matrix with the minus sign are related by a similarity transformation; moreover, the similarity matrix is unique up to a nonzero complex scalar multiplication. This
theorem plays an important role in the study of various questions arising in eld theory (see, e.g., [2], [3]). In
particular, it is used to prove that the Dirac equation is Lorentz invariant, to describe the relation between
spinor and orthogonal groups, and to introduce the notion of the Majorana spinor.
There are some well-known statements generalizing the Pauli theorem in a certain sense to the case
of an arbitrary dimension. Namely, it is easy to show using representation theory methods [4], [5] that a
Cliord algebra has a unique irreducible representation (up to equivalence) in the even-dimensional case
and two irreducible representations in the odd-dimensional case. These statements are used in various
problems in mathematical physics, in particular, in superstring theory (see [5][19]).
In an earlier work, we proposed statements generalizing the Pauli theorem [20]. Namely, we considered
the more general question (not always reducing to studying representations) of a relation of two tuples
of Cliord algebra elements satisfying the dening anticommutation relations. We gave generalizations of
even and odd dimensions over the real and complex elds to the Cliord algebra case. We showed that
in the odd real case, there are four variants (six in the complex case) for relations between two tuples of
elements satisfying the Cliord algebra anticommutation relations. Unlike the Pauli theorem in the case
of the four-dimensional Minkowski space, where the relation is realized by a similarity transformation, in
the case of an arbitrary odd dimension (e.g., in the three-dimensional case), the two tuples are related
by a similarity transformation up to multiplication by the Cliord algebra element 1...n 1...n , which can
take four dierent values in the real-valued case (six in the complex case; see Theorems 5 and 6 below).

Steklov Mathematical Institute, RAS, Moscow, Russia, e-mail: shirokov@mi.ras.ru.

Translated from Teoreticheskaya i Matematicheskaya Fizika, Vol. 175, No. 1, pp. 1134, April, 2013. Original
article submitted June 18, 2012; revised November 2, 2012.
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0040-5779/13/1751-0454

Moreover, in all cases (both even and odd dimensions), we gave explicit algorithms for computing the
element realizing this relation.
Here, we also indicate possible applications of the established theorems in various problems in mathematical physics. It makes sense to list several directions related to applications of the generalized Pauli
theorem (GPT).
As the rst direction, we can mention studying the n-dimensional Dirac equation, in particular, the
question of the invariance of the equation under pseudoorthogonal coordinate transformations (in a special case, Lorentz transformations). Currently, the three-dimensional Dirac equation is actively used for
graphene. Hence, the Dirac equation is interesting in the case of not only even but also odd dimensions.
The local GPT is used to study the DiracMaxwell and DiracYangMills equation systems [21].
The second application is connected with studying relations between spinor and orthogonal groups.
We propose an alternative proof that the spinor group is a two-sheeted covering of the orthogonal group
in the case of an arbitrary dimension using the GPT (without the CartanDieudonne theorem used in the
standard expositions). In addition, we propose explicit algorithms for computing spinor group elements
corresponding to orthogonal group elements under the two-sheeted covering.
The third possible application, on which we linger in this paper, arises in studying n-dimensional
spinors. We describe the elements realizing generalizations of Dirac, Majorana, and charge spinor conjugations in the case of arbitrary space dimensions and signatures. We note that in the case of even dimensions,
we consider two analogues for each type of conjugation. In connection with the question of the existence
of Dirac, Weyl, Majorana, and MajoranaWeyl spinors in the Cliord algebra formalism in the case of
arbitrary space dimensions and signatures, questions arise that are related to GPT applications in supersymmetry theory (we note the classic works on supersymmetry and supergravity by Sherk, Gliozzy, and
Olive [9] and by Kugo and Townsend [8], modern reviews [5], [6], and other works [10][19]). Here, we use
the GPT to study questions of this sort.
We note that we use the technique of Cliord algebras of arbitrary dimensions and signatures over the
real and complex elds. This technique seems more natural and convenient for us (e.g., compared with the
matrix technique) for studying the questions listed above. For describing spinors, an essential role is played
by the Cliord algebra structure, which has the CartanBott eight-periodicity (see Theorem 2 below).
In Sec. 2, we dene a Cliord algebra and consider some related notions that we need in the subsequent
exposition. In addition, we formulate well-known theorems on the Cliord algebra center and on the
isomorphism of Cliord and matrix algebras. Further, in Sec. 3, we formulate statements generalizing the
Pauli theorem to the case of real and complex Cliord algebras of arbitrary dimensions. These theorems
play a key role in the subsequent exposition.
In Sec. 4, we briey review n-dimensional Dirac and Weyl spinors in the Cliord algebra formalism.
In Secs. 5 and 6, we discuss the consistency of operations on Cliord algebra elements and on matrices.
We active use the GPT in studying this question. We present new results (Theorems 7 and 8). Theorem 7
is a corollary of the GPT (Theorems 4, 5, and 6). In Theorem 8, we propose explicit formulas for relating
matrix operations to operations in the Cliord algebra (for which we use the introduced notion of the Cliord
algebra additional signature, which depends on the matrix representation). Based on these formulas, we
propose explicit formulas for elements realizing generalizations of Dirac, Majorana, and charge conjugations.
In Secs. 7, 8, and 9, we prove theorems on the respective analogues of Dirac, Majorana, and charge
conjugations in the case of arbitrary space dimensions and signatures. We also recall well-known statements
about the realization of n-dimensional Majorana and MajoranaWeyl spinors (computations are done in
the Cliord algebra formalism). We prove a theorem stating that the Cliord algebra additional signature
can take a limited number of values despite its dependence on the matrix representation (Theorem 12).
We mention that certain aspects of n-dimensional spinors are represented (sometimes in a dierent
455

formalism) in the literature. We tried to give a more complete mathematical description of Weyl, Majorana,
and MajoranaWeyl n-dimensional spinors in the case of arbitrary dimensions and signatures. We discuss
our view of the questions posed and present several new results (Theorems 79, 11, 12, and 14). In
Theorems 9, 11, and 14 we give explicit formulas for the Cliord algebra elements A , B , and C , which
depend explicitly on the Cliord algebra matrix representation. For that, we use the notion of the Cliord
algebra additional signatures (k , l ) and (r , s ).
The key role in our considerations is played by the GPT (Theorems 46), which we use to relate
operations on matrices to operations on Cliord algebra elements.

2. Mathematical technique of Cliord algebras

Cliord algebra (the original name was geometric algebra) was discovered by the British mathematician
William Cliord [22] in 1878 as an algebra combining properties of Grassmann algebra [23] and Hamiltons
quaternions [24]. The further development of Cliord algebras was associated with a series of famous
mathematicians and physicists (R. Lipschitz, T. Valen, E. Cartan, E. Witt, C. Chevalley [25], M. Riesz [26],
and others). The discovery in 1928 of the Dirac equation for the electron [27], to which Cliord algebra is
directly related, proved essential for studying Cliord algebras. The Dirac equation is written using four
complex-valued matrices (Dirac gamma matrices) that satisfy the same dening relations as the Cliord
algebra generators C(1, 3). The connection of Cliord algebra with spinors attracted the attention of
many physicists and mathematicians to the Cliord algebra theory. Cliord algebras are currently used in
many areas of modern mathematics and physics, for example, in eld theory [28], [29], robotechnics, signal
and image processing, chemistry, celestial mechanics, electrodynamics, computing, electrodynamics, and
geometry among others.
There are several (equivalent) denitions of Cliord algebras known in the literature.1 In the Cliord
algebra that we consider below, we use a basis of a special form labeled by ordered multi-indices. We stress
that the generators and basis introduced below are xed (they do not change). Such a denition is closer
to Cliords original denition.
Let E be a vector space over the eld F of real numbers R or complex numbers C. Let n be a natural
number, and let the dimension of E be dim E = 2n . We assume that there is a basis
e, ea , ea1 a2 , . . . , e1...n ,

a1 < a2 <

(2n items)

introduced in E, labeled by ordered multi-indices of lengths from 0 to n. The indices a, a1 , a2 , . . . range

from 1 to n.
Let p and q be nonnegative integers and p + q = n, n 1. We introduce a diagonal matrix of
order n: =  ab  = diag(1, . . . , 1, 1, . . . , 1) with p copies of +1 and q copies of 1 on the diagonal.
We introduce the operation of Cliord multiplication U, V U V on E such that it is distributive and
associative and e is the identity element,
ea eb + eb ea = 2 ab e
ea1 eak = ea1 ...ak ,

a, b = 1, . . . , n,
1 a1 < < ak n.

The algebra thus introduced is called a Cliord algebra and is denoted by CR (p, q) in the case of the real
1 In [30], three dierent denitions of a Cliord algebra were considered simultaneously, and their equivalence was shown.
In dierent cases, dierent denitions prove more convenient. After Cartans work, the denition of a Cliord algebra is given
as the denition of the Cliord algebra of an n-dimensional vector space V with a given quadratic form Q of signature (p, q),
where n = p + q. In addition, the Cliord algebra must contain an isometric copy of V .

456

eld and by CC (p, q) C(p, q) in the case of the complex eld.2 When our argumentation is applicable to
both cases, we write CF (p, q), implying that F = R or F = C.
The elements ea are called Cliord algebra generators,3 and the element e is called the Cliord algebra
identity. The number pair (p, q) is called the signature of the Cliord algebra CF (p, q). We note that the
number p q also is often called the signature.
Any element U of the Cliord algebra CF (p, q) can be expanded in the basis


U = ue + ua ea +

ua1 a2 ea1 a2 + + u1...n e1...n ,

(1)

a1 <a2

where u, ua , ua1 a2 , . . . , u1...n are real or complex numbers (in the respective cases CR (p, q) or C(p, q)).
Vector subspaces spanned by ea1 ...ak labeled by ordered multi-indices of length k are denoted by
CFk (p, q). Elements of the subspace CFk (p, q) are called elements of rank k. We note that
dim CFk (p, q) = Cnk .
The decomposition CF (p, q) =
to ranks.

n
k=0

CFk (p, q) induces a classication of Cliord algebra elements according

Z2 -grading. The Cliord algebra CF (p, q) is a Z2 -graded algebra (superalgebra). Namely, it has a
representation as the direct sum with appropriate properties for the odd and the even subspaces:


CF (p, q) = CFeven(p, q) CFodd (p, q) =

CFk (p, q)

k even

CFk (p, q).

(2)

k odd

We consider the following operations of conjugation of Cliord algebra elements, which we need in the
what follows.
Complex conjugation. If an element U C(p, q) is given as in the form of expansion (1), then we
dene the operation of complex conjugation of a Cliord algebra element, U U , by
U =u
e + u
a ea +

u
a1 a2 ea1 a2 +

a1 <a2

u
a1 a2 a3 ea1 a2 a3 + . . . ,

a1 <a2 <a3

where we have the complex conjugate coecients u

, u
a , ua1 a2 , . . . . In accordance with this formula, the
Cliord algebra basis elements are regarded as real quantities, i.e., ea1 ...ak = ea1 ...ak . The equalities U = U ,
hold for arbitrary elements U, V C(p, q) and numbers
(U V ) = U V , (U + V ) = U + V , and (U ) = U
C.
Reverse. For an element U C(p, q), we dene the conjugation operation U U , called the reverse:
U =



n
n

k
k
U
=
(1)k(k1)/2 U .
k=0

k=0

We note that this operation reverses the ordering of factors in products of generators: (ea1 ea2 eak ) =
eak ea2 ea1 ; in particular, (ea ) = ea . The equalities U = U , (U V ) = V U , (U + V ) = U + V ,
and (U ) = U hold.
2 We note that complex Cliord algebras of dimension n (and dierent signatures) are isomorphic as algebras (see Theorem 3). But Cliord algebras of dierent signatures are considered in applications. For example, the complex Cliord algebra
CC (1, 3) (and not CC (4, 0)) is used when the Dirac equation is considered. It is reasonable to consider complex Cliord algebras
CC (p, q) in problems where complex conjugation on Cliord algebra elements is required.
3 The term creator [porozhdayushchii] is often used instead of generator [generator] in the Russian literature.

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Parity conjugation. The operation of parity conjugation U U  is such that it multiplies odd
elements by 1 and does not change even elements. In particular, we have (ea ) = ea . For an element
k

U C(p, q), we have U  = nk=0 (1)k U . The equalities U  = U , (U V ) = U  V  , (U +V ) = U  +V  ,
and (U ) = U  hold.
Operations of projecting onto subspaces CFk (p, q) and the trace operation. We introduce a
notation for linear operations of projecting onto the subspaces of rank-k elements:


U k = U =

ua1 ...ak ea1 ...ak CFk (p, q).

a1 <<ak

We introduce the operation of tracing the element U CF (p, q) as the operation of projecting onto the
one-dimensional subspace CF0 (p, q) spanned by the identity element e: Tr(U ) =
U 0 |e1 = u.
We let [U, V ] = U V V U and {U, V } = U V + V U denote the commutator and anticommutator of
two Cliord algebra elements.
The following known theorem concerns the Cliord algebra center CF (p, q).
Theorem 1. The Cliord algebra CF (p, q) of dimension n = p + q has the center

cen CF (p, q) =

CF (p, q),

0

n is even,

CF (p, q) CF (p, q), n is odd.

0
n

We also present generally known theorems on the isomorphism of Cliord and matrix algebras.
Theorem 2 (CartanBott periodicity). Real Cliord algebras CR (p, q), n = p + q, are isomorphic (as
algebras) to the following matrix algebras:

Mat(2n/2 , R),

Mat(2(n1)/2 , R) Mat(2(n1)/2 , R),

CR (p, q)  Mat(2(n1)/2 , C),

Mat(2(n2)/2 , H),

Mat(2(n3)/2 , H) Mat(2(n3)/2 , H),

p q 0, 2 (mod 8),
p q 1 (mod 8),
p q 3, 7 (mod 8),
p q 4, 6 (mod 8),
p q 5 (mod 8),

where Mat(k, F) is the algebra of square kk matrices over the eld F.

Theorem 3. We have the following complex algebra isomorphisms of Cliord algebras to matrix
algebras:

Mat(2n/2 , C),
n is even,
C(p, q) 
Mat(2(n1)/2 , C) Mat(2(n1)/2 , C), n is odd.
We note that elements of complex Cliord algebras C(p, q) are represented as complex matrices of size
2[(n+1)/2] ; moreover, for odd n these are block diagonal matrices of size 2(n+1)/2 , having two blocks of size
2(n1)/2 on the diagonal with all other entries zero.
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3. Generalized Pauli theorem

In [20], we proposed theorems generalizing the so-called fundamental Pauli theorem on gamma matrices.
We used the Cliord algebra formalism there. We formulate the proved theorems.
Let I denote the set of multi-indices A of length from 0 to n: I = {, 1, . . . , n, 12, 13, . . . , 1, . . . , n},
where is the empty multi-index. Let
Ieven = {A I : |A| is even},

Iodd = {A I : |A| is odd}.

We set A = a1 ...ak = ak a1 = ( A )1 and a = ab b = ( a )1 .

Theorem 4. Let CF (p, q) be a real or complex algebra of even dimension n = p + q. Let two tuples
of Cliord algebra elements a and a , a = 1, 2, . . . , n, satisfy the relations
a b + b a = 2 ab e,

a b + b a = 2 ab e.

Then the two tuples generate Cliord algebra bases,4 and there exists a unique (up to nonzero real or
complex scalar multiplication) invertible Cliord algebra element T CF (p, q) such that
a = T 1 a T

a = 1, . . . , n.

(3)


Moreover, such an element T has the form T = A A F A , where any element of { A , A Ieven } if

1...n = 1...n or of { A , A Iodd } if 1...n = 1...n such that A A F A = 0 can be taken as F .
Theorem 5. Let CR (p, q) be a real Cliord algebra of odd dimension n = p + q. Let two tuples of
Cliord algebra elements a and a , a = 1, 2, . . . , n, satisfy the relations
a b + b a = 2 ab e,

a b + b a = 2 ab e.

Then in the case of the Cliord algebra CR (p, q) of signature p q 1 (mod 4), the elements 1...n and
1...n either take values e1...n , and the corresponding tuples generate a Cliord algebra basis, or they take
values e, and the tuples do not generate a basis. Then cases 14 listed below are realized.
In the case of the Cliord algebra CR (p, q) of signature p q 3 (mod 4), the elements 1...n and
1...n always take values e1...n , and the corresponding tuples always generate a Cliord algebra basis.
Then only cases 1 and 2 are realized.
There exists a unique (up to an invertible Cliord algebra center element multiplication) invertible
Cliord algebra element T such that

4 In

1. a = T 1 a T

a = 1, . . . , n

1...n = 1...n ,

2. a = T 1 a T

a = 1, . . . , n

1...n = 1...n ,

3. a = e1...n T 1 a T

a = 1, . . . , n

1...n = e1...n 1...n ,

4. a = e1...n T 1 a T

a = 1, . . . , n

1...n = e1...n 1...n .

(4)

other words, all possible products a1 ak = a1 ...ak = A and A form two bases in CF (p, q).
459

We note that all four cases can be uniformly written as

a = ( 1...n 1...n )T 1 a T.
Moreover, in the case of a real Cliord algebra of signature p q 1 (mod 4), the element T whose
existence is asserted in all four cases in the theorem has the form
T =

A F A ,

(5)

AIeven

where an element of the set { A + B , A, B Ieven } can always be taken as F .

In the case of a real Cliord algebra of signature p q 3 (mod 4), the element T whose existence is
asserted in cases 1 and 2 in the theorem has form (5). Moreover, an element of the set { A , A Ieven }

such that the convolution constructed with it AIeven A F A = 0 can be taken as F .
Theorem 6. Let C(p, q) be a complex Cliord algebra of odd dimension n = p + q. Let two tuples of
Cliord algebra elements a and a , a = 1, 2, . . . , n, satisfy the relations
a b + b a = 2 ab e,

a b + b a = 2 ab e.

Then in the case of the Cliord algebra C(p, q) of signature p q 1 (mod 4), the possible values for the
elements 1...n and 1...n are e1...n if the corresponding tuples generate Cliord algebra bases and e if
the tuples do not generate a basis. Then cases 14 in the theorem are realized.
In the case of a Cliord algebra C(p, q) of signature p q 3 (mod 4), the possible values for the
elements 1...n and 1...n are ie1...n if the corresponding tuples generate Cliord algebra bases and ie if
the tuples do not generate a basis. Then cases 1, 2, 5, and 6 in the theorem are realized.
There exists a unique (up to an invertible Cliord algebra center element multiplication) invertible
Cliord algebra element T such that
1. a = T 1 a T

a = 1, . . . , n

1...n = 1...n .

2. a = T 1 a T

a = 1, . . . , n

1...n = 1...n ,

3. a = e1...n T 1 a T

a = 1, . . . , n

1...n = e1...n 1...n ,

4. a = e1...n T 1 a T

a = 1, . . . , n

1...n = e1...n 1...n ,

5. a = ie1...n T 1 a T

a = 1, . . . , n

1...n = ie1...n 1...n ,

6. a = ie1...n T 1 a T

a = 1, . . . , n

1...n = ie1...n 1...n .

(6)

We note that all six cases can be uniformly written as

a = ( 1...n 1...n )T 1 a T.
Moreover, the element T whose existence is asserted in all six cases in the theorem has the form


A F A ,

AIeven

where an element of the set { A + B , A, B Ieven } can always be taken as F .

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We note that the proposed theorems can be reformulated in terms of matrices using Theorems 2 and 3.
In this paper, we omit this because the resulting formulations are cumbersome.

4. Dirac and Weyl spinors in the Cliord algebra formalism

Spinors were considered rst by Cartan in 1913 and rediscovered by Dirac in 1928. Since then, a series
of approaches has been developed, and a series of spinor realizations have been proposed, including the case
of an arbitrary space dimension.
The discovery of the Dirac equation in 1928 [27] attracted the attention of many physicists and mathematicians to studying spinors. In 1930, Juvet [31] and Sauter [32] considered the spinor as an element of a
left ideal in a matrix algebra. In 1947, Riesz rst interpreted spinors as elements of a left ideal in a Cliord
algebra [26]. This approach is most convenient when considering n-dimensional spinors and studying their
properties (see, e.g., [30], [33]). We also mention the now classic works of Rashevsky [34] and Rumer [35].
We note that the notion of spinor has two faces. The rst face (algebraic) is that the spinor (in the
simplest case) is an element of a certain minimal left ideal (see below), i.e., essentially, simply a column, if
we use the matrix formalism. The second face is related to the fact that the spinor is in fact a tuple (column)
of functions depending on the point in space and is multiplied from the left by a spinor group element under
orthogonal transformations with a matrix P O(p, q). Our subsequent considerations almost always relate
to only the rst, the algebraic face. The second face must be taken into account when we consider the
spinor not as an abstract, simply algebraic object but as the unknown in the Dirac equation.
Dirac spinors. We consider the real Cliord algebra CR (p, q) and a primitive idempotent t2 = t,
t CR (p, q). There is a corresponding minimal left ideal (spinor space) I(t) = CR (p, q)t, generated by the
idempotent t. We call the elements I(t) spinors (in the Cliord algebra formalism).
An irreducible representation of the Cliord algebra C(p, q) End(I) is injective when p q =
1 (mod 4) (see Theorem 2). In the case where p q 1 (mod 4), the Cliord algebra is no longer
simple and is the direct sum of two prime ideals. In this case, we consider the left ideal (double spinor
constructed on the idempotents t and t. We thus obtain an injective representation in the case
space) I I,
pq 1 ( mod 4). But it is reducible and is the direct sum of two irreducible representations. Each of these
irreducible representations is called a half-spinor, and the corresponding left ideals are called half-spinor
spaces.
We consider the complex Cliord algebra C(p, q) analogously (see Theorem 3). In the case where n
is even, we consider the spinor representation. Elements of the left ideal are called Dirac spinors. In the
case where n is odd, we consider either double spinors or half-spinors. In what follows, we consider only
complex Cliord algebras.
Weyl spinors. We consider the set of Dirac spinors, realized in the complex Cliord algebra (as a
set of the left ideal elements) EDirac = { I(t)}. We consider the chiral operator (or pseudoscalar)

e1...n ,

p q 0, 1 (mod 4),

ie1...n , p q 2, 3 (mod 4).

It is easy to verify that = 1 = . Moreover, for all a = 1, 2, . . . , n, {, ea } = ea + ea = 0 if n is

even, and [, ea ] = ea ea = 0 if n is odd.
We dene two operators
e
e+
,
PR =
.
PL =
2
2
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They are orthogonal idempotents (projectors) because (PR )2 = PR , (PL )2 = PL , and PR PL = PL PR = 0.

We note that in the case where n is odd, the operators PL and PR belong to the center of C(p, q) and induce
a decomposition of the Cliord algebra into the direct sum of two ideals: C(p, q) = PR C(p, q) PL C(p, q).
We consider a complex Cliord algebra C(p, q) of even dimension n = p + q. Then left and right Weyl
spinors (or chiral spinors) are dened as
L
EWeyl
= { EDirac | PL = },

R
EWeyl
= { EDirac | PR = }.

Hence, Weyl spinors are eigenspinors of the operators PL and PR . We note that we can rewrite the
conditions on spinors equivalently as PL = = and PR = = . We note that
R
L
EDirac = EWeyl
EWeyl
, i.e., we have = L + R , L = PL , and R = PR for any EDirac .

5. Consistency of matrix operations and operations in Cliord

algebras
We consider matrix representations of complex Cliord algebras (see Theorem 2)

: C(p, q)

Mat(2n/2 , C),

n is even,

Mat(2(n1)/2 , C) Mat(2(n1)/2 , C), n is odd.

In the case where n is odd, Cliord algebra elements are represented as block-diagonal matrices of size
2(n+1)/2 . We let a = (ea ) denote matrices corresponding to the Cliord algebra generators in the matrix
representation .
According to the Pauli theorem, all other matrix representations in the case where n is even can be
derived from the initial representation in the form a = T 1 a T , where the invertible matrix T is dened
up to a nonzero constant. In the case where n is odd, all matrix representations can be derived from the
initial one as a = T 1 a T , where the matrix T is dened up to multiplication by an invertible element
of the center Z = 1 + J, where J = diag(1, 1, . . . , 1, 1, . . . , 1) is the diagonal matrix with an equal
number of 1 and 1 on the diagonal.
We consider the operation of Hermitian conjugation of a Cliord algebra element, which is dened by
(see [36])

e1...p U e1...p ,
p is odd,
U =
e
 1...p
e
, p is even,
1...p U
(7)

ep+1...n U ep+1...n ,
q is even,
U =
e
 p+1...n
e
, q is odd.
p+1...n U
We can always choose a matrix representation (see [36]) such that the (ea ) = a are unitary:
( a ) = ( a )1 = aa a .

(8)

In what follows, we consider only matrix representations for which (8) holds. We note that relation (8) is
equivalent to ((ea )) = ((ea ) ) and hence to (U ) = (U ) U C(p, q), i.e., the Hermitian conjugation
of a matrix is consistent with Hermitian conjugation of a Cliord algebra element. We also note that (8)
implies that the rst p matrices a are Hermitian and the last q are skew-Hermitian.
We consider various conjugation operations (see Sec. 2) of the elements of a Cliord algebra C(p, q):

U , U , U , U , U , U T, U .
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We here consider two new operations on Cliord algebra elements: the operation of transposing a
Cliord algebra element and the operation of complex matrix conjugating a Cliord algebra element,
U T = 1 (((U ))T ),

U = 1 ((U )),

(9)

which depend on the choice of the matrix representation . Here, (U ) is the matrix complex conjugate of
(U ).
We consider a tuple ea of generators of a Cliord algebra C(p, q). We note that (ea ) = ea , (ea ) =
ea , ea = ea , and (ea ) = ea . We consider tuples of elements obtained from the initial tuple ea using one
of the conjugation operations:

a = (ea ) , (ea )T , ea .
(10)
We note that the tuples considered satisfy the dening relations of the Cliord algebra a b + b a = 2 ab e.
The following theorem holds.
Theorem 7. The tuples a introduced in (10) generate new bases of the Cliord algebra C(p, q).
In the case where n is even, for the considered tuples ea and a , there always exists a unique (up to
multiplication by a complex constant) invertible element T such that
a = T 1 ea T,

a = 1, . . . , n.

Moreover, T Ceven(p, q) if 1...n = e1...n , and T Codd (p, q) if 1...n = e1...n . The element T has the

form A A eB eA for some eB .
In the case where n is odd, for the considered tuples ea and a , there always exists a unique (up to
multiplication by an invertible element of the center) invertible element T such that
a = T 1 ea T,

(in the case 1...n = e1...n ),

a = 1, . . . , n

a = T 1 ea T, a = 1, . . . , n

(in the case 1...n = e1...n ).

In both cases, T Ceven (p, q) (or multiplying by e1...n , we obtain another T Codd (p, q)). Moreover,

the element T has the form AIeven A eB eA for some eB .
Proof. The theorem is a consequence of Theorems 46.

6. Cliord algebra additional signatures

We note that we can always choose matrix representations such that in addition to (8), they satisfy
the conditions

( a )T = a ,
a = a ,
(11)
i.e., matrices a are real or purely imaginary (and hence symmetric or skew-symmetric because of unitarity).
We introduce the Cliord algebra additional signatures
0 k n,

0 l n,

k + l = n,

(r , s ), 0 r n,

0 s n,

r + s = n,

(k , l ),

which depend on the Cliord algebra matrix representation . Here, k is the number of symmetric
matrices among the a , and l is the number of skew-symmetric matrices among the a . Analogously, r is
463

the number of real matrices among the a , and s is the number of purely imaginary matrices among the
a.
The introduced quantities depend on the matrix representation . In what follows, we sometimes omit
the index . We note that despite the dependence on the matrix representation, we nd constraints on
possible values of the parameters k and l (see Theorem 12 below).
The parameters k, l, r, and s can be insucient to completely recover the necessary information about
the chosen matrix representation of the Cliord algebra. Therefore, we propose starting with two other
independent parameters [kp] and [kq] , which are the respective numbers of symmetric matrices in the
rst p matrices a and of symmetric matrices in the last q matrices a . We note that [kp] k, [kp] p,
[kq] k, and [kq] q. These two parameters (together with the xed independent parameters p and q of
the matrix representation) suce to recover the parameters k , l , r , s , [lp] , and [lq] unambiguously.
The last two of these parameters are the respective numbers of skew-symmetric matrices in the rst p
matrices a and of skew-symmetric matrices in the last q matrices a . For these parameters, we have the
formulas
[lp] = p [kp] ,
k = [kp] + [kq] ,

[lq] = q [kq] ,
l = [lp] + [lq] = p + q [kp] [kq] = n k,

r = [kp] + [lq] = [kp] + q [kq] ,

s = [lp] + [kq] = p [kp] + [kq] .

Finally, the dimension n of the Cliord algebra is thus represented as the sum of four numbers

n = [kpr] + [lps] + [kqs] + [lqr] ,

where [kpr] = [kp] , [lps] = [lp] , [kqs] = [kq] , and [lqr] = [lq] . Here, the indices r and s reect
realness and imaginariness of the corresponding matrices a , which follow automatically from unitarity and
(skew-)symmetry.
For example, in the case (p, q) = (n, 0), we have [kq] = [lq] = 0, k = r = [kp] , and l =
s = [lp] = p [kp] , i.e., in this case, all symmetric matrices representing generators are real, and all
skew-symmetric ones are imaginary.
In the case (p, q) = (0, n), we have [kp] = [lp] = 0, k = s = [kq] , and l = r = [lq] = q [kq] ,
i.e., in this case, all symmetric matrices representing generators are imaginary, and all skew-symmetric ones
are real.
Under the stated assumptions, we have a = ea for all tuples (10). According to the GPT, the

elements T discussed above can then be found among elements of the form eA eB eA , i.e., among elements
of the basis {eA }.
Let eb1 , . . . , ebk denote the generators ea for which the matrices a are symmetric. Analogously, we
have ec1 , . . . , ecl for skew-symmetric matrices, ed1 , . . . , edr for real ones, and ef1 , . . . , efs for purely imaginary
ones.

We can write explicit formulas for the operations U T and U . Namely, we have the following result.

Theorem 8. We consider a complex Cliord algebra C(p, q) and a matrix representation satisfying
conditions (8) and (11). Then we have the following formulas for the operations of transposing and of
464

taking the complex matrix conjugation (9) of a Cliord algebra element:

UT =

UT =

eb1 ...b U eb1 ...bk ,

k
e

b1 ...bk U

 b1 ...bk

ec1 ...c U ec1 ...cl ,

l
e

c1 ...cl U

k is odd,

 c1 ...cl

, k is even,
(12)
l is even,

, l is odd,

d ...d
r is odd,

ed1 ...dr U e 1 r ,
U =
e
 d1 ...dr , r is even,
d1 ...dr U e

f ...f
s is even,

ef1 ...fs U e 1 s ,
U =
e
 f1 ...fs , s is odd.
f1 ...fs U e

(13)

Proof. The proof is analogous to the proof of formulas (7) (see [36]).
We note that formulas (12) and (13) are similar to Hermitian conjugation formulas (7), but they depend
on the matrix conjugation explicitly. Depending on k, l, r, and s, there are always two equivalent formulas
for transposition and two equivalent formulas for complex matrix conjugation.

7. Generalizing Dirac conjugation

In this section, we introduce the analogues of Dirac conjugation in the case of an arbitrary space
dimension and signature. In the case where the dimension n is even, we consider two dierent Dirac
conjugations. In the case where n is odd, we consider only one Dirac conjugation.
We consider a complex Cliord algebra. Using considerations in Sec. 6, we conclude that according to
the GPT (Theorem 7), among the basis elements {eA }, there is an element A such that
a
(ea ) = A1
e A .

(14)

Moreover, both elements A always exist when n is even, and only one element A+ or A exists when n
1 

is odd. We can rewrite these formulas in the form U = A1

A . In the next
+ U A+ and U = A U
theorem, we give explicit formulas for A . We note that in the literature, the element e1...p is used as the
element realizing Dirac conjugation for even n. We consider all possible cases in the next theorem.
Theorem 9. The element A+ always exists except in the case where p is even and q is odd, and the
element A always exists except in the case where p is odd and q is even. For these elements, we have

1...p

1 e

A+ =

p and q are odd,

2 ep+1...n ,
p and q are even,

Z e1...p = Z ep+1...n , p is odd and q is even,

1
2

1 ep+1...n ,
p and q are odd,

A = 2 e1...p ,
p and q are even,

Z e1...p = Z ep+1...n , p is even and q is odd,

1
2

(15)

(16)

465

where i are arbitrary nonzero complex constants and Zi are arbitrary invertible elements of the center of
the Cliord algebra C(p, q). Furthermore, we can always choose i and Zi such that the elements A+ and
A satisfy the relations

A+ = A+ = A1
+ = A+ ,


A = A = A1
= A .

(17)

Proof. According to Theorem 7, the element A+ exists if (e1 ) (en ) = e1...n , i.e., when q is even,
and the element A exists if (e1 ) (en ) = e1...n , i.e., when q is odd. Explicit expressions for the
elements A+ and A can be derived from (7). Choosing the number 1 or i as depending on p and q, we
can verify properties (17).
In the case of dierent signatures, we can introduce the Dirac conjugation operations
D+ = (A+ )1 = (A+ )1 ,

except when p is even and q is odd,

(18)

D = (A )1 = (A )1  ,

except when p is odd and q is even.

(19)

For example, in the case of the Cliord algebra C(1, 3) with the generators e0 , e1 , e2 , and e3 , we obtain
two Dirac conjugations, D+ = e0 and D = e123 , the rst of which coincides with the standard one.
We consider the following two arrays of elements called bilinear covariants (Dirac bilinear forms):
A
j = D eA , where A is an arbitrary multi-index of length from 0 to n. We can verify that under
orthogonal coordinate transformations x x = p x , where P = p  O(p, q), bilinear covariants
change (if spinors change by the rule S, where S is the spinor group element) as tensors or almost as
1 ...k 
1 ...k 
1 ...k
tensors (the minus sign enters the transformation formula): (j
) = p11 pkk j
or (j
) =

...
1
k 1
k
p1 pk j
depending on k.

8. Generalizing Majorana conjugation and a theorem on the

Cliord algebra additional signature
We consider the complex Cliord algebra C(p, q) and the operation of transposing Cliord algebra
element (9). We note that this operation depends on the choice of the matrix representation.
According to the GPT, there exist elements C such that
1 a
(ea )T = C
e C .

(20)

Moreover, in the case where n is even, both elements C always exist, and in the case where n is odd, only
1
one of the elements C+ and C exists. We can also rewrite the formulas in the form U T = C+
U C+ and
1 
T
U = C U C .
We formulate the following theorems about the elements C . Formulas (21) and (22) are well known.
We also give the explicit form of C (formulas (23) and (24)) and expressions for the constants depending
on the values of the additional signature (k, l) (see (25) and (26)).
Theorem 10. The element C+ exists when n = 3 (mod 4), and the element C exists when n =
1 (mod 4). For these elements, we have the formulas
(C )T = C ,
where
+ =

466

+1, n 0, 1, 2 (mod 8),

1, n 4, 5, 6 (mod 8),

C C = e,

+1, n 0, 6, 7 (mod8),
1, n 2, 3, 4 (mod 8).

(21)

(22)

Theorem 11. In the case where the matrix representations satisfy (8) and (11), we have the explicit
form of elements C

1 eb1 ...bk ,
k and l are odd,

C+ = 2 ec1 ...cl ,
k and l are even,

Z ebl ...bk = Z ec1 ...cl , k is odd and l is even,

1
2

k and l are odd,

1 ec1 ...cl ,

C = 2 eb1 ...bk ,
k and l are even,

Z1 ebl ...bk = Z2 ec1 ...cl , k is even and l is odd,

(23)

(24)

where i are arbitrary nonzero complex constants and Zi are invertible elements of the center of the Cliord
algebra C(p, q). For , we also obtain the values

+ =

(1)k(k1)/2 ,

k and l are odd,

(1)l(l+1)/2 ,

k and l are even,

(1)k(k1)/2 = (1)l(l+1)/2 , k is odd and l is even,

(1)l(l+1)/2 ,

(25)

(1)k(k1)/2 ,

k and l are odd,

k and l are even,

(26)

(1)k(k1)/2 = (1)l(l+1)/2 , k is even and l is odd.

Proof of Theorems 10 and 11. The explicit formulas for the elements C in the case of the stated
matrix representations are obtained from formulas (12).
1 T
1 T
T 1 a
C e C (C
) from (20), i.e., C (C
) = e, because the obtained
For even n, we obtain ea = C
expression commutes with all elements. Because Det(C ) = 1 (we understand the determinant of a Cliord
algebra element as the determinant of the corresponding matrix element; see [37]), we have = 1, 1.

1
T
Moreover, C
C = e, and we hence obtain C = (C
) = ( C ) = C
.
Next, for an arbitrary ordered multi-index A of length k, we have
1 A
e C ,
(eA )T = (1)k (1)k(k1)/2 C

(C eA )T = (1)k (1)k(k1)/2 (C eA ).
We note that because the tuple eA forms a basis in the Cliord algebra, it follows that the tuple of symmetric
and skew-symmetric matrices C eA also forms a basis. The elements are represented as complex square
matrices of size 2n/2 . The number of skew-symmetric matrices among them must then be (1/2)2n/2 (2n/2 1).
On the other hand, their number is equal to
n

1
k=0

(1 (1)k (1)k(k1)/2 )Cnk .

467

Combining the two expressions, we obtain

= cos




n
n

sin
= 2 sin
(n 1) ,
4
4
4

which was to be proved.

For odd n, we can obtain the same formulas (21) using the fact that in the case of the stated matrix
representations, the elements C can always be found among the basis eA elements (see formulas (23)
and (24)). We obtain formulas (25) and (26) (for even n) by combining formulas (23), (24), and (21).
Next, choosing a concrete matrix representation (see, e.g., [36]), we obtain the values for depending on
n (mod 8) in the case where n is odd.
We note that although the elements C depend on the matrix representation, their symmetricity (21)
is determined by only the space dimension n given by (22).
The following result is new. Although the additional signature parameters k and l (see Sec. 6) are
determined by the choice of matrix representation, their values cannot be arbitrary and take certain specic
values depending on the space dimension n.

Theorem 12. We consider the complex Cliord algebras C(p, q) and a matrix representation satisfying (8) and (11). Depending on the Cliord algebra dimension n = p + q, we then have possible values for
the additional signature (k , l ) listed in Table 1.

n (mod 8)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Table 1
(k (mod 4), l (mod 4))
(0, 0), (1, 3)
(1, 0)
(1, 1), (2, 0)
(2, 1)
(3, 1), (2, 2)
(3, 2)
(3, 3), (0, 2)
(0, 3)

Proof. The proof is obtained by combining explicit formulas (25) and (26) for depending on k and
l and formulas (22) depending on n (mod 8).
As an example, we consider the Cliord algebras C(p, q) of dimension n = 2 and dierent signatures
(p, q) = (2, 0), (1, 1), and (0, 2). The following three Pauli matrices anticommute and when squared give
+1:






1
0
0
1
0 i
.
,
,
0 1
1
0
i
0
As 1 and 2 , we can take any two of these three matrices (multiplying by the imaginary unit i, if necessary).
Hence, only the signatures (k, l) = (2, 0) and (1, 1) are realized. Possible values for additional signatures of
468

dimensions n = 1, 2, 3, 4 Cliord algebras are listed in Table 2.

(p, q)

([kp] , [kq] )

(k , l )

(r , s )

(p, q)

([kp] , [kq] )

(k , l )

(1, 0)

(1, 0)

(1, 0)

(1, 0)

(4, 0)

(0, 1)

(0, 1)

(1, 0)

(0, 1)

(2, 0)

(2, 0)

(2, 0)

(2, 0)

(1, 0)

(1, 1)

(1, 1)

(1, 1)

(2, 0)

(1, 1)

(1, 0)

(1, 1)

(2, 0)

(0, 1)

(1, 1)

(0, 2)

(0, 2)

(2, 0)

(0, 2)

(0, 1)

(1, 1)

(1, 1)

(3, 0)

(2, 0)

(2, 1)

(2, 1)

(2, 1)

(1, 1)

(2, 1)

(1, 2)

(2, 0)

(2, 1)

(3, 0)

(1, 1)

(2, 1)

(2, 1)

(0, 2)

(2, 1)

(0, 3)

(0, 2)

(2, 1)

(1, 2)

(3, 0)
(2, 0)
(3, 0)
(2, 1)
(2, 0)
(1, 1)
(2, 1)
(1, 2)
(2, 0)
(1, 1)
(0, 2)
(1, 2)
(0, 3)
(1, 1)
(0, 2)
(0, 3)
(0, 2)

(3, 1)
(2, 2)
(3, 1)
(3, 1)
(2, 2)
(2, 2)
(3, 1)
(3, 1)
(2, 2)
(2, 2)
(2, 2)
(3, 1)
(3, 1)
(2, 2)
(2, 2)
(3, 1)
(2, 2)

(1, 1)

(0, 2)

(1, 2)
(0, 3)

(3, 1)

(2, 2)

(1, 3)

(0, 4)

Table 2
(r , s )
(3, 1)
(2, 2)
(4, 0)
(2, 2)
(3, 1)
(1, 3)
(3, 1)
(1, 3)
(4, 0)
(2, 2)
(0, 4)
(2, 2)
(0, 4)
(3, 1)
(1, 3)
(1, 3)
(2, 2)

We indicate the algorithm we used for lling in this table using only the statement of Theorem 12 and
formulas in Sec. 6. Considering the Cliord algebra C(p, q) of dimension n = p + q, we rst use Theorem 12
and nd all possible values for the parameters k and l . We then decompose the parameter k in all possible
ways into pairs ([kp] , [lq] ) such that k = [kp] + [kq] , 0 [kp] p, and 0 [kq] q. Next, using the
parameters ([kp] , [lq] ), we recover the additional signature (r , s ) by the formulas r = [kp] + q [kq]
and s = n r .
As an example, we consider the Cliord algebra C(1, 3). The standard Dirac representation corresponds
to the case where (k , l ) = (2, 2) and (r , s ) = (3, 1). The Majorana representation corresponds to the
case where (k , l ) = (3, 1) and (r , s ) = (0, 4). The two remaining cases in Table 2 are also realized. We
obtain the case where (k , l ) = (2, 2) and (r , s ) = (1, 3) from the Dirac representation by multiplying
the matrices corresponding to the generators e1 and e2 by the imaginary unit i and exchanging them. The
case (k , l ) = (3, 1) and (r , s ) = (2, 2) can be obtained from the Majorana representation by multiplying
the matrices corresponding to the generators e1 and e2 by the imaginary unit i and exchanging them.
We call one of the following conjugations (every time when the corresponding C exists) the Majorana
conjugation:
M+ = T (C+ )1 = (C+ )1 ,

n = 3 (mod 4),

M = T (C )1 = (C )1  ,

n = 1 (mod 4).

As an example, we consider the case of the Cliord algebra C(1, 3) and the standard matrix representation using the Dirac gamma matrices 0 , 1 , 2 , and 3 . It is easy to verify that the matrices 0 and 2
are symmetric and that the matrices 1 and 3 are skew-symmetric. We hence have k = l = 2. Therefore,
T
C+ = e13 , C = e02 , M+ = T e13 , and M = T e02 . In this case, we have C
= C , i.e., = 1.
469

9. Generalization of charge conjugation, Majorana and

MajoranaWeyl spinors in the Cliord algebra

We now consider operation (9) of complex matrix conjugation U of the elements of the Cliord algebra
C(p, q). This operation depends on the choice of the matrix representation. We should not confuse it with
the operation of complex conjugation ea = ea of Cliord algebra elements.
According to the GPT (see Theorem 7), we have

1 a
ea = B
e B .

(27)

Moreover, in the case where n is even, both elements B exist, and in the case where n is odd, only one of

1
1 
B+ and B exist. We can rewrite these formulas in the forms U = B+
U B+ and U = B
U B .
We formulate theorems about the elements B . We note that formulas (28) and (29) are well known.
We also present the explicit form of the elements B (see (30) and (31)).
Theorem 13. The element B+ exists in the cases where p q = 3 (mod 4), and the element B
exists in the cases where p q = 1 (mod 4). For these elements, we have the formulas
T
B
=
B ,

where

+ =

+1, p q 0, 1, 2 (mod 8),

1, p q 4, 5, 6 (mod 8),

B B =
e,

(28)

+1, p q 0, 6, 7 (mod 8),

1, p q 2, 3, 4 (mod 8).

(29)

Theorem 14. In the case of matrix representations satisfying conditions (8) and (11), we have the
explicit forms of the elements B

d1 ...dr

1 e

B+ =

2 ef1 ...fs ,

(30)

r and s are even,

Z1 edl ...dr = Z2 ef1 ...fs , r is odd and s is even,

1 ef1 ...fs ,

B =

r and s are odd,

2 ed1 ...dr ,

r and s are odd,

(31)

r and s are even,

Z1 edl ...dr = Z2 ef1 ...fs , r is even and s is odd,

where i are arbitrary nonzero complex constants and Zi are invertible elements of the center of the Cliord
algebra C(p, q).
We have the following relations between the elements (in the cases where each triple of elements exists):

B+ = (A1
+ ) C+ ,


B+ = (A1
C ,
)

B = (A1
) C+ ,


B = (A1
C .
+ )

(32)

Proof of Theorems 13 and 14. The explicit formulas for the elements B in the case of the stated
matrix representations follow from formulas (13).

1
1 1 a
ea B = B
In the case where n is even, we have ea = B
B e B B , i.e., B B =
e. Hence,

R. It follows from Det(B ) = 1 that

= 1, 1. Moreover, (B ) B = e and B
= (B ) =
1
(
B
) =
B .
470

In the case where n is odd, we can obtain the same formulas (28) using the fact that in the case of
the stated matrix representations, the elements B can always be found among the basis elements eA (see
formulas (30) and (31)).
The elements B can be expressed in terms of the elements A and C . For example, n 3 (mod 4)

T
except when p is even and q is odd. From U = A1
= C+
U C+ , we obtain U =
+ U A+ and U
1
1
1
1

C+
(A1
+ U A+ ) C+ = C+ A+ U (A+ ) C+ and hence B+ = (A+ ) C+ . The three other formulas in the
theorem statement are proved analogously.
We now obtain the explicit form for the coecients
. In the case where A+ and C+ exist, we compute
1
T 1

T
1
T
T 1 T
B+ = ((A1
= C+
(A1
C+ A+ =

+ = B+
+ ) C+ ) ((A+ ) C+ )
+ )
1 1
1

A+ C+ C+
A+ = + A1
= + C+ C+
+ A+ .

In the case where A and C exist, we compute analogously and obtain
+ = A1
A . In the case
1
where A and C+ exist, we obtain
= + A A . In the case where A+ and C exist, we obtain


= A1
+ A+ . Knowing the values (depending on n) and the values A (depending on the parities
of p and q), from these four formulas (which include all possible cases), we obtain the constants
depending
on p and q and given by (29).

We note that although the elements B depend on the matrix representation, their symmetricity (28)
is determined only by the space signature p q (see (29)).
We consider the two operations of charge conjugation

+,
ch+ = B+ = B

p q = 3 (mod 4),

ch = B =  B ,

p q = 1 (mod 4).

Theorem 15. The following denitions of charge conjugations (when the corresponding elements C
and A exist) are equivalent:
ch+ = C+ ( D+ )T ,

ch+ = C ( D )T ,

ch = C+ ( D )T ,

ch = C ( D+ )T .

(33)

Proof. Taking relations (32) between the elements A , B , and C into account, we obtain

1 T 1

1 T
D+ T
) .
ch+ = B+ = (A1
+ ) C+ = C+ (A+ ) C+ C+ = C+ ( A+ ) = C+ (
We can obtain the three other formulas analogously.
As an example, we consider the Cliord algebra C(1, 3) and the standard matrix representation using
Dirac gamma matrices. Because the matrices 0 , 1 , and 3 are real and the matrix 2 is purely imaginary,
we have r = 3, s = 1,
+ = 1, and
= 1 (because p q = 6 (mod 8)) and B+ = e013 , B = e2 ,

ch+ = e013 , and ch = e2 .

Majorana spinors and pseudo-Majorana spinors (often simply called Majorana spinors) are dened as
EM = { EDirac | ch = },

EpsM = { EDirac | ch+ = }.

Finally, we quote the well-known statement on the realization of Majorana and MajoranaWeyl spinors
in the case of arbitrary space dimensions and signatures.
471

Proposition 1. Majorana spinors are realized in the case where p q 0, 6, 7 (mod 8), and pseudoMajorana spinors are realized in the case where p q 0, 1, 2 (mod 8).
Proof. For pseudo-Majorana spinors, we obtain

= B+ ,

1
1
= = B + =
+ B+
,
B+

(1
+ ) = 0,

+ = 1.

Analogously, for Majorana spinors, we obtain

= 1. We next use formulas (29).
We note that in the cases where p q 0, 1, 2 (mod 8), the Cliord algebra CR (p, q) is isomorphic to
the algebra of real matrices, and in the cases where p q 0, 6, 7 ( mod 8), the same can be said about the
Cliord algebra CR (q, p) (see Theorem 2).
Left and right MajoranaWeyl spinors are dened as
L
L
EMW
= { EWeyl
| ch+ = },

R
R
EMW
= { EWeyl
| ch = },

L
L
= { EWeyl
| ch = },
EpsMW

R
R
EpsMW
= { EWeyl
| ch+ = }.

Proposition 2. MajoranaWeyl spinors are realized in the case p q = 0 (mod 8).

Proof. Weyl spinors are realized only in the case where n is even. Moreover, = e1...n for p q =
0 (mod 4) and = ie1...n for p q = 2 (mod 4) (see Sec. 5). We show that for p q = 2 (mod 4),
MajoranaWeyl spinors are not realized. By Proposition 1, we then obtain only the case where p q =
0 (mod 8). Indeed, let = ie1...n . Then the left Weyl spinor condition ie1...n = for the action
of complex matrix conjugation becomes the right Weyl spinor condition ie1...n = (indeed, we have

1
B+
(ie1...n )B+ = and B+ = ), and we obtain a contradiction. We can compute analogously

for the element B using B = .

We stress the connections of the results obtained here to other results. In the literature, it is customary
to pay the greatest attention to the case of signatures (1, n1), while we here presented the spinor formalism
for arbitrary (p, q) signatures. In [5], [7], [9] (only in the case of signatures(1, n 1)), the properties of three
elements were studied, each of which corresponds to one element of each form A , B , and C in this
paper. In [8], the case of an arbitrary signature (p, q) and also one element of each form (A , B , and
C ) were considered for the rst time. In [6], [18], two elements were considered for each form, and the
basic properties of these elements were proved. We gave the explicit forms of the elements A , B , and
C depending on the matrix representation here (see Theorems 9, 11, and 14).
We also note that we discussed mathematical structures and constructions. Relating the proposed
mathematical constructions to real world objects (elementary particles) goes beyond the scope of this
investigation. Our goal here was to develop the theory mathematically.
Certain results regarding the existence of Weyl, Majorana, and MajoranaWeyl spinors for various
space dimensions and signatures are applied in supersymmetry theory. In the case of signatures p q =
0 (mod 8), MajoranaWeyl spinors are often taken as supercharges. In the case of signatures p q =
0, 1, 2, 6, 7 (mod 8), Majorana and pseudo-Majorana signatures are considered. Because of considering
dierent types of spinors, the Poincare algebra supersymmetric extension is built dierently, depending on
the space dimension and signature (see the references in [5][19]).
Acknowledgments. The author is deeply grateful to I. V. Volovich, N. G. Marchuk, and the referee
for the useful comments.
This work was supported by the Program for Supporting Leading Scientic Schools (Grant No. NSh2928.2012.1) and the Ministry of Science and Education of the Russian Federation (Contract No. 8215).
472

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