Giao Trinh Nen Mong Xe

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
DIVISION OF SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
(FOR THE ENGLISH COURSE)
NGUYEN BAO VIET

LE THIET TRUNG
HA NOI - 2013
National University of Civil Engineering
CONTENTS
CONTENTS .....................................................................................................................i
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................... iii
PREFACE ........................................................................................................................v
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................1
CHAPTER 2:
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS ............................................................. 3
2.1
Introduction ..................................................................................................3
2.2
Main Components of Shallow Foundations ................................................5
2.3
Contact Pressure Distribution beneath Base of Footing .............................. 7
2.3.1 Contact Pressure Distribution of Spread Footing ........................................9

2.3.2 Contact Pressure Distribution of Wall Footing .........................................10
2.3.3 Net Load Applied on Footing Base ........................................................... 10
2.3.4 Vertical Stress Increase ..............................................................................10
2.4
Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundation ...................................12
2.4.1 General .......................................................................................................12

2.4.2 Terzaghis Bearing Capacity Theory .........................................................13
2.4.3 The General Bearing Capacity Equation ...................................................17
2.4.4 General Bearing Capacity Equation in Practice ........................................19
2.4.5 Safety Factor and Allowable Load-Bearing Capacity ............................... 20
2.4.6 Bearing Capacity of Layered Soils: Stronger Soil underlain by Weaker
Soil .............................................................................................................20
2.5
Shallow Foundation Design .......................................................................21
2.5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 21

2.5.2 Design Procedure for Shallow Foundation. ...............................................21
2.5.3 Geotechnical Analyses and Design............................................................ 22
2.5.4 Structural Footing Design ..........................................................................25
CHAPTER 3:
SOIL IMPROVEMENT .....................................................................30
3.1
Sand Replacement ......................................................................................31
3.2
Sand Compaction Piles ..............................................................................32
3.2.1 Characteristics of Sand Compaction Piles .................................................34

3.2.2 Sand Compaction Pile Working Procedure ...............................................35
3.2.3 Applied Assumptions in Calculation of Sand Compaction Piles ..............36
Foundation Engineering
CONTENTS
ii
3.2.4 Principle of Sand Compaction Pile Analyses ............................................36

3.2.5 Plan layout and Distance of Sand Compaction Pile ..................................37
3.2.6 Estimation of Improved Soil Properties ....................................................41
3.3
Vibroflotation ............................................................................................. 42
3.4
Blasting ......................................................................................................44
3.5
Precompression .......................................................................................... 44
3.6
Stone Columns ........................................................................................... 45
3.7
Dynamic Compaction ................................................................................46
3.8
Jet Grouting ................................................................................................ 48
3.9
Recommendation of Improvement Methods for Soils............................... 49
CHAPTER 4:
4.1
PILE FOUNDATIONS ......................................................................50
Definitions and classifications ...................................................................50
4.1.1 Definitions..................................................................................................50
4.1.2 Classifications of piles ...............................................................................52
4.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of different pile material .......................... 58
4.2
Constitution of a Prefabricated Reinforced Concrete Pile .........................62
4.3
Bearing Capacity of a Single Pile .............................................................. 66
4.3.1 Definitions..................................................................................................66
4.3.2 Pile axial bearing capacity. ........................................................................66
4.4
Design of Low Pile Cap Foundation .........................................................74
4.4.1 Design hypotheses .....................................................................................74

4.4.2 Material selection for pile and pile cap ......................................................74
4.4.3 Pile dimension selection and pile load capacity calculation ......................75
4.4.4 Pile quantity and pile arrangement ............................................................ 75
4.4.5 Verification of load applied to pile ............................................................ 76
4.4.6 Verification of the resistance of bearing stratum .......................................77
4.4.7 Calculation of pile foundation settlement ..................................................78
4.4.8 Pile cap height ............................................................................................ 78
4.4.9 Verification of pile when transportation and positioning .......................... 81
4.4.10 Selection of hammer for driven piles .........................................................82
REFERENCES ..............................................................................................................83
CONTENTS
iii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 (a) Strip foundation under a wall (b) Strip foundation under columns
(c) Spread foundation (d) Mat foundation. (1) Footing (2) Wall (3)
Column ...................................................................................................... 3
Figure 2-2 Examples of spread foundations .................................................................... 3
Figure 2-3 Examples of shallow foundations (a) Combined footing; (b) combined
trapezoidal footing; (c) cantilever or strap footing; (d) octagonal
footing; (e) eccentric loaded footing with resultant coincident with
area so soil pressure is uniform. ................................................................ 4
Figure 2-4 Examples of mat foundations (a) Flat plate; (b) plate thickened under
columns; (c) beam-and-slab; (d) plate with pedestals; (e) basement
walls as part of mat. ................................................................................... 4
Figure 2-5 A typical cross section of spread footing....................................................... 5
Figure 2-6 Reinforcement of a spread footing ................................................................ 6
Figure 2-7 Behavior of foundations with connecting beams .......................................... 6
Figure 2-8 Ground beam and footing reinforcements ..................................................... 7
Figure 2-9 Settlement profile and contact pressure in sand: (a) flexible
foundation; (b) rigid foundation ............................................................. 8
Figure 2-10: Settlement profile and contact pressure in clay: (a) flexible
foundation; (b) rigid foundation ................................................................ 8
Figure 2-11: Linear distribution of contact pressure ....................................................... 9
Figure 2-12 2:1 method of finding stress increase under a foundation ......................... 11
Figure 2-13 Nature of bearing capacity failure in soil: (a) general shear failure:
(b) local shear failure; (c) punching shear failure. .................................. 12
Figure 2-14 Bearing capacity failure in soil under a rough rigid continuous (strip)
foundation ................................................................................................ 14
Figure 2-15 Bearing capacity of a strip foundation on layered soil ............................. 20
Figure 2-16 Two-way shear calculation ........................................................................ 26
Figure 2-17 Wide-beam shear calculation ..................................................................... 27
Figure 2-18 Flexure reinforcement calculation ............................................................. 28
Figure 3-1 (a) Completed sand replacement (b) Partial sand replacement ................... 31
Figure 3-2 Sand compaction pile test of Basore and Boitano (1969): (a) Layout of
the compaction piles; (b) Standard penetration resistance variation
with depth and S ..................................................................................... 33
Figure 3-3 Sand compaction pile mandrel tip ............................................................... 34
Figure 3-4 Characteristic of sand compaction piles for a spread footing ...................... 35
Figure 3-5 Sand compaction pile working procedure ................................................... 36
Figure 3-6 Principle of sand compaction pile analyses ................................................. 37
Figure 3-7 Compaction area for (a) strip footing and (b) spread footing ...................... 38
Figure 3-8 Plan layout of sand compaction piles (a) equiangular triangle (b)
Square ...................................................................................................... 40
LIST OF FIGURES
iv
Figure 3-9 Vibroflotation unit ....................................................................................... 42

Figure 3-10 Compaction by the vibroflotation process ................................................. 43
Figure 3-11 Principles of precompression ..................................................................... 44
Figure 3-12 Sand drain .................................................................................................. 45
Figure 3-13 Prefabricated vertical drain (PVD) ............................................................ 45
Figure 3-14 (a) Stone columns in a triangular pattern; (b) stress concentration due
to change in stiffness ............................................................................... 46
Figure 3-15 Rig of Dynamic compaction ...................................................................... 47
Figure 3-16 Dynamic compaction, working procedure ................................................. 47
Figure 3-17 Effects of soil Improvement by Dynamic compaction &
Vibroflotation .......................................................................................... 48
Figure 3-18 Jet grouting ................................................................................................ 49
Figure 3-19 Site improvement methods as a function of soil grain size ....................... 49
Figure 4-1: Low pile cap foundation High pile cap foundation ................................. 52
Figure 4-2: Steel pile cross section ................................................................................ 53
Figure 4-3: End bearing pile .......................................................................................... 54
Figure 4-4: Friction or Cohesion pile ............................................................................ 54
Figure 4-5: under-reamed base enlargement to a bore-and-cast-in-situ pile ................. 55
Figure 4-6: Concrete driven piles system ...................................................................... 56
Figure 4-7: Drilling auger types: short section single flight double flight .............. 57
Figure 4-8: Bored pile phasing: Site preparation Positioning Excavation
Rebar installation Conrete pouring Pile completion. ........................ 58
Figure 4-9: Different cross section of piles ................................................................... 63
Figure 4-10: Detailed design of prefabricated reinforced concrete pile ........................ 63
Figure 4-11: Cross section of a square pile ................................................................... 64
Figure 4-12: Stirrup bar: separate bar and spriral bar ................................................... 64
Figure 4-13: Details of pile toe ...................................................................................... 64
Figure 4-14: Steel grid at pile top Hook rebar............................................................ 64
Figure 4-15: Steel plate at the pile top........................................................................... 65
Figure 4-16: Details of pile connection ......................................................................... 65
Figure 4-17: sc khng bn qci v sc khng mi qcn trong th nghim CPT ............... 68
Figure 4-18 Typical static load test arrangement showing instrumentation ................. 70
Figure 4-19: Two P-S curves types (a, b) and T-S curve (c)......................................... 71
Figure 4-20: Piles arrangement in side view. ................................................................ 75
Figure 4-21: Piles arrangement in plan view ................................................................. 76
Figure 4-22: Equivalent raft .......................................................................................... 77
Figure 4-23: damage pile cap by column ...................................................................... 79
Figure 4-24: damage of pile cap by pile reaction .......................................................... 80
Figure 4-25: Rebar area calculation schemas ................................................................ 81
Figure 4-26: Pile transportation verification ................................................................. 81
Figure 4-27: Pile positioning verification...................................................................... 82
LIST OF FIGURES
PREFACE
Soil mechanics and foundation engineering have developed rapidly during the last
fifty years. Intensive research and observation in the field and the laboratory have
refined and improved the science of foundation design.
This text book of Foundation Engineering is edited for undergraduate civil
engineering students, who have passed the soil mechanics course, which is a
prerequisite for the foundation engineering course. The text is composed of four
chapters with examples and problems, and an answer section for selected problems.
The chapters are mostly devoted to the geotechnical aspects of foundation design and
briefly described as follows
Chapter 1 of introduction gives an overview of foundation engineering
Chapter 2 presents on the concept of shallow foundation and focus analyses and
design of spread footing and wall trip footing on several types of sub-soils. The
structural design of footing according to the Vietnamese codes also mentioned in detail
in this chapter.
Chapter 3 introduces various types of soil improvement in that sand cushion and
sand compaction piles are concentrated in analyses and design also.
Chapter 4 is dedicated for deep foundation of prefabricated piles. The estimation
of geotechnical and in structural bearing capacity of piles is mentioned based on both
theories and practices. Structural pile-cap design is an important content in this
chapter.
After this course, the students can get the basic knowledge in foundation
engineering. They could calculate and design foundation in some simple cases. This is
the first step for an engineer in geotechnical and foundation engineering.
Thanks are due to all members of Geotechnical and Foundation Engineering
Division of National University of Civil Engineering for their help and
encouragements during the preparation of this text.
I am also grateful for several helpful suggestions of Prof. Vu Cong Ngu and
Assoc. Prof. Pham Quang Hung.
The Authors
Dr. Nguyen Bao Viet
Dr. Le Thiet Trung
PREFACE
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
All structures resting on the earth must be carried by an interface element called
foundation. A foundation is the lowest part of a structure that transmits to, and into, the
underlying soil or rock all loads of the super-structure and also its self-weight.
The term super-structure is commonly used to describe the engineered part of the
system bringing loads to the foundation, or substructure especially for buildings and
bridges. However, foundations also may carry only machinery, support industrial
equipment (pipes, towers, and tanks) act as sign base, and the like. Therefore it is
better to describe a foundation as a part of the engineered system that interfaces the
load-carrying component to the ground.
It is evident that a foundation is the most important part of the structures or
engineering system.
The design of foundations of structures such as buildings, bridges, and dams
generally requires knowledge of such factors as:
(a) The load that will be transmitted by the superstructure to the foundation
system,
(b) The requirements of the local building code,
(c) The behavior and stress-related deformability of soils that will support the
foundation system, and
(d) The geological conditions of the soil under consideration.
To a foundation engineer, the last two factors are extremely important because
they concern soil mechanics.
The geotechnical properties of a soil such as its grain-size distribution, plasticity,
compressibility, and shear strength can be assessed by proper laboratory testing. In
addition, recently emphasis has been placed on the in situ determination of strength
and deformation properties of soil, because this process avoids disturbing samples
during field exploration.
However, under certain circumstances, not all of the needed parameters can be or
are determined, because of economic or other reasons. In such cases, the engineer must
make certain assumptions regarding the properties of the soil. To assess the accuracy
of soil parameters whether they were determined in the laboratory and the field or
whether they were assumed the engineer must have a good grasp of the basic
principles of soil mechanics. At the same time, he or she must realize that the natural
soil deposits on which foundations are constructed are not homogeneous in most cases.
Thus, the engineer must have a thorough understanding of the geology of the area that
is, the origin and nature of soil stratification and also the groundwater conditions.
Foundation engineering is a clever combination of soil mechanics, engineering
geology, and proper judgment derived from past experience. To a certain extent, it
may be called an art. When determining which foundation is the most economical, the
engineer must consider the superstructure load, the subsoil conditions, and the desired
tolerable settlement.
INTRODUCTION
In general, foundations of the structures may be divided into two major categories:
(1) Shallow foundations.
(2) Deep foundations.
Spread footings, wall footings, and mat foundations are all shallow foundations. In
most shallow foundations, the depth of embedment can be equal to or less than three to
four times the width of the foundation. Pile and drilled shaft foundations are deep
foundations. They are used when top layers have poor load-bearing capacity and when
the use of shallow foundations will cause considerable structural damage or instability.
The separation is not strict but in the point of view of a foundation engineer, in
analysis and design of a shallow foundation, vertical friction between the foundation
and soils is neglected.
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2:
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
2.1 Introduction
Shallow foundations, often called footings, are usually embedded about a meter or
so into soil. One common type is the spread footing which consists of strips or pads of
structural materials which transfer the loads from walls and columns to the soil or
bedrock.
Another common type of shallow foundation is the slab-on-grade foundation
where the weight of the building is transferred to the soil through a concrete slab
placed at the surface. Slab-on-grade foundations can be reinforced mat slabs, which
range from 25 cm to several meters thick, depending on the size of the building.
Concrete is almost universally used for footings because of its durability in a
potential hostile environment and for economy.
Figure 2-1 shows some shallow foundations including strip footings (a) and (b);
spread footing (c); and mat foundation (d). Furthermore, in Figure 2-2 there are several
common types of spread footing consist of constant footing (a); stepped footing (b);
and sloped footing (c).
Figure 2-1 (a) Strip foundation under a wall (b) Strip foundation under columns (c)
Spread foundation (d) Mat foundation. (1) Footing (2) Wall (3) Column
Figure 2-2 Examples of spread foundations

Various types of shallow foundation which could be used in practice such as combined
or connected footings and mat foundations are illustrated in Figure 2-3 and Figure 2-4.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
Figure 2-3 Examples of shallow foundations (a) Combined footing; (b) combined
trapezoidal footing; (c) cantilever or strap footing; (d) octagonal footing; (e) eccentric
loaded footing with resultant coincident with area so soil pressure is uniform.
Figure 2-4 Examples of mat foundations (a) Flat plate; (b) plate thickened under
columns; (c) beam-and-slab; (d) plate with pedestals; (e) basement walls as part of
mat.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
2.2 Main Components of Shallow Foundations

A shallow foundation basically consists of the following components:
- Leveling concrete
- Footings (single, strip, and mat)
- Ground beams
- Vertical supported structures such as columns, walls.
Figure 2-5 show a typical reinforced concrete footing. The concrete used for
foundation should not be less than B20 and reinforcement should not be less than 10.
Just based on soil, leveling concrete is the lowest layer with at least 100mm thick.
Leveling concrete creates a clean flat platform so that concrete work for the
foundations could be carried out fluently. The concrete used for leveling normally is
B7.5 with course aggregate of 4x6 rock.
Footings would be flat, step or slope as shown in Figure 2-2 with the minimum
thickness would be required as 150mm but 200mm is preferred in practice. Footing
reinforcements shown in Figure 2-5 to resist tensile stress induced in the footing. For
spread and wall strip footing, basically upper (top) reinforcement, hairpin and chair bar
are not necessary.
A rebar spacer is a device that secures the reinforcing steel is assembled in place
prior to the final concrete pour so that cover depth normally of 50mm is assured. The
spacers are left in place for the pour to keep the reinforcing in place, and become a
permanent part of the structure. Rebar spacer would be made of concrete or plastic.
Figure 2-5 A typical cross section of spread footing

Figure 2-6 illustrates rebar placement for a spread footing and supported column.
It should be noted that in case of stepped or sloped footing, footings neck would be
required. The neck should be normally enlarged about 50mm for every directions of
the column. Sometimes column rebars need a hook so that they could stand on the
lower (bottom) reinforcements layer.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
Figure 2-6 Reinforcement of a spread footing
Figure 2-7 Behavior of foundations with connecting beams
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
Figure 2-8 Ground beam and footing reinforcements

Generally, it is useful to place connecting beams at the foundation because they
carry the horizontal shear forces and prevent damage from differential settlements.
Connecting beam is also called ground beam because of the location the beams placed.
Figure 2-7 shows the behavior of spread footings tied together with ground beams.
Reinforcement for ground beam and footings are shown in Figure 2-8.
2.3 Contact Pressure Distribution beneath Base of Footing

The stress distribution under even symmetrically loaded footing is not uniform
following researches of Schultze (1961), Barden (1962) and Borowicka (1963). The
actual stress distribution depends on both footing rigidity and subsoil. For footing on
loose sand the grains near to edge tend to displace laterally, whereas interior soil is
relatively confined. Figure 2-9 shows the general diagram of the stress distribution for
both flexible and rigid shallow foundation on granular soil.
The theoretical pressure distribution for the general case of rigid footing on
cohesive soils is shown on Figure 2-10(b). The high edge pressure may be explained
by considering that edge shear must occur before any settlement can take place. Since
soil has low rupture strength, and most of footings are of intermediate rigidity, it is
very not likely that high edge shear stresses are developed.
The pressure distribution beneath most footings will be rather indeterminate
because of the interaction of the footing rigidity with the soil type, state, and time
response to stress. For this reason it is common practice to use linear pressure
distribution of Figure 2-11 beneath foundations whose rigidity are large enough such
as spread footings and strip footings under wall. Some of field measurements reported
indicated this assumption is adequate.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
Figure 2-9 Settlement profile and contact pressure in sand: (a) flexible foundation;
(b) rigid foundation
Figure 2-10: Settlement profile and contact pressure in clay: (a) flexible foundation;
(b) rigid foundation
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
9
N
hm
Y
pmin
pmax
pmax
Figure 2-11: Linear distribution of contact pressure

2.3.1 Contact Pressure Distribution of Spread Footing
A footing carrying a single column is called spread footing, since its function is to
spread the column load laterally to the soil so that the stress intensity is reduced to a
value that soil can safely carry. These members sometimes called single or isolated
footings. Since the footings are subjected to moments in addition to vertical load, as
shown in Figure 2-11, distribution of the contact pressure by the foundation on soil is
not uniform. The nominal distribution of the pressure is:
Where:
Eq. 2-1
|
Eq. 2-2
|
Eq. 2-3
N is vertical axial force at footing level;

N0 is vertical axial force at the ground level;
, weight of footing and soil above footing
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
10
=20kN/m3 (approximate), average unit weight of footing material

(concrete) and soil above footing.
Mx, My are moments at footing level;
l, b are dimensions of spread footing.
2.3.2 Contact Pressure Distribution of Wall Footing
Wall footings serve a similar purpose of spreading the wall load to the soil.
Because of their long shape (ratio of length (l) to width (b) greater than 7), the footings
theoretically are considered as one-way structure. In reality, when the wall is high
enough so its internal resistance moment of the long axis is large then the bending of
the wall and also the footing could be ignored.
The distribution of the contact pressure is:
Eq. 2-4
| |
Eq. 2-5
| |
Where:
Eq. 2-6
N is vertical axial force distributed for 1m long at footing level;

N0 is vertical axial force distributed for 1m long at the ground level;
, weight of footing and soil above footing for 1m long;

M is moments distributed for 1m at footing level;
b is width of footing wall.
2.3.3 Net Load Applied on Footing Base

The net load applied on footing base is determined as the total stress at the footing
base level extract the geostatic (over-burden) stress at the base level.
Eq. 2-7
Where
tb = effective unit weight of soils above footing base level.
2.3.4 Vertical Stress Increase

2.3.4.1 Method based on Boussineq Equation.
One of the most common methods to estimate stress increase at a depth under a
foundation from the net applied load ( p) is Boussineq Equation based on Theory of
Elasticity which have been mentioned at chapter 4 of the Soil mechanics text book. To
obtain the result, the load is assumed act on a homogenous, isotropic, weightless, and
elastic half-space of soil.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
11
Certainty the increase stress, , is varies from point to point in the soil space but
in the engineering point of view, in conservative side, at each level should be
considered at the center of the foundation where it gets maximum value. To deal this
problem, an equivalent uniform distribution of load of p should be used as net
applied load. General equation based on chapter 4 of soil mechanics text book to get
the increase stress is
Eq. 2-8
Where k = loading factor depending on the shape of foundation base and the
depth of considered point.
2.3.4.2 Simple Equivalent Method (2:1Method).
Figure 2-12 2:1 method of finding stress increase under a foundation

Foundation engineers often use an approximate method to determine the increase
in stress with depth caused by the construction of a foundation. The method is referred
to as the 2:1 method (See Figure 2-12). According to this method, the increase in stress
at depth z is
for spread footing
Eq. 2-9
for strip footing
Eq. 2-10
Eq. 2-9 and Eq. 2-10 are based on the assumption that the stress from the
foundation spreads out along lines with a vertical-to-horizontal slope of 2:1.
Some authors have proposed the slope angle be anywhere from 30o to 45o. In
Vietnam, 30o is default for that angle. It should be noted that 2:1 method is widely
used over the world because of simplicity and conservative result.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
12
2.4 Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundation

2.4.1 General
To perform satisfactorily, shallow foundations must have two main characteristics:
1. They have to be safe against overall shear failure in the soil that supports
them.
2. They cannot undergo excessive displacement, or settlement. (The term
excessive is relative, because the degree of settlement allowed for a
structure depends on several considerations.)
The load per unit area of the foundation at which shear failure in soil occurs is
called the ultimate bearing capacity, which is the subject of this part.
p
pgh
p
pgh(1)
pgh
pgh(1)
pgh pgh
Figure 2-13 Nature of bearing capacity failure in soil: (a) general shear failure: (b)
local shear failure; (c) punching shear failure.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
13
Consider a strip foundation with a width of b resting on the surface of a dense sand
or stiff cohesive soil, as shown in Figure 2-13(a). Now, if a load is gradually applied to
the foundation, settlement will increase. The variation of the load per unit area on the
foundation p with the foundation settlement is also Figure 2-13 failure in the soil
supporting the foundation will take place, and the failure surface in the soil will extend
to the ground surface. This load per unit area is usually referred to as the ultimate
bearing capacity of the foundation. When such sudden failure in soil takes place, it is
called general shear failure.
If the foundation under consideration rests on sand or clayey soil of medium
compaction Figure 2-13 (b), an increase in the load on the foundation will also be
accompanied by an increase in settlement. However, in this case the failure surface in
the soil will gradually extend outward from the foundation, as shown by the solid lines
in Figure 2-13 (b). When the load per unit area on the foundation equals movement of
the foundation will be accompanied by sudden jerks. A considerable movement of the
foundation is then required for the failure surface in soil to extend to the ground
surface (as shown by the broken lines in the figure). The load per unit area at which
this happens is the ultimate bearing capacity, pgh. Beyond that point, an increase in
load will be accompanied by a large increase in foundation settlement. The load per
unit area of the foundation, pgh(1), is referred to as the first failure load (Vesic, 1963).
Note that a peak value of p is not realized in this type of failure, which is called the
local shear failure in soil.
If the foundation is supported by a fairly loose soil, the loadsettlement plot will
be like the one in Figure 2-13 (c). In this case, the failure surface in soil will not extend
to the ground surface. Beyond the ultimate failure load, pgh, the loadsettlement plot
will be steep and practically linear. This type of failure in soil is called the punching
shear failure.
2.4.2 Terzaghis Bearing Capacity Theory
Terzaghi (1943) was the first to present a comprehensive theory for the evaluation
of the ultimate bearing capacity of rough shallow foundations. According to this
theory, a foundation is shallow if its depth, (Figure 2-14), is less than or equal to its
width. Later investigators, however, have suggested that foundations with equal to 3 to
4 times their width may be defined as shallow foundations.
Terzaghi suggested that for a continuous or strip foundation (i.e., one whose width
to length ratio approaches zero), the failure surface in soil at ultimate load may be
assumed to be similar to that shown in Figure 2-14. (Note that this is the case of
general shear failure, as defined in Figure 2-14a.) The effect of soil above the bottom
of the foundation may also be assumed to be replaced by an equivalent surcharge,
(where is a unit weight of soil). The failure zone under the foundation can be separated
into three parts (see Figure 2-14):
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
14
1. The triangular zone ACD immediately under the foundation

2. The radial shear zones ADF and CDE, with the curves DE and DF being arcs
of a logarithmic spiral
3. Two triangular Rankine passive zones AFH and CEG
hm
q = .hm
Figure 2-14 Bearing capacity failure in soil under a rough rigid continuous (strip)
foundation
The angles CAD and ACD are assumed to be equal to the soil friction angle .
Note that, with the replacement of the soil above the bottom of the foundation by an
equivalent surcharge q, the shear resistance of the soil along the failure surfaces GI
and HJ was neglected.
Using equilibrium analysis, Terzaghi expressed the ultimate bearing capacity in
the form
Eq. 2-11
c = cohesion of soil
= unit weight of soil
q = hm
N , Nq, Nc = bearing capacity factors that are non-dimensional and
are functions only of the soil friction angle, .
The bearing capacity factors N , Nq, Nc are defined by
Where:
Eq. 2-12
Eq. 2-13
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
15
Eq. 2-14
Where
Kp = passive pressure coefficient.
The variations of the bearing capacity factors defined by Eq. 2-12, Eq. 2-13, and
Eq. 2-14 are given in Table 2-1
Table 2-1 Terzaghis Bearing Capacity Factors
To estimate the ultimate bearing capacity of square and circular foundations, Eq.
2-11 may be respectively modified to
for square foundation
Eq. 2-15
for circular foundation
Eq. 2-16
In Eq. 2-15, b equals the dimension of each side of the foundation; in Eq. 2-16, b
equals the diameter of the foundation.
For foundations that exhibit the local shear failure mode in soils, Terzaghi
suggested the following modifications to Eq. 2-11, Eq. 2-15, and Eq. 2-16:
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
16
for strip foundation
Eq. 2-17
for square foundation
Eq. 2-18
for circular foundation
Eq. 2-19
N , Nq, and Nc, the modified bearing capacity factors, can be calculated by
using the bearing capacity factor equations (for N , Nq, and Nc, respectively) by
replacing by = tan-1(2/3tan). The variation of and with the soil friction angle
is given in Table 2-2.
Table 2-2 Terzaghis Modified Bearing Capacity Factors
Terzaghis bearing capacity equations have now been modified to take into
account the effects of the foundation shape depth of embedment and the load
inclination. This is given in the next section. Many design engineers, however, still use
Terzaghis equation, which provides fairly good results considering the uncertainty of
the soil conditions at various sites.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
17
2.4.3 The General Bearing Capacity Equation

The ultimate bearing capacity Eq. 2-11, Eq. 2-15, and Eq. 2-16 are for continuous,
square, and circular foundations only; they do not address the case of rectangular
foundations. Also, the equations do not take into account the shearing resistance along
the failure surface in soil above the bottom of the foundation (the portion of the failure
surface marked as GI and HJ in Figure 2-14). In addition, the load on the foundation
may be inclined. To account for all these shortcomings, Vesic (1973) suggested the
following form of the general bearing capacity equation:
Eq. 2-20
In this equation:
c = cohesion;
q = effective stress at the level of the bottom of the foundation;
= unit weight of soil;
b = width of foundation (= diameter for a circular foundation);
s(.) = shape factors;
d(.) = depth factors;
i(.) = load inclination factors;
b(.) = tilted base inclination factors;
g(.) = ground inclination factors;
N , Nq, and Nc = bearing capacity factors.
The equations for determining the various factors given in Eq. 2-20 are described
briefly in the sections that follow. Note that the original equation for ultimate bearing
capacity is derived only for the plane-strain case (i.e., for continuous foundations). The
shape, depth, load inclination, tilted base inclination, and ground inclination factors are
empirical factors based on experimental data.
The basic nature of the failure surface in soil suggested by Terzaghi now appears
to have been borne out by laboratory and field studies of bearing capacity (Vesic,
1973). It can be shown that
(
(
)
(
Eq. 2-21
Eq. 2-22
Eq. 2-23
It should be noted that Nc was originally derived by Prandtl (1921); Nq was

presented by Reissner (1924). Caquot and Kerisel (1953) and Vesic (1973) gave the
relation for N.
Shape, Depth, load Inclination, tilted Base inclination, and Ground inclination
Factors
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
18
{
Where
Q0 = shear force at column base level

N0 = axial force at column base level
F = foundation base area
cg = cohesion between footing base and the soil under.
cg (0.6 ~ 1.0)c
Where:
is angle between foundation base to horizontal (positive

since the angle opposite to combination of axial
force N0 and shear force Q0).
{
Where:
is angle between the grounds surface to horizontal.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
19
Table 2-3 Bearing capacity factors for the general equations
2.4.4 General Bearing Capacity Equation in Practice

In practice, most of shallow foundations based on flat ground with base inclination
equal zero, for simplicity Eq. 2-20 can be reformed into the following equation in that
factors of depth, load inclination might be neglected.
Eq. 2-24
Where sc, sq, q are shape factors as mentioned above but for simplicity,
some engineers have used following alternative relations
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
20
2.4.5 Safety Factor and Allowable Load-Bearing Capacity

Calculating the gross allowable load-bearing capacity, [p], of shallow foundations
requires the application of a factor of safety (FS) to the gross ultimate bearing
capacity, or
Eq. 2-25
The factor of safety, FS, should be 2~3 in most cases.
2.4.6 Bearing Capacity of Layered Soils: Stronger Soil underlain by Weaker Soil
The bearing capacity equations presented in the above section involve cases in
which the soil supporting the foundation is homogeneous and extends to a
considerable depth. The cohesion, angle of friction, and unit weight of soil were
assumed to remain constant for the bearing capacity analysis. However, in practice,
layered soil profiles are often encountered. In such instances, the failure surface at
ultimate load may extend through two or more soil layers, and a determination of the
ultimate bearing capacity in layered soils can be made in only a limited number of
cases. This section features the procedure for estimating the bearing capacity for
layered soils in which stronger soil underlain by weaker soil.
Figure 2-15 shows a strip foundation supported by a stronger soil layer, underlain
by a weaker soil that extends to a great depth. The physical parameters of the two soil
layers are also written down in the Figure.
In this case, the stronger soil could be failed cause of contact foundation ptb, and
on the other hand, the weaker soil could be failed by the load just above that layer at
depth of hm_t.
ptb
hm
1
bt=b+H
hm_t =hm+H
ptb_2
Figure 2-15 Bearing capacity of a strip foundation on layered soil
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
21
Bearing capacity of foundation at footing base level (the stronger soil) could be
calculated easily by the normal approaches described in the above sections (Eq. 2-11,
Eq. 2-15, and Eq. 2-16 or Eq. 2-20 or Eq. 2-24). On the other hand, bearing capacity of
the weaker soil could be done by the same way with an equivalent foundation of
footing dimensions are extended follows 2:1 method and the embedded depth is
calculated as
hm_t = hm + H
Where:
Eq. 2-26
hm_t = embedded depth of equivalent foundation

hm = embedded depth of foundation
H = Thickness of the soil from footing level to the weaker soil
2.5 Shallow Foundation Design

2.5.1 Introduction
To perform satisfactorily, shallow foundations must have three main
characteristics:
1. The soil they laid on must be in safe of strength. It means that the foundation
satisfies condition of bearing capacity.
2. They cannot undergo excessive displacement, or settlement. (The term
excessive is relative, because the degree of settlement allowed for a
structure depends on several considerations and generally the amplitudes of
allowable settlement are list in the codes)
3. Foundation structure needs to be available for both conditions of strength and
serviceability.
2.5.2 Design Procedure for Shallow Foundation.
a) Soil base design
1. Choose embedded depth of footing;
2. Determine dimensions of footing;
3. To calculate the contact pressure;
4. Check for bearing capacity and economy conditions;
5. To calculate settlement and differential settlement;
6. Serviceability condition check;
b) Structural footing design
7. Choose structural materials for footing (type of concrete and
reinforcement)
8. Determine thickness of footing base, h;
9. Check for bearing capacity of shear;
10. Flexural design for footing base;
11. Technical drawings.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
22
2.5.3 Geotechnical Analyses and Design

2.5.3.1 Strength design of the Subsoil
a) Embedded depth of footing
Embedded depth of footing would be decided based on the following guidelines:
1. The footing must be laid on a steady strong soil and should be above
underground water level.
2. The shallower the better for the construction work of foundation but it should
be deep enough for satisfying architect requirements.
Depth of footing depends on soil strata it lay on. Basically, there are three types of
soil strata and see how to deal with each case.
(a) All soil layers are strong;
This case is most easy and convenient to give a decision. The footing depth
normally is about 1.0~1.5m since the lateral load is small the depth may be lesser.
(b) Weak soil of upper layer and strong soil of the lower;
When the weak layer is small (less than 3m) the most common method is eliminate
the weak soil replace them by a strong material such as sand and set the footing on
that. Since the thickness is larger (3~5m) the improvement of the soil such as soil
replacement, sand compaction piles should be applied.
(c) Strong soil at first, then weak layer and finally strong soil again at the lowest.
If the first strong layer is thick enough then this case is similar to the (a) case.
When the first strong layer is not so thick then the footing might place on the first but
the depth should be as small as possible. In this case bearing capacity of foundation
must be carefully considered for both strong and weak layers. In bad way, if the first
soil is thin then it becomes near case (b).
b) Dimensions of footing
To determine the footing dimensions play an important role in the foundation
design procedure. The size of footing affect significantly to the strength and
serviceability design of the foundation. The size should be large enough to satisfy the
technical requirements but not so large to agree with economic condition.
Firstly, an arbitrary value of foundation width, b0, should be chosen. That is entire
of the first step for strip footing but for spread footing, the length (l0 >b0) must be
assumed also. Normally l0 follows the larger of the bending moments and may be
estimated by relation l0 = b0 where =Mx/My 2. For example, in Figure 2-11 l0 (L)
is in Y direction according to case of Mx > My. In case of unique moment, l0 = b0
where = (1+e ~(1+2e) and e is a ratio of the moment, M, to axial force, N; (e= M/N).
c) Calculation of contact pressure
According to load and action codes, a structure must sustain several types of
loading such as static load, live load, wind load, earthquake load, flood load, and so
on. Basically, nominal loads are decided on the code. To determine the loads applying
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
23
on a structure component (foundation, in this case) a combination process must be

carried out, of course, according to the code instruction. The loads can be divided into
two categories as follows
- Un-factored loads combined with no factors are based on the nominal values
only. For foundation design un-factored loads are used for bearing capacity check and
also for settlement estimation.
The un-factored loads normally displayed by symbol of tc for example
,
. Hence the contact pressure under footing comes from un-factored
combination, ptb, pmax, pmin are obtained from Eq. 2-1 to Eq. 2-6 in that
,
are replaced by
,
respectively.
- Factored loads combination in which the nominal values are multiplied with the
factors in the code. These combinations are applied for structural foundation design.
The stresses used for structural footing design must be based on factored load
combinations, but due to the self-balance the weight of footing and the soil above
footing are not involved in the calculation. If factored loads are
,
then
tb
max
min
the pressure under footing comes from factored combination, p0 , p0 , p0 are
computed from the equations modified from section 2.3
For spread footings:
Eq. 2-27
|
Eq. 2-28
Eq. 2-29
For strip footings:

Eq. 2-30
|
Eq. 2-31
|
Eq. 2-32
d) Check for technical and economic conditions

The contact pressures, ptb, pmax, pmin must be satisfied technical conditions
Eq. 2-33
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
24
On the other hand, the contact pressures, ptb, pmax, pmin must be also satisfied one
of the following economic conditions:
Eq. 2-34
If one of the technical conditions in Eq. 2-33 especially the first two are not passed
then dimensions of footing in step (2) must be redone with advised larger dimensions.
In case both conditions of Eq. 2-34 are not satisfied, works in the step (2) should
be done again with advised smaller dimensions. It should be noted that, in practice,
20% is completely acceptable instead of 5% of idealization.
2.5.3.2 Serviceability conditions of the Soil
a) Stress induced Settlement
Stress induced settlement, pgl, is the net applied stress on soil of the un-factored
combination loads. Based on Eq. 2-7, the expression as follow
Eq. 2-35
Where
ptb is contact pressure obtained from Eq. 2-1 or Eq. 2-4 with unfactored combination loads.
tb = effective unit weight of soils above footing base level.
b) To calculate settlements
The approaches to estimate settlement of soil under the load have been described
in detail on the Soil mechanics book or any text books of geotechnical engineering. A
review is presented as follows
Settlement for homogenous soil strata
If net applied load is small, the relation of pS is linear, hence using the
assumption that the soil medium is an elastic, homogeneous, isotropic, and semiinfinite medium. In practice, since a soil stratum is homogenous, the theory of elastic
would be applied.
For rectangular foundation:
Eq. 2-36
Where
const influenced by shape of footing l/b (rigid foundation);

b = width of footing;
0 = Poissons ratio;
E0 = Elastic modulus of the soil.
pgl = Net applied load of the un-factored combination.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
25
Settlement of multi-layers soil strata

For multi-layers soil strata, settlement of footing is estimated by accumulating
settlement of appropriate soil layers in the effective depth. The settlement calculation
is expressed as follow:
Where
Eq. 2-37
Si = settlement of a sub-layer which could be calculated based on

results of oedometer test. Refer to section 5.3 of the Text book
of Soil mechanics.
c) To calculate differential settlements

The differential settlements between two points (center of footings) are defined as
follow
|
Where
Eq. 2-38
Si, Si+1 = settlement of footing number i and i+1.

Li~i+1 = distance between the two points.
d) Serviceability condition check

The estimated settlements and differential settlements must be in range required in
the code. The relations could be expressed as
Eq. 2-39
The allowable settlement, [S], and allowable differential settlements, [ S] of
framed building of reinforced concrete are 8.0cm and 0.002 respectively, according to
the Vietnamese code. If material for the frame is steel then the allowable ones are
12.0cm and 0.004. For detail, refer to TCVN 205-1998, appendix H.
2.5.4 Structural Footing Design
Dimensions of a footing are controlled by the allowable soil pressure. On the other
hand, footing thickness h is usually decided by shear stresses. In addition, footing must
have strength to resist the bending moment induced by contact pressure of soil.
2.5.4.1 Shear strength design of footing
Footing must be considered in both ways: (1) shear forces of two-way action and
(2) wide-beam. Two-way action shear always controls the depth for centrally loaded
square footing. Wide-beam shear may control the depth for rectangular footings when
l/b ratio is greater than about 1.2 and may control for other l/b ratios when there are
overturning or eccentric loadings.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
26
a) Two-way action shear

A shear force acting on edge faces of the frustum in the Figure 2-16 of two-way
action based on the equilibrium theory.
Eq. 2-40
Where
ltb = min { lc+h0; 0.5(lc+l) };

btb = min { bc+h0; 0.5(bc+l) };
bc,lc = dimensions of column according to b, l of footing.
N0tt = Axial force at column base level of factored combinations;
p0tb is calculated by Eq. 2-27 or Eq. 2-30.
Figure 2-16 Two-way shear calculation

Shear strength of footing must be strong enough to resist the shear force of twoway action. Normally structural footing design uses no reinforcement for shear
therefore footing need an enough thickness for shearing.
Eq. 2-41
Where
utb = 2( ltb+btb ), average of top and bottom surface perimeter of the

frustum;
h0 = h a, effective height of footing;
h = thickness of footing;
a = concrete cover, normally equals of 50mm;
Rbt = allowable tension strength of footing concrete.
b) Wide-beam shear
When a footing sustains an eccentric load then wide-beam shear must be
considered. The shear force acting on the surface of shear section in Figure 2-17 could
be calculated in conservative side by the following expression
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
27
Eq. 2-42
Where
lt = 0.5(l - lc);
b = width of foo`ting;
p0max, p0min are determined in part c) of section 2.5.3.1
Figure 2-17 Wide-beam shear calculation

The thickness of footing also must suit with wide beam shear condition. In
practice, the following equation is usually used to.
Eq. 2-43
Where
btb = min { bc+h0; 0.5(bc+b) };

h0 = effective height of footing;
Rbt = tension strength of footing concrete.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
28
Note for wall strip footing

Thickness of a wall strip footing is controlled by wide-beam shear in the short
direction. Calculation process would be carried out by the same way as that described
above. Actually, this is plane strain problem then to analyze a wall strip footing, a unit
length of the footing would be consider. Thickness of the wall works as short
dimension of column bc, and in the long direction, dimension of the wall and
dimension of footing all are unit (1.0).
c) Thickness footing design procedure
-
Chose a value of footing thickness, h;

Determine concrete cover, a then calculate effective height h0 = h a;
Types of concrete and reinforcement used for footing should agree with
suggestions in section 2.2
The effective thickness h0 must be satisfied the shear conditions expressed by
Eq. 2-41 and Eq. 2-43; if not, a larger value of footing thickness, h, is advised.
The thickness must not so close to the minimum thickness based on shear
check because the thicker of footing the more rigid and lesser reinforcement of
foundation.
2.5.4.2 Flexural strength design of footing
Figure 2-18 Flexure reinforcement calculation

Flexural reinforcements of footing are calculated based on a console beam model
fixed at the edge of column sustain the soil reactions pressures. Reinforcements in the
long and short direction are computed by the bending moment at section I-I, II-II
respectively.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
29
According to reinforcement concrete code for flexural structures, the

reinforcement could be calculated by the following simplified equation.
Eq. 2-44
h0 = the effective height of footing;
Rs = allowable tensile strength of reinforcement;
M = the bending moment.
In case of no moment action then the soil pressures are uniform and the bending
moments could be calculated by the following equations:
Where
Where
lco = lng = 0.5( l - lc ) console span in long direction;

lco= bng =0.5( b-bc ) console span in short direction;
Eq. 2-45
Since the footing subjected moments, M, as shown in Figure 2-18, the soil
pressures are distributed in trapezoid then the bending moments could be calculated by
the following equations:
Eq. 2-46
Where
Note that the bending moments and reinforcement areas calculated for just one
unit of length only. The total reinforcement area normally shown in the drawings for
an isolated footing is determined by multiplied with length of the according footing
edge.
For strip footing, the reinforcement for the short direction is calculated in the same
way as that of spread footing. The difference is the reinforcement in the long direction
is set according to the minimum requirement of the codes.
Having obtained the required reinforcement area, an engineer should be place the
reinforcements into the footing by indicate size and distances of them. Note that, the
minimum reinforcement ratio and size, distance of reinforcement bars are basically
stipulated in the codes.
All the information of footing must be described in drawings detailed so that site
engineer could do construction work without any additional comments of designer
except some of extraordinary works.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
CHAPTER 3:
30
SOIL IMPROVEMENT
In many areas of Vietnam especially in coastal Hong River and Me Kong delta,
certain soils make the construction of foundations extremely difficult. For example,
expansive or collapsible soils may cause high differential movements in structures
through excessive heave or settlement. Foundation engineers must be able to identify
difficult soils when they are encountered in the field. Although not all the problems
caused by all soils can be solved, preventive measures can be taken to reduce the
possibility of damage to structures built on them. This chapter outlines introduce some
methods for soil improvement before construction of foundations.
Function of a foundation is to transfer the structural loads from a building safely
into the ground. A backyard tool shed may need only wooden skids to spread its load
across an area of ground surface, whereas a house would need greater stability and
consequently its foundation should reach the underlying soil that is free of organic
matter. A larger and heavier building of masonry, steel, or concrete would require its
foundations to go deeper into earth such that the soil or the rock on which it is founded
is competent to carry its massive loads; on some sites, this means going a hundred feet
or more below the surface. Because of the variety of soil, rock, and water conditions
that are encountered below the surface of the ground and the unique demands that
many buildings make upon the foundations, foundation design is a highly specialized
field of geotechnical engineering.
The soil at a construction site may not always be totally suitable for supporting
structures such as buildings, bridges, highways, and dams. For example, in granular
soil deposits, the in situ soil may be very loose and indicate a large elastic settlement.
In such a case, the soil needs to be densified to increase its unit weight and thus its
shear strength. Sometimes the top layers of soil are undesirable and must be removed
and replaced with better soil on which the structural foundation can be built. The soil
used as fill should be well compacted to sustain the desired structural load. Compacted
fills may also be required in low-lying areas to raise the ground elevation for
construction of the foundation.
Soft saturated clay layers are often encountered at shallow depths below
foundations. Depending on the structural load and the depth of the layers, unusually
large consolidation settlement may occur. Special soil improvement techniques are
required to minimize settlement. Improving in situ soils by using additives is usually
referred to as stabilization.
Various techniques are used to
1. Reduce the settlement of structures
2. Improve the shear strength of soil and thus increase the bearing capacity of
shallow foundations
3. Increase the factor of safety against possible slope failure
4. Reduce the shrinkage and swelling of soils
SOIL IMPROVEMENT
31
This chapter discusses some of the general principles of soil improvement, such as
compaction, vibroflotation, precompression, sand drains, wick drains, stabilization by
admixtures, jet grouting, and deep mixing, as well as the use of stone columns and
sand compaction piles in weak clay to construct foundations.
3.1 Sand Replacement

There are basically two types of soil replacement methods: (1) removal and
replacement, and (2) displacement. The first method is the most common approach and
it consists of the removal of the compressible soil layer and replacement with
structural fill during the grading operations. Usually the removal and replacement
grading option is only economical if the compressible soil layer is near the ground
surface and the ground water table is below the compressible soil layer or the ground
water table can be economically lowered.
In case soil strata have weak soil of upper layer and strong soil of the lower and
when the weak layer is small (less than 3m) or the upper layer is not so weak, the most
common method is eliminate all or part of the weak soil then replace them by strong
material such as sand. Footings are set on the strong replacement.
Leveling concrete
100
h1
hm
2
1
hy
b
0.5h
0.5h
weak
soil
bt=b+h
Sand cushion
(a)
stiff
soil
h1
weak
soil
1
1~1.5
(b)
Figure 3-1 (a) Completed sand replacement (b) Partial sand replacement
The filled soils normally compacted by layers of 300~500mm to ensure the quality
as designed request. Sands from small to medium are widely used as replacement
materials so in Vietnam this method is also called sand cushion. The properties of
filled sand listed as follow would be easily achieved with not so hard effort of
compaction.
- Natural weight unit, = 18kN/m3
SOIL IMPROVEMENT
32
- Internal friction angle, =30o

- Deformation modulus, E0 = 16MPa
The filled sand must be thick enough to reduce the pressures at the footing to a
bearable pressure of the weak soil at the end of sand cushion. The problem requires the
bearing capacity consideration of layered soils mentioned at section 2.4.6. Note that
the sand cushion is taken into account as the stronger layer and the soil underneath the
sand cushion is the weaker layer. The pressure acting on the weaker layer consists of
two components (1) total vertical overburden (geostatic) pressure mentioned in the
Soil mechanics text book (2) vertical stress increment described in section 2.3.4.
On the other hand, with the thick enough of sand cushion, foundation settlement
could be reduced significantly. The settlement must satisfy at least the serviceability
conditions discussed in section 2.5.3.2.
It should be noted that in construction work of soil replacement, the original soil
would be removed by excavation therefor the engineer should estimate the soil slope
of the excavation. The slope could be predicted empirically, approximately vertical to
horizontal ratio, m = 1:1 to 1.5:1 is applied.
3.2 Sand Compaction Piles

Compaction piles are displacement piles can be driven into the ground in order to
increase the density of the soil. The soil is densified by both the actual displacement of
the soil and the vibration of the ground that occurs during the driving process. In
addition, there must be relatively close spacing of the piles in order to provide
meaningful densification of soil between the piles.
Sand compaction piles are one of compaction piles. They can be used in sites to
improve stability, control liquefaction, and reduce the settlement of various structures.
Built in soft clay, these piles can significantly accelerate the pore water pressuredissipation process and hence the time for consolidation.
Sand piles were first constructed in Japan between 1930 and 1950 (Ichimoto,
1981). Large-diameter compacted sand columns were constructed in 1955, using the
Compozer technique (Aboshi et al., 1979). The Vibro-Compozer method of sand pile
construction was developed by Murayama in Japan in 1958 (Murayama, 1962).
Sand compaction piles are constructed by driving a hollow mandrel with its
bottom closed during driving (see Figure 3-3). On partial withdrawal of the mandrel,
the bottom doors open. Sand is poured from the top of the mandrel and is compacted
in steps by applying air pressure as the mandrel is withdrawn. The piles are usually
0.40 to 0.76m in diameter and are placed at about 1.5 to 3m center to center. The
pattern of layout of sand compaction piles is shown as Figure 3-2(a) for equiangular
triangle. Sometimes, square layout is used for the sand piles.
Basore and Boitano (1969) reported a case history on the densification of a
granular subsoil having a thickness of about 9 m at the Treasure Island Naval Station
in San Francisco, California, using sand compaction piles. The sand piles had
diameters of 356 mm. Figure 3-2(a) shows the layout of the sand piles. The spacing,
SOIL IMPROVEMENT
33
S, between the piles was varied. The standard penetration resistances, N60, before and
after the construction of piles are shown in Figure 3-2(b) (see location of SPT test in
Figure 3-2(a)).
From this figure, it can be seen that the effect of densification at any given depth
decreases with the increase in S (or S/D). These tests show that when S/D exceeds
about 4 to 5, the effect of densification is practically negligible.
Figure 3-2 Sand compaction pile test of Basore and Boitano (1969): (a) Layout of the
compaction piles; (b) Standard penetration resistance variation with depth and S
SOIL IMPROVEMENT
34
Figure 3-3 Sand compaction pile mandrel tip

To improve soil by sand compaction piles, the engineer needs to consider:
- Diameter of the piles
- Length of the piles
- Plan layout and distance among the piles
- Determine the improved soil properties
3.2.1 Characteristics of Sand Compaction Piles
Sand compaction piles are circular with diameter of 400 600mm, 400mm is
widely used in Viet Nam;
Length of the piles, L, must be deep enough in order to improve the soils
influenced by loading. When the effective depth Hn of soil is deeper than that of weak
soil then the pile length should be controlled by depth of the weak soil hy. In the other
case, L should be controlled by Hn. The length L could be expressed as follow (see
Figure 3-4).
{
Eq. 3-1
Properties of the sand compacted piles would be collected as sand replacement

methods mentioned above as follows
- Natural weight unit, = 18kN/m3
- Internal friction angle, =30o
- Deformation modulus, E0 = 16MPa
SOIL IMPROVEMENT
35
Sand blanket
hy
500
500
weak
soil
L=Hn +500
Hn
L=hy- hm+500
300
hm
weak
soil
stiff
soil
Sand compaction
piles
stiff
soil
bnc=1.4b
0.2b
Compaction
Area, Fnc
0.2b
0.2b
0.2b
lnc=l+0.4b
Figure 3-4 Characteristic of sand compaction piles for a spread footing

3.2.2 Sand Compaction Pile Working Procedure
Sand compaction piles are driven into soils by the following steps:
Setting the casing at working point, keep casing bottom at ground level and
keep sand level gauge and depth gauge at 0;
Put casing into ground by hammer, hit with checking current gauge and depth
gauge;
When casing inserted 5m from ground level, hold sand level gauge 3m from
ground level. When depth gauge indicate exact central, brake the hammer
winch, hold casing input;
Put sand in casing with open dump valve of hopper;
SOIL IMPROVEMENT
36
Figure 3-5 Sand compaction pile working procedure

Keep sand level gauge in working;
Start casing put out, and check sand level indicator going down;
Put casing 2m in ground (with checking depth level gauge);
Stop casing out when sand level gauge indicate 1.5m;
Put sand inside with sand level plumb winding up;
Keep sand level gauge down again;
Take out of casing with check sand level indicator (standard 3m)
Repeat step 7; 8 and 9
When depth gauge indicate 1m from ground level, open pressure valve in
casing and stop air jet close exhaust valve Put out casing slowly and
stop the hammer
3.2.3 Applied Assumptions in Calculation of Sand Compaction Piles
-
The void ratio of soil decreases the same at everywhere in the space between
the piles;
The decrease volume are the void decrease, soil particle volume are constant;
Water content is constant through the compaction process;
Soil does not move upward out of ground surface.
3.2.4 Principle of Sand Compaction Pile Analyses

Consider a footing with effect area of F which consists of two components area of
soil particle, Fh, and area of void Fr. See Figure 3-6(a). Following expressions show
the relations among them and initial void ratio, eo:
SOIL IMPROVEMENT
eo
Fr
Fh
Fh
1
F
1 eo
37
Fr
eo
F
1 eo
Eq. 3-2
Now after improving, sand piles have occupied area of Fc replacement of the void
only then improved void ratio, etk and area of the piles Fc could be shown in two ways:
Eq. 3-3
Eq. 3-4
The Eq. 3-3 used to determine improved void ratio in case of knowing sand
compaction piles information. Eq. 3-4 on the other hand is applied to get the required
area of sand piles if a void ratio, enc, already prescribed.
Fr
Fr
Fh
Fh
(a)
(b)
Fc
Figure 3-6 Principle of sand compaction pile analyses
3.2.5 Plan layout and Distance of Sand Compaction Pile

a) Conventional compaction area for footing
The conventional compaction area, Fnc, for strip footing and spread footing are
shown in Figure 3-7 by expand out from the edges of footing to all directions a
distance of 0.2b, where b = width of the footing.
For strip footing with 1m length in the long direction
Eq. 3-5
For spread footing
Eq. 3-6
SOIL IMPROVEMENT
38
bnc=1.4b
0.2b
0.2b
1m
(a)
Sand compaction piles
bnc=1.4b
0.2b
Compaction
Area, Fnc
0.2b
0.2b
0.2b
lnc=l+0.4b
(b)
Figure 3-7 Compaction area for (a) strip footing and (b) spread footing
b) Requirement of Number of Sand compaction piles for a Footing

In order to get an expected void ratio, etk, after soil improvement, a volume of sand
compaction piles should be installed into the soil. This volume of sand depends on the
compaction area, Fnc, the decrease of void ratio e=e0-etk, diameter of the sand pile, .
Having obtained the volume of sand compaction pile by Eq. 3-4, the required
number of sand pile, nsp, could be calculated by the following equation
SOIL IMPROVEMENT
39
eo etk
Fnc
Fc
1 eo
nsp
2
F1c
4
Eq. 3-7
The number of sand compaction piles should be arranged appropriately in the

compaction area. The axisymmetric principle should be respected in arrangement. Two
types of arrangement in plan layout widely applied in practice are (1) Equiangular
triangle layout, and (2) Square layout.
c) Equiangular triangle plan layout
1 2
3 2
Dc sin 60
Dc
2
4
Eq. 3-8
1 2
Fc
2 4
Eq. 3-9
Where
F = Area of the triangle ABC;

Fc = Area of sand compaction piles installed into the triangle ABC;
= Diameter of the sand piles;
Dc = Distance center to center between the sand piles;
On the other hand, the area of sand piles could be calculated by substituting Eq.
3-8 into Eq. 3-4:
Fc
eo etk
e e 3 2
F o tk
Dc
1 eo
1 eo 4
Eq. 3-10
From Eq. 3-9 and Eq. 3-10, a relation between void ratios and sand pile distance is
obtained as:
1 2 eo etk 3 2
Dc
2 4
1 eo 4
Eq. 3-11
Based on Eq. 3-11, two ways of the problems could be solved:
Dc 0,952
1 eo
eo etk
2
2
enc eo 1 0,906 2 0,906 2
Dc
Dc
Eq. 3-12
Eq. 3-13
The Eq. 3-12 is applied to get the required distance between sand piles if improved
void ratio, etk, is prescribed. Eq. 3-13 on the other hand is used to determine a void
ratio, enc, after the soil improving in case of knowing the distance of sand piles.
SOIL IMPROVEMENT

A
Dc
40
Dc
Dc
Dc
Dc
Dc
Dc
(a)
(b)
Figure 3-8 Plan layout of sand compaction piles (a) equiangular triangle (b) Square
d) Square plan layout
Consider a unit area square ABCD, (see Figure 3-8(b)):
F Dc
Fc
Eq. 3-14
Eq. 3-15
Where
F = Area of the square ABCD;

Fc = Area of sand compaction piles installed into the square ABCD;
= Diameter of the sand piles;
Dc = Distance center to center between the sand piles;
On the other hand, the area of sand piles could be calculated by substituting Eq.
3-14 into Eq. 3-4:
Fc
eo e *
e etk 2
F o
Dc
1 eo
1 eo
Eq. 3-16
From Eq. 3-15 and Eq. 3-16, a relation between void ratios and sand pile distance
is obtained as:
2
4
eo etk 2
Dc
1 eo
Eq. 3-17
Based on Eq. 3-17, two ways of the problems could be solved:
Dc 0,886
1 eo
eo etk
2
2
enc eo 1 0,786 2 0,786 2
Dc
Dc
Eq. 3-18
Eq. 3-19
SOIL IMPROVEMENT
41
The Eq. 3-18 is applied to get the required distance between sand piles if improved
void ratio, etk, is prescribed. Eq. 3-19 on the other hand is used to determine a void
ratio, enc, after the soil improving in case of knowing the distance of sand piles.
3.2.6 Estimation of Improved Soil Properties
Soft soil encountered in building construction is one of the most troublesome jobs.
Sand compaction pile is one of soil treatments method. Definitely after the works, soil
properties would become better, but how the better is usually a tough question.
Basically, it is necessary to carry out a site test such as plate loading test, SPT or CPT
to inspect the improved soil properties.
But since the analyses and design of sand compaction piles is accomplished, the
design is not decided and the experiments also are not yet carried out. Therefore, a
simple and conservative approach called Equivalent Soil to estimate improved soil
properties is presented as follows
Ach
( F Fc ). A Fc . Ac
F
Eq. 3-20
Where
F = Area of the treatment unit;

Fc = Area of sand compaction piles installed into the unit;
A = Properties of the original soils;
Ac = Properties of the sand compaction piles;
Ach = Equivalent properties of soils and sand compaction piles after
treatment;
This text book would like to suppose an empirical approach applied for loose
sand, sandy soil, and clayed sand. This approach is quite simple and is recommended
by Dr. Nguyen Dinh Tien, a veteran expert in geotechnical engineering of Viet Nam.
This method could be described as follows:
If soil is one of the mentioned types above, and the void ratio is around or greater
than 1.0 then after doing sand compaction piles, if the improved void ratio is less than
that of original soil about 0.3 then the properties of the soil would be multiplied by 3.0.
It means that if
etk = e0 0.3
then
Etk = 3E0
Eq. 3-21
[p] tk = 3[p]
Where
Etk = deformation modulus of the equivalent soil;

E0 = deformation modulus of the original soil;
[p] tk = allowable bearing capacity of the equivalent soil;
[p] = allowable bearing capacity of the original soil;
e0 = initial void ratio of the original soil
etk = void ratio of soil compacted
SOIL IMPROVEMENT
42
For both approximate approaches unit weight of the compacted soil, nc, is
nc
Where
. o (1 W )
1 etk
Eq. 3-22
= specific density;
0 = Unit weight of water = 10kN/m3;
W = water content
etk = void ratio of soil compacted
3.3 Vibroflotation
Figure 3-9 Vibroflotation unit
SOIL IMPROVEMENT
43
Vibroflotation is a technique developed in Germany in the 1930s for in situ

densification of thick layers of loose granular soil deposits. Vibroflotation was first
used in the United States about 10 years later. The process involves the use of a
vibroflot (called the vibrating unit), as shown in Figure 3-9. The device is about 2m in
length. This vibrating unit has an eccentric weight inside it and can develop a
centrifugal force. The weight enables the unit to vibrate horizontally. Openings at the
bottom and top of the unit are for water jets. The vibrating unit is attached to a followup pipe. The figure shows the vibroflotation equipment necessary for compaction in
the field.
Figure 3-10 Compaction by the vibroflotation process

The entire compaction process can be divided into four steps (see Figure 3-10):
Step 1. The jet at the bottom of the vibroflot is turned on, and the vibroflot is
lowered into the ground.
Step 2. The water jet creates a quick condition in the soil, which allows the
vibrating unit to sink.
Step 3. Granular material is poured into the top of the hole. The water from the
lower jet is transferred to the jet at the top of the vibrating unit. This water carries the
granular material down the hole.
Step 4. The vibrating unit is gradually raised in about 0.3m lifts and is held
vibrating for about 30 seconds at a time. This process compacts the soil to the desired
unit weight.
SOIL IMPROVEMENT
44
3.4 Blasting
Blasting is a technique that has been used successfully in many projects (Mitchell,
1970) for the densification of granular soils. The general soil grain sizes suitable for
compaction by blasting are the same as those for compaction by vibroflotation.
The process involves the detonation of explosive charges such as 60% dynamite at
a certain depth below the ground surface in saturated soil. The lateral spacing of the
charges varies from about 3 to 9m. Three to five successful detonations are usually
necessary to achieve the desired compaction. Compaction (up to a relative density of
about 80%) up to a depth of about 18 m over a large area can easily be achieved by
using this process. Usually, the explosive charges are placed at a depth of about twothirds of the thickness of the soil layer desired to be compacted. The sphere of
influence of compaction by a 60% dynamite charge can be given as follows (Mitchell,
1970):
Where
Eq. 3-23
r = sphere of influence
WEX = weight of explosive, 60% dynamite
C= 0.0122 when WEX is in kg, and r is in m
3.5 Precompression
When highly compressible, normally consolidated clayey soil layers lie at a
limited depth and large consolidation settlements are expected as the result of the
construction of large buildings, highway embankments, or earth dams, precompression
of soil may be used to minimize post-construction settlement. The principles of
precompression are best explained
Figure 3-11 Principles of precompression

SOIL IMPROVEMENT
45
The settlement time relationship under a surcharge of is also shown in Figure 3-11.
Note that a total settlement of Sc(p) would occur at time t2 which is much shorter than
t1. So, if a temporary total surcharge of (p) + (f) is applied on the ground surface
for time the settlement will equal Sc(p). At that time, if the surcharge is removed and a
structure with a permanent load per unit area of (p) is built, no appreciable
settlement will occur. The procedure just described is called precompression. The total
surcharge (p) + (f) can be applied by means of temporary fills.
In order to accelerate water dissipation, vertical drainages such as sand drained,
prefabricated vertical drained (PVD) normally is applied with precompression method.
Figure 3-12 Sand drain
Figure 3-13 Prefabricated vertical drain

(PVD)
3.6 Stone Columns

A method now being used to increase the load-bearing capacity of shallow
foundations on soft clay layers is the construction of stone columns. This generally
consists of water-jetting a vibroflot (see Section 3.3) into the soft clay layer to make a
circular hole that extends through the clay to firmer soil. The hole is then filled with an
imported gravel. The gravel in the hole is gradually compacted as the vibrator is
withdrawn. The gravel used for the stone column has a size range of 6 to 40mm. Stone
SOIL IMPROVEMENT
46
columns usually have diameters of 0.5 to 0.75m and are spaced at about 1.5 to 3m
center to center. Figure 3-14 shows the construction of a stone column.
After stone columns are constructed, a fill material should always be placed over
the ground surface and compacted before the foundation is constructed. The stone
columns tend to reduce the settlement of foundations at allowable loads. Several case
histories of construction projects using stone columns are presented in Hughes and
Hughes and Withers (1974), Hughes et al. (1975), Mitchell and Huber (1985), and
other works.
Stone columns work more effectively when they are used to stabilize a large area
where the undrained shear strength of the subsoil is in the range of 10 to than to
improve the bearing capacity of structural foundations (Bachus and Barksdale, 1989).
Subsoils weaker than that may not provide sufficient lateral support for the columns.
For large-site improvement, stone columns are most effective to a depth of 6 to 10m.
However, they have been constructed to a depth of 31m. Bachus and Barksdale
provided the following general guidelines for the design of stone columns to stabilize
large areas. Figure 3-14(a) shows the plan view of several stone columns.
Figure 3-14 (a) Stone columns in a triangular pattern; (b) stress concentration due to
change in stiffness
3.7 Dynamic Compaction

Dynamic compaction is a technique that is beginning to gain popularity in the
United States for densification of granular soil deposits. The process primarily
involves dropping a heavy weight repeatedly on the ground at regular intervals. The
weight of the hammer used varies from 8 to 35 metric tons, and the height of the
hammer drop varies between 7.5 and 30.5m
The stress waves generated by the hammer drops help in the densification. The
degree of compaction achieved depends on
The weight of the hammer
SOIL IMPROVEMENT
47
The height of the drop

The spacing of the locations at which the hammer is dropped
Leonards et al. (1980) suggested that the significant depth of influence for
compaction is approximately
Where
Eq. 3-24
DI = significant depth of densification (m)

WH = dropping weight (metric ton)
h= height of drop (m)
Figure 3-15 Rig of Dynamic compaction
Figure 3-16 Dynamic compaction, working procedure

SOIL IMPROVEMENT
48
Figure 3-17 Effects of soil Improvement by Dynamic compaction & Vibroflotation
3.8 Jet Grouting

Jet grouting is a soil stabilization process whereby cement slurry in injected into
soil at a high velocity to form a soilconcrete matrix. Conceptually, the process of jet
grouting was first developed in the 1960s. Most of the research work after that was
conducted in Japan (Ohta and Shibazaki, 1982). The technique was introduced into
Europe in the late 1970s, whereas the process was first used in the United States in the
early 1980s (Welsh, Rubright, and Coomber, 1986).
Three basic systems of jet grouting have been developed: single, double, and triple
rod systems. In all cases, hydraulic rotary drilling is used to reach the design depth at
which the soil has to be stabilized. Figure 3-18a shows the single rod system in which
a cement slurry is injected at a high velocity to form a soilcement matrix. In the
double rod system (Figure 3-18b), the cement slurry is injected at a high velocity
sheathed in a cone of air at an equally high velocity to erode and mix the soil well. The
triple rod system (Figure 3-18c) uses high-pressure water shielded in a cone of air to
erode the soil. The void created in this process is then filled with a pre-engineering
cement slurry.
The effectiveness of the jet grouting is very much influenced by the nature of
erodibility of soil. Gravelly soil and clean sand are highly erodible, whereas highly
plastic clays are difficult to erode. A summary of the range of parameters generally
encountered for the three systems above follows (Welsh and Burke, 1991; Burke,
2004):
SOIL IMPROVEMENT
49
Figure 3-18 Jet grouting
3.9 Recommendation of Improvement Methods for Soils

Figure 3-19 shows the ranges of soil grain size in which the improvement methods
are effectively applied.
Figure 3-19 Site improvement methods as a function of soil grain size

SOIL IMPROVEMENT
CHAPTER 4:
50
PILE FOUNDATIONS
4.1 Definitions and classifications

4.1.1 Definitions
a. Historical
Pile foundations are the part of a structure used to carry and transfer the load of the
structure to the bearing ground located at some depth below ground surface.
Pile foundations have been used as load carrying and load transferring systems for
many years. In the early days of civilization, from the communication, defense or
strategic point of view villages and towns were situated near to rivers and lakes. It was
therefore important to strengthen the bearing ground with some form of piling.
Timber piles were driven in to the ground by hand or holes were dug and filled
with sand and stones.
In 1740 Christoffoer Polhem invented pile driving equipment which resembled to
days pile driving mechanism. Steel piles have been used since 1800 and concrete piles
since about 1900.
The industrial revolution brought about important changes to pile driving system
through the invention of steam and diesel driven machines.
More recently, the growing need for housing and construction has forced
authorities and development agencies to exploit lands with poor soil characteristics.
This has led to the development and improved piles and pile driving systems. Today
there are many advanced techniques of pile installation.
b. Function of piles
As with other types of foundations, the purpose of pile foundations is:
to transmit a foundation load to a solid ground
to resist vertical, lateral and uplift load
A structure can be founded on piles if the soil immediately beneath its base does
not have adequate bearing capacity. If the results of site investigation show that the
shallow soil is unstable and weak or if the magnitude of the estimated settlement is not
acceptable a pile foundation may become considered. Further, a cost estimate may
indicate that a pile foundation may be cheaper than any other compared ground
improvement costs.
In the cases of heavy constructions, it is likely that the bearing capacity of the
shallow soil will not be satisfactory, and the construction should be built on pile
foundations. Piles can also be used in normal ground conditions to resist horizontal
loads. Piles are a convenient method of foundation for works over water, such as
jetties or bridge piers.
PILE FOUNDATIONS
51
c. Main components of pile foundation

Normally, pile foundations consist of pile cap and a group of piles. The pile cap
distributes the applied load to the individual piles which, in turn, transfer the load to
the bearing ground. The individual piles are spaced and connected to the pile cap or tie
beams and trimmed in order to connect the pile to the structure at cut-off level, and
depending on the type of structure and eccentricity of the load, they can be arranged in
different patterns.
Piles are long and slender members which transfer the load to deeper soil or rock
of high bearing capacity avoiding shallow soil of low bearing capacity. The main types
of materials used for piles are Wood, steel and concrete. Piles made from these
materials are driven, drilled or jacked into the ground and connected to pile caps.
Depending upon type of soil, pile material and load transmitting characteristic piles are
classified accordingly.
Pile cap is the structure to combine the piles and transfer the upper structure load
to the piles. Normally, the pile cap is considered to be infinitely rigid.
d. Specific definitions and terms

Driven or displacement piles which are usually preformed before being
driven, jacked, screwed or hammered into the ground.
Bored or replacement piles which first require a hole to be bored into
which the pile is then formed, usually reinforced concrete.
Group of piles: several piles installed one close to other and having
common piles cap.
Base resistance : soil reaction applied to the pile end section
Shaft resistance: the friction between pile lateral surface and surrounding
soil.
Negative friction: the friction between pile lateral surface and the
surrounding soil, having same direction with external loading. The negative
friction is created when the surrounding soil go down faster than the pile.
Pile ultimate bearing capacity: the maximal load that the pile can bear
before damage. This ultimate load capacity can be determined by either
the use of empirical formula to predict capacity from soil properties
determined by testing, or load test on piles at the site.
Pile admissible bearing capacity: the pile admissible bearing capacity is
calculated by dividing the ultimate value to the security factor Fs.
Pile designed load: the predicted load applied to the pile.
Low pile cap foundation: foundation with the pile cap positioned under the
ground surface. By this constitution, the calculation will be carried out with
assumption that all lateral load being equilibrant with soil lateral stress
applied to pile cap. The pile receive only longitudinal load from pile cap.
PILE FOUNDATIONS
52
High pile cap foundation: foundation with the pile cap positioned upper the
ground surface. The pile therefore receives not only longitudinal load, but
also transversal load.
Figure 4-1: Low pile cap foundation High pile cap foundation
4.1.2 Classifications of piles

a. Classification of pile with respect to type of material
Timber pile
Used from earliest record time and still used for permanent works in regions where
timber is plentiful. Timber is most suitable for long cohesion piling and piling beneath
embankments. The timber should be in a good condition and should not have been
attacked by insects. For timber piles of length less than 14 meters, the diameter of the
tip should be greater than 150 mm. If the length is greater than 18 meters a tip with a
diameter of 125 mm is acceptable. It is essential that the timber is driven in the right
direction and should not be driven into firm ground. As this can easily damage the
pile, keeping the timber below the ground water level will protect the timber against
decay and putrefaction. To protect and strengthen the tip of the pile, timber piles can
be provided with toe cover. Pressure creosoting is the usual method of protecting
timber piles.
PILE FOUNDATIONS
53
Concrete pile
Pre cast concrete Piles or Pre fabricated concrete piles: Usually of square, triangle,
circle or octagonal section, they are produced in short length in one meter intervals
between 3 and 13 meters. They are pre-caste so that they can be easily connected
together in order to reach to the required length. This will not decrease the design load
capacity. Reinforcement is necessary within the pile to help withstand both handling
and driving stresses. Pre stressed concrete piles are also used and are becoming more
popular than the ordinary pre cast as less reinforcement is required.
Steel pile
Steel piles: steel/ Iron piles are suitable for handling and driving in long lengths.
Their relatively small cross-sectional area combined with their high strength makes
penetration easier in firm soil. They can be easily cut off or joined by welding. If the
pile is driven into a soil with low pH value, then there is a risk of corrosion, but risk of
corrosion is not as great as one might think. Although tar coating or cathodic
protection can be employed in permanent works, it is common to allow for an amount
of corrosion in design by simply over dimensioning the cross-sectional area of the
steel pile. In this way the corrosion process can be prolonged up to 50 years. Normally
the speed of corrosion is 0.2-0.5 mm/year and, in design, this value can be taken as
1mm/year.
a) X- crosssection
b) H - crosssection
c) steel pipe
Figure 4-2: Steel pile cross section

Composite pile
Combination of different materials in the same of pile. As indicated earlier, part of
a timber pile which is installed above ground water could be vulnerable to insect attack
and decay. To avoid this, concrete or steel pile is used above the ground water level,
whilst wood pile is installed under the ground water level.
b. Classification of pile with respect to load transmission and functional behavior

End bearing piles
These piles transfer their load on to a firm stratum located at a considerable depth
below the base of the structure and they derive most of their carrying capacity from the
penetration resistance of the soil at the toe of the pile. The pile behaves as an ordinary
PILE FOUNDATIONS
54
column and should be designed as such. Even in weak soil a pile will not fail by
buckling and this effect need only be considered if part of the pile is unsupported, i.e.
if it is in either air or water. Load is transmitted to the soil through friction or cohesion.
But sometimes, the soil surrounding the pile may adhere to the surface of the pile and
causes "Negative Skin Friction" on the pile. This, sometimes have considerable effect
on the capacity of the pile. Negative skin friction is caused by the drainage of the
ground water and consolidation of the soil. The founding depth of the pile is
influenced by the results of the site investigate on and soil test.
Figure 4-3: End bearing pile

Friction or Cohesion piles
Carrying capacity is derived mainly from the adhesion or friction of the soil in
contact with the shaft of the pile.
Figure 4-4: Friction or Cohesion pile
Cohesion piles
These piles transmit most of their load to the soil through skin friction. This
process of driving such piles close to each other in groups greatly reduces the porosity
and compressibility of the soil within and around the groups. Therefore piles of this
category are sometimes called compaction piles. During the process of driving the pile
PILE FOUNDATIONS
55
into the ground, the soil becomes mounded and, as a result loses some of its strength.
Therefore the pile is not able to transfer the exact amount of load which it is intended
to immediately after it has been driven. Usually, the soil regains some of its strength
three to five months after it has been driven.
Friction piles
These piles also transfer their load to the ground through skin friction. The process
of driving such piles does not compact the soil appreciably. These types of pile
foundations are commonly known as floating pile foundations.
Combination of friction piles and cohesion piles
An extension of the end bearing pile when the bearing stratum is not hard, such as
a firm clay. The pile is driven far enough into the lower material to develop adequate
frictional resistance. A farther variation of the end bearing pile is piles with enlarged
bearing areas. This is achieved by forcing a bulb of concrete into the soft stratum
immediately above the firm layer to give an enlarged base. A similar effect is
produced with bored piles by forming a large cone or bell at the bottom with a special
reaming tool. Bored piles which are provided with a bell have a high tensile strength
and can be used as tension piles.
Figure 4-5: under-reamed base enlargement to a bore-and-cast-in-situ pile

c. Classification of pile with respect to effect on the soil
A simplified division into driven or bored piles is often employed.
Driven piles
Driven piles are considered to be displacement piles. In the process of driving the
pile into the ground, soil is moved radially as the pile shaft enters the ground. There
may also be a component of movement of the soil in the vertical direction.
Advantages and utilization:
o Driven piles can go down to 30 35m depth in the sand or cohesion soil.
The cross section varies from 20x20 to 40x40cm.
o Easy for execution
o Construction fee is reasonable.
o Pile quality is well controlled and supervised.
PILE FOUNDATIONS
56
Figure 4-6: Concrete driven piles system
Bored piles
Bored piles (Replacement piles) are generally considered to be non-displacement
piles. A void is formed by boring or excavation before piles is produced. Piles can be
produced by casting concrete in the void. Some soils such as stiff clays are particularly
amenable to the formation of piles in this way, since the bore hole walls do not
requires temporary support except cloth to the ground surface. In unstable ground,
such as gravel the ground requires temporary support from casing or bentonite slurry.
Alternatively the casing may be permanent, but driven into a hole which is bored as
casing is advanced. A different technique, which is still essentially non-displacement,
is to intrude, a grout or a concrete from an auger which is rotated into the granular soil,
and hence produced a grouted column of soil.
There are three non-displacement methods: bored cast- in - place piles, particularly
pre-formed piles and grout or concrete intruded piles.
PILE FOUNDATIONS
57
Figure 4-7: Drilling auger types: short section single flight double flight
Bored piles are largely used for high-rise buildings, bridges constructions in
Vietnam during last 10 years. The pile diameter varies from 0,6 to 1,5m, and even 3m,
and the depth can reach until 100m. For example, the Thuan Phuoc bridge has bored
piles of 2,5m diameter and pile tip at 50 70m depth
Procedure of a bored pile consists of following steps:
-
Site clearance and preparation
Boring or excavation
Rebar installation
On site pouring concrete
Completion of bored pile
Quality test of bored piles
Pile cap construction.
PILE FOUNDATIONS
58
Figure 4-8: Bored pile phasing: Site preparation Positioning Excavation Rebar
installation Conrete pouring Pile completion.
4.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of different pile material

Pile types
Wood piles
Advantages
Disadvantages
o The piles are easy to handle
o The piles will rot above the

ground water level. Have a
o Relatively inexpensive where
limited bearing capacity.
timber is plentiful.
o Sections can be joined o Can easily be damaged during
driving
by
stones
and
together and excess length
boulders.
easily removed.
o The piles are difficult to splice
and are attacked by marine
borers in salt water.
Prefabricated o Do not corrode or rot.

concrete piles
o Relatively difficult to cut.
PILE FOUNDATIONS

(reinforced)
and
prestressed
concrete
piles.
(Driven)
affected by
the ground
water
conditions.
59
o Are easy to splice. Relatively o Displacement, heave, and

inexpensive.
disturbance of the soil during
driving.
o The quality of the concrete
can be checked before driving. o Can be damaged during
driving. Replacement piles
o Stable in squeezing ground,
may be required.
for example, soft clays, silts
and peats pile material can be o Sometimes problems
inspected before piling.
noise and vibration.
with
o Can be re driven if affected by o Cannot be driven with very

ground heave. Construction
large diameters or in condition
procedure
unaffected
by
of limited headroom.
ground water.
o Can be driven in long lengths.
Can be carried above ground
level, for example, through
water for marine structures.
o Can increase the relative
density of a granular founding
stratum.
Driven and
cast-in-place
concrete piles
Permanently
cased (casing
left in the
ground)
Temporarily
cased or
uncased
(casing
retrieved)
o Can be inspected before o Heave of neighbouring ground

casting can easily be cut or
surface, which could lead to re
extended to the desired length.
consolidation
and
the
development of negative skin
o Relatively inexpensive.
friction forces on piles.
o Low noise level.
o Displacement
of
nearby
o The piles can be cast before
retaining walls. Lifting of
excavation.
previously driven piles, where
the penetration at the toe has
o Pile lengths are readily
been sufficient to resist
adjustable.
upward movements.
o An enlarged base can be
damage
to
formed which can increase the o Tensile
unreinforced
piles
or
piles
relative density of a granular
consisting of green concrete,
founding stratum leading to
where forces at the toe have
much higher end bearing
been sufficient to resist
capacity.
upward movements.
o Reinforcement
is
not
determined by the effects of o Damage piles consisting of
uncased or thinly cased green
handling or driving stresses.
concrete due to the lateral
o Can be driven with closed end
forces set up in the soil, for
so excluding the effects of
example, necking or waisting.
GW
Concrete cannot be inspected
after completion. Concrete
may be weakened if artesian
PILE FOUNDATIONS
60
flow pipes up shaft of piles
when tube is withdrawn.
o Light steel section or precast
concrete shells may be
damaged or distorted by hard
driving.
o Limitation in length owing to
lifting
forces
required
withdrawing casing, nose
vibration
and
ground
displacement may a nuisance
or may damage adjacent
structures.
o Cannot be driven
headroom is limited.
where
o Relatively expensive.
o Time consuming. Cannot be
used immediately after the
installation.
o Limited length.
Bored and
cast in -place
(non displacement
piles)
o Length can be readily varied o Susceptible to "waisting" or

to suit varying ground
"necking"
in
squeezing
conditions.
ground.
o Soil removed in boring can be o Concrete is not placed under
inspected and if necessary
ideal conditions and cannot be
sampled or in- situ test made.
subsequently inspected.
o Can be installed in very large o Water under artesian pressure
diameters.
may pipe up pile shaft
washing out cement.
o End enlargement up to two or
three diameters is possible in o Enlarged ends cannot be
clays.
formed
in
cohesionless
materials
without
special
o Material of piles is not
techniques.
dependent on handling or
o Cannot be readily extended
above ground level especially
o Can be installed in very long
in river and marine structures.
lengths.
o Can be installed without o Boring methods may loosen
sandy or gravely soils
appreciable
noise
or
requiring base grouting to
vibrations.
achieve economical base
o Can be installed in conditions
resistance.
of very low headroom.
o Sinking piles may cause loss
of ground I cohesion-less
driving conditions.
PILE FOUNDATIONS

o No risk of ground heaves.
Steel piles
(Rolled steel
section)
61
leading to settlement
adjacent structures.
of
o The piles are easy to handle o The piles will corrode,

and can easily be cut to o Will deviate relatively easy
desired length.
during driving.
o Can be driven through dense o Are relatively expensive.
layers.
The
lateral
displacement of the soil
during driving is low (steel
section H or I section piles)
can be relatively easily spliced
or bolted.
o Can be driven hard and in
very long lengths.
o Can carry heavy loads.
o Can be successfully anchored
in sloping rock.
o Small displacement piles
particularly useful if ground
displacements and disturbance
critical.
PILE FOUNDATIONS
62
4.2 Constitution of a Prefabricated Reinforced Concrete Pile

Relatively, in comparable circumstances, concrete piles have much more
resistance against corrosive elements that can rust steel piles or to the effects that
causes decay of wood piles, furthermore concrete is available in most parts of the
world than steel.
Concrete piles may be pre-cast or cast-in place. They may be are reinforced, prestressed or plain.
In this paragraph, we learn about the prefabricated reinforced concrete piles. These
are piles which are formed, cast to specified lengths and shapes and cured at pre
casting stations before driven in to the ground. Depending up on project type and
specification, their shape and length are regulated at the prefab site. Usually they came
in square, octagonal or circular cross-section. The diameter and the length of the piles
are mostly governed by handling stresses. In most cases they are limited to less than 25
m in length and 0.5 m in diameter. Sometimes it is required to cut off and splice to
adjust for different length. Where part of pile is above ground level, the pile may serve
as column.
Material
Reinforced concrete piles are prefabricated with concrete grade 250 300. Prestressed piles used the concrete grade 400 for high pile cap foundation, and 300 for
low pile cap foundation.
Dimensions
Pile length: The length of prefabricated pile varies from 05 to 25m in general. In
some particular case, the length can reach 40 45 m. Due to transportation and
installation reason, the pile can be splited into short lengths (between 6 and 8 meters).
They can be easily connected together on site during installation in order to reach the
required length.
Section: Concrete pile can have different cross sections: round, square, triangle,
rectangle, donut, I section ... But the most used is square section, because of its
advantages in fabrication and execution on site. The section of square section pile is
20x20cm, 25x25cm, 30x30cm, 35x35cm and 40x40cm. The maximal length of pile is
recommended in below table:
Section (cm)
Recommended length (m)
20
5
25
12
30
15
35
18
40
21
45
25
The ratio between pile length l and section width b or section diameter d is called
pile slenderness, .
l
d
PILE FOUNDATIONS
63
Figure 4-9: Different cross section of piles

For driven piles, the slenderness is recommended to be limited at 100. In case
that is more than 100, it is necessary to use additional methode statement in order to
ensure pile form during installation.
Rebar:
In a reinforced concrete pile, there are 05 types of rebar as following:
Rebar (1): longitudinal bar, to reinforce the pile during transportation, positioning
when installation. For the high pile cap foundation, these rebars are designed to
receive lateral load. The diameter of this rebar is in general 10mm, grade CII or
AII. The thinkness of concrete cover (of reinforcement) is 3cm minimum.
Rebar (2): stirrup bar, to carry the shear and to fix the bar frame. The stirrup bar is
normally 6, 8 diameter, and can be spriral bar, or separate bar. Within 1 m from the
pile top, and 0,5m from the pile toe, the stirrup bar interval is 5cm in order to increase
the pile stiffness.
Rebar (3): reinforcement bar for the pile toe, with diameter 20cm, and the
length L = 750 1000mm. This bar is also used to identify the pile position.
Steel grid (4): at the pile top, is positioned some steel grid 6, a = 5cm, to carry
local stress occurred at the pile top when driving, to avoid pile top damage during pile
installation. We can design 4 or 5 grid with 5cm distance.
Hook rebar (5): used during transportation and positioning on the driven guide
system. The distance from hook rebar to the pile top/ toe is calculated in optimizing
the working of longitudinal rebar (negative moment and positive moment are equals)
during related phases.
In case of a long pile, the pile can be splitted in smaller parties. The connection
details of these parties are shown in following pictures.
Figure 4-10: Detailed design of prefabricated reinforced concrete pile
PILE FOUNDATIONS
64
Figure 4-11: Cross section of a square pile
Figure 4-12: Stirrup bar: separate bar and spriral bar
Figure 4-13: Details of pile toe
Figure 4-14: Steel grid at pile top Hook rebar
PILE FOUNDATIONS
65
Figure 4-15: Steel plate at the pile top.
Figure 4-16: Details of pile connection
PILE FOUNDATIONS
66
4.3 Bearing Capacity of a Single Pile

4.3.1 Definitions
A single pile and a pile in group have different bearing capacity. In general in
Vietnam, for the design of deep foundation, we use the assumption that each pile of a
(pile) foundation can mobilize its single bearing capacity.
The bearing capacity of a single pile is an important mechanical value, which will
be used during design phase, construction phase and also during the utilization of the
building. The correct determination of the single pile bearing capacity is very
important as this has big effect to the construction budget as well as the safety of
future construction.
The pile can be damaged by two following reasons:
Pile material is damaged during pile driving process,
Soil surrounding the pile is damaged during building utilization.
Therefore, in the design, two bearing capacities should be calculated, including
bearing capacity of pile material strength Pvl, and bearing capacity of soil strength Pdn.
The lowest value will be considered as pile bearing capacity P:
P = min (Pvl, Pn)
In general, as the driven force is 200% to 300% the allowable design load,
therefore, the appropriate value of Pvl = (2 3) Pdn
4.3.2 Pile axial bearing capacity.

a. Bearing capacity of pile material strength Pvl:
The bearing capacity of a reinforced concrete pile is calculated by formular:
Pvl = (Ra.Fa + Rb.Fb)
With,
Pvl ultimate capacity of pile material capacity.
Ra, Fa compressive strength and cross section area of longitudinal
rebars
Rb, Fb compressive strength and cross section area of concrete
buckling factor. When the pile goes through soft soil layer, the
buckling effect can appear which decrease the bearing capacity of pile. The
buckling factor shall be taken into account, dependant of the soft soil layer
thickness l0 and the pile diameter d or width b.
ltt/b
ltt/d
14
12,1
0,93
16
13,9
0,89
18
15,6
0,85
20
17,3
0,81
22
19,1
0,77
24
20,8
0,73
26
22
0,66
28
24,3
0,64
30
26
0,59
Where: ltt = l0 + 6d
PILE FOUNDATIONS
67
b. Statistical method
The statistical method bases on the relationship between the laboratory testing
results, pile portion depth with the skin friction (shaft resistance) and toe resistance
(base resistance) of the pile.
Friction pile
We assume that the skin friction is uniformly distributed on pile lateral surface
within each soil layer, and the soil toe reaction is uniformly distributed on the pile toe
cross section. The ultimate load capacity of a friction pile can be calculated by
following formula:
Ultimate value of Pile Compressive load capacity:
i 1
n m. F .R u. f i .li
Ultimate value of Pile Tractive load capacity:
k m.u. f i .li
i 1
With,
m Pile working condition factor, m = 1

F Cross section of pile toe. In case of extended pile toe, the cross
section is corresponding to the extended section.
R (or RN) Average ultimate strength (T/m2) of the soil under the pile
toe. This value is depending of the soil type and the pile toe level; refer
to the Table IV.1 Phan Hong Quans book.
u Perimeter of pile cross section.
fi (or i) Average skin friction between soil and pile, among each soil
layer. This value is depending of the soil state and average depth of
relater soil layer; refer to the Table IV.2 Phan Hong Quans book.
li Thickness of the soil elementary layer i. With assumption that the
skin friction is uniformly distributed along each soil layer, the layer
thichness is recommended 2m.
n total soil elementary layer quantity.
The admissible value of pile load capacity is calculated from the ultimate value but
with a load safety factor as below:
P tk n tcn n
Admissible value of Pile Compressive load capacity:
K
Admissible value of Pile Tractive load capacity:
P tk k
1,4
k
tc
K k 2,5
c. SPT result method

The Standard Penetration Testing (SPT) is largely used in the soil investigation in
the world. During the test, we use a normalized hammer (6,4kg weight) with dropping
free height of 76 cm to penetrate a normalized probe (5,1 cm of external diameter, and
45 cm length) in the bored hole. The SPT result is drop number N to penetrate the
PILE FOUNDATIONS
68
probe 30cm in the soil. From this N result, there are some empirical formulars to
calculate the pile load capacity.
Formular of Meyerhof (1956)
Pgh = Qs + Qc
Qs =
u .l K
i
.N i
Qc = K1. N n .F
Where,
N i , N n Average SPT result of the soil layer i and the soil under the pile
toe
K1 coefficient = 400 for driven pile and 120 for bored pile
K2 coefficient = 2 for driven pile and 1 for bored pile
F Cross section of pile toe.
ui Perimeter of pile cross section i
li Thickness of the soil elementary layer i.
The load safety factor for calculating the admissible value can be 2,5 4,0.
d. CPT result method

The Cone Penetration Testing (CPT) provides the pile toe resistance qc and the
skin friction fs when penetrate one normalized probe of 10cm2 section and 60o toe
angle.
q c1
q ci
u - chu vi
F - din tch
q cn
k.q
cn
Figure 4-17: sc khng bn qci v sc khng mi qcn trong th nghim CPT

From the qc and fs values, the ultimate pile load capacity can be determined by
following formular:
Pgh = Qs + Qc
n
Qs =
i 1
Where,
q ci
u l .
i i
Qc = Kc.F.qcn
qcn, qci CPT results corresponding to soil layer i, and soil layer under
the pile toe.
PILE FOUNDATIONS
69
i coefficient, can be estimated differently with different soils:

Clay :
= 30 40
Sandy clay : = 40 60
Dauk :
= 60 80
Sand :
= 80 150
Kc coefficient,
Prefabricated pile : Kc = 0,45 0,55
Bored pile :
Kc = 0,35 0,45
Admissible value by CPT result method:
P
Qs
Q
c , or
1,5 2 2 3
Pgh
Fs
Qs Qc
1,5 3
e. Static load test method

Static load tests were performed during the test phase to verify the design
assumptions and load-carrying capacity of the piles. Telltale rods installed at various
depths within the piles were used to evaluate the load transfer behavior of the piles
with regard to the surrounding soil and bearing stratum. The static tests were carried
out in general accordance with relevant standards/specifications.
Static loads were applied and maintained using a hydraulic jack and were
measured with a load cell. A typical load test arrangement is shown in following
figure. Reaction to the jack load is provided by a steel frame that is attached to an
array of steel H-piles located at least 3 m away from the test pile. Pile head deflections
were measured relative to a fixed reference beam using dial gauges. Telltale
measurements were made in reference to the pile head or the reference beam using dial
gauges. Pile head and telltale deflection data were recorded for each loading
increment.
Experimental procedure:
An excerpt from the loading procedures for short-duration load test is given
below:
Apply 25 percent of the allowable design load every one-half hour up to 200
percent of the design load. Longer time increments may be used, but each time
increment should be the same.
At 100 percent of the design load, unload to zero and hold for one-half hour; then
reload to 100 percent and continue 25 percent incremental loads.
At 150 percent, unload to zero and hold for one-half hour; then reload to 150
percent and continue 25 percent incremental loads. In no case shall the load be
changed if the rate of settlement is not decreasing with time.
PILE FOUNDATIONS
70
At the maximum applied load, maintain the load for a minimum of one hour and
until the settlement (measured at the lowest point of the pile at which measurements
are made) over a one-hour period is not greater than 0.254 mm (0.01 inch).
Remove 25 percent of the load every 15 minutes until zero load is reached. Longer
time increments may be used, but each shall be the same.
Measure rebound at zero load for a minimum of one hour.
After 200 percent of the load has been applied and removed, and the test has
shown that the pile has additional capacity, i.e., it has not reached ultimate capacity,
continue testing as follows. Reload the test pile to the 200 percent design load level in
increments of 50 percent of the allowable design load, allowing 20 minutes between
increments. Then increase the load in increments of 10 percent until either the pile or
the frame reach their allowable structural capacity, or the pile can no longer support
the added load. If failure at maximum load does not occur, hold load for one hour. At
maximum achieved load, remove the load in four equal decrements, allowing 15
minutes between decrements.
Figure 4-18 Typical static load test arrangement showing instrumentation

Test result
From the acquisition, the load settlement (P-S) curve can be plotted. The
capacity of the single test pile can be defined by different criteria.
In case that the P-S curve show a big evolution (Figure 19.a), where we can find a
limit of load. Over this limit, the settlement S increases immediately and quickly. This
limit is corresponding to the inflexion point of the curve. The value P of this point is
considered as ultimate load capacity of the test pile.
PILE FOUNDATIONS
71
In case without inflexion point remarkable on the P-S curve, (Figure 19.b), the
ultimate load capacity Pgh shall be defined in correspondence with the settlement value
limit Sgh which:
Sgh = 10%D where D pile diameter or
Sgh = 2Smax, where Smax settlement measured at P = 0,9 allowable design
load Ptk, or
Sgh = 2,5%D for bored piles (TCXD 269-2002), or
Sgh = .[S], where [S] allowable settlement for buildings, - coefficient,
normally = 0,2
Figure 4-19: Two P-S curves types (a, b) and T-S curve (c)
f. Dynamic approach method

Most frequently used method of estimating the load capacity of driven piles is to
use a driving formula or dynamic formula. All such formulae relate ultimate load
capacity to pile set (the vertical movement per blow of the driving hammer) and
assume that the driving resistance is equal to the load capacity to the pile under static
loading they are based on an idealized representation of the action of the hammer on
the pile in the last stage of its embedment.
Usually, pile-driving formulae are used either to establish a safe working load or
to determine the driving requirements for a required working load.
The working load is usually determined by applying a suitable safety factor to the
ultimate load calculated by the formula. However, the use of dynamic formula is
highly criticized in some pile-design literatures. Dynamic methods do not take into
account the physical characteristics of the soil. This can lead to dangerous missinterpretation of the results of dynamic formula calculation since they represent
conditions at the time of driving. They do not take in to account the soil conditions
which affect the long- term carrying capacity, reconsolidation, and negative skin
friction and group effects.
PILE FOUNDATIONS
72
Experimental procedure:
After driving pile to some depth (design depth in general), if we apply one drop of
a normalized hammer on the pile top, the pile will move down a distance e. This e
value is defined as the rebound of pile.
The rebound of pile can be measured after each hammer drop, or can be calculated
as average value after a series of hammer drop:
e
s
n
s pile movement after n drops

n Hammer drop quantity. For drop hammer or single action steam, n =
10. For Diesel hammer or double acting steam, n is the hammer drop
quantity during 1 minute testing.
The dynamic formula to determine the pile load capacity is base on the following
principle: with same hammer, same drop free height, the pile corresponding to bigger
rebound has smaller load capacity.
Following are some dynamic formulae to calculate the pile load capacity:
Where,
Formula of Gexevanov
n.F
n.F
Q k 2q
n.F
Pgh

.Q.H .

2
e
Qq
2
2
Where,
Pgh Ultimate value of pile load capacity

e
Test pile rebound
Q Hammer weight
q
Weight of pile + cap piece + pile cushion + driver pile (if any),
H Drop free height
k
Collision coefficient, when collision between steel/ iron and
wood, k = 0,45 and k2 = 0,2,
n
Coefficient depending to the pile material and pile driving
conditions. In case of prefabricated concrete pile and driven method, n =
15 daN/cm2.
Formula of TCVN
Following TCXD 205-1998, the formula to determine the ultimate pile load
capacity is as below:
Pgh
n.F
2
4.Q.H Q k 2 q
1
.
1
e.n.F Q q
This formula is only used when the pile rebound e 2mm. In case that measured
e < 2mm, it is necessary to use heavier hammer to create bigger rebound e > 2mm.
PILE FOUNDATIONS

-
73
Netherlands formula
Pdyn
1 Q.H 2
.
K1 e.(Q q)
Where: K1 safety factor, in general K1 = 6

-
Formula of Crandall
Pdyn
Where
1
Q.H 2
.
e
K2
e 1 .(Q q)
2
e1 pile elastic rebound

K2 safety factor, in general K2 = 4
PILE FOUNDATIONS
74
4.4 Design of Low Pile Cap Foundation

4.4.1 Design hypotheses
The design, calculation of low pile cap foundation is based on following
hypotheses:
For the low pile cap foundation, all lateral load being equilibrant with soil
lateral stress applied to pile cap. The pile receive only longitudinal load
from pile cap. Therefore, the pile cap base level h should be:
h 0,7.hmin
Q0
hmin tan 45 o .
2 '.b
, angle of internal friction and volume weight of the soil

above the pile cap base level
Q0 Total lateral force
B pile cap base width, in perpendicular with the lateral force
Q0 .
Each pile of the foundation behaves as a single pile, and without pile group
effect.
The applied load is fully transferred to the piles but not to the soil at pile
cap bottom and between piles.
When verifying the resistance of bearing stratum and calculating pile
foundation settlement, we consider the group of pile cap + piles + soils
between piles as an equivalent raft. The calculation of equivalent raft has
the same procedure as footing foundation (shallow foundation).
Pile cap is considered absolutely rigid. The piles are restrained connected to
the pile cap.
Where
4.4.2 Material selection for pile and pile cap

a. Concrete
Based on the working conditions of piles, the minimum grade for concrete can be
selected as following:
Pile to be driven in normal condition: grade 250
Pile to be driven until a very small rebound value: grade 400
b. Rebar
See paragraph IV.2
PILE FOUNDATIONS
75
4.4.3 Pile dimension selection and pile load capacity calculation

See paragraph IV.3: [P] = min { Pvl, Ptk, PSPT, PCPT }
4.4.4 Pile quantity and pile arrangement

Pile quantity:
Pile quantity shall be calculated based on the applied load and load capacity of
single pile, as below formula:
n .
N tt
P
Where, Ntt Ultimate value of total vertical load

[P] Pile load capacity.
- Empirical coefficient, taken into account of the load eccentricity.
varies from 1,2 o 2.
Pile spacing and arrangement:

In certain types of soil, especially in sensitive clays, the capacity of individual
piles within a closely spaced group may be lower than for equivalent isolated pile.
However, because of its insignificant effect, this may be ignored in design. Instead the
main worry has been that the block capacity of the group may be less than the sum of
the individual piles capacities. As a thumb rule, if spacing is more than 2 - 3 pile
diameters, then block failure is most unlikely. Normally, the spacing = 3d 6d.
Large concentration of piles under the centre of the pile cap should be avoided.
This could lead to load concentration resulting in local settlement and failure in the
pile cap. Varying length of piles in the same pile group may have similar effect.
The distance from external pile border to pile cap border:
= max {(d/10+5cm), 10cm}
The arrangement of piles can be by following types:
Figure 4-20: Piles arrangement in side view.
PILE FOUNDATIONS
76
Figure 4-21: Piles arrangement in plan view
4.4.5 Verification of load applied to pile

In case of centric load applied to the foundation, if the piles quantity was
calculated by aforesaid formula, it is not necessary to verify the load applied to each
pile.
In case of non-central load applied to the foundation, we need to verify the load
applied to pile when utilization of the building (after construction). The verification
conditions include:
Pmin + qc > 0
Pmax + qc [P]
Where Pmin, Pmax : minimum and maximum load applied to single pile.
qc pile weight
Admissible value of load applied to pile i, coordinates (xi, yi) with origin O (0,0)
at pile cap centre, can be determined as below:
N
P
i
Where,
tc
tc
M y .xi
2
i
tc
M x . yi
2
i
Ntc total admissible vertical load, including applied load, pile cap
weight and made soil layer weight Gs, which could be calculated as:
G = F.hm.
with = 2 T/m3
Mxtc Admissible value of moment around axe x
PILE FOUNDATIONS
77
Mytc Admissible value of moment around axe y

Ultimate value of pile reaction, excluded the pile cap weight and made soil layer
weight:
tt
tt
M 0 y .xi M 0 x tt . yi
N0
P0i
2
2
n
xi
yi
yi
My
xi
Mx
y
4.4.6 Verification of the resistance of bearing stratum
tb/4
cc chng
Nq-
Nq-
Lp yu mng
( b qua )
tb/4
Nq-
Bq- x Lq-
Mng quy -c
Bq- x Lq-
Nq-
hc/3
Nq-
hoc 30
Mng quy -c
H = hm
hc
t yu b dy ln > 2Lc/3
hm
(t)
rt cng
H = hm
Cc lp t u khng yu
hm
When verifying the resistance of bearing stratum, we consider the group of pile
cap + piles + soils between piles as an equivalent raft. Different principles to establish
the equivalent raft are shown in following schemas:
Mng quy -c
Nq- = N + n . gc + Khi l-ng t trong phm vi H - hm
Figure 4-22: Equivalent raft
PILE FOUNDATIONS
78
Conditions for verification of resistance of bearing stratum:

p qu
N tc N1 N 2 Qc
R
Fqu
p qu max p qu
M tc
1,2 R
W
Where, Ntc, Mtc Admissible load applied to pile cap

N1 Weight of pile cap and made soil layer
N2 Weight of soil block from pile toe to pile cap base
Qc Weight of piles
R Admissible strength of the bearing stratum (below the equivalent
raft)
4.4.7 Calculation of pile foundation settlement

Pile foundation settlement is the settlement of the bearing stratum. The calculation
done with equivalent raft is the same as shallow foundation.
4.4.8 Pile cap height

The pile cap height is designed to avoid punching phenomena:
-
Punching by the column
Punching by the piles.
a. Punching by the column

When punching phenomenon by the column, the pile cap is destructed by tensile
principal stress on the inclined planes (punching prism) which liaise the column
section border to piles row border. The working of pile cap in this case is verified
without stirrup bars. The condition of verification is following:
P 2 .(bc c1 ) 1 .(ac c2 )h0 Rk
Where, P Total reaction of all piles positioned between punching prism border
and pile cap border.
ac and bc Length and width of the column section
h0 Pile cap working height
Rk Concrete tensile strength
c1 and c2 Distance between column border and punching prism border
1 and 2 Coefficients which are calculated by following formula:
h
i 1,5. 1 0
ci
PILE FOUNDATIONS
79
N0
h0
c1
c2
Figure 4-23: damage pile cap by column

Also, we can only verify the high-risk side of the punching prism, correspondingly
to the most important pile reaction. The verification consists of following conditions:
In case that b > bc + 2h0 :
P kRk(bc + h0) h0
In case that b bc + 2h0 :
b b
P kRk( c
) h0
2
Where, P - Total reaction of all piles positioned between high-risk side and pile
cap border
Rk Concrete tensile strength
c Width of the high-risk side
k = coefficient, k = f (
c/h0
k
1.0
0.75
0.9
0.79
c
) see below table;
h0
0.8
0.84
0.7
0.90
0.6
0.97
0.5
1.05
0.4
1.14
0.3
1.25
0.2
1.38
b. Punching by the piles

When verification with this schema, the verification condition is:
Pct .Rk.h0. b
Where, - coefficient, determined by following formula:
h
= 0,7. 1 0
C
If C/h0 0,2 then we use C/h0 = 0,2 ;

If C/h0 > 1 then we use C/h0 = 1 for calculation.
Pct Total reaction of all piles positioned outside of the damage section.
PILE FOUNDATIONS
80
Figure 4-24: damage of pile cap by pile reaction
c. Calculation of rebar
For the calculation of pile cap rebar, we consider the pile cap as a beam restraint at
the column border. The maximal flexural moments are therefore at the restraint
sections I I and II II, for the calculation of longitudinal rebar and transversal rebar
respectively.
Flexural moment at restraint sections:
MI-I = (P2 + P4).r1
MII-II = (P1 + P3).r2
Requested area of reinforcement:
l,b
a
M lng,b
0,9R a h 0
Reinforcement ratio: = Fa / Fb, where Fb concrete area.

Adequate reinforcement ratio = 0,15% - 0,4% for pile cap.
The rebar spacing is in general 100 200m.
PILE FOUNDATIONS
81
Figure 4-25: Rebar area calculation schemas

4.4.9 Verification of pile when transportation and positioning
Pile transportation
During the transportation from pile store location to construction site, the pile is
working as a simple beam with two supports (at hooks position). The load applied to
the beam is only pile proper weight. In order to optimize the working of pile, the
positions of the hook are selected to ensure that maximal positive flexural moment is
equal to maximal negative value. Therefore, the distance from hook position to pile
top/ toe is:
a = 0,207.l
Flexural moment:
M = 0,043.q.l2
Where l Length of pile portion
q Load uniformly distributed, due to pile proper weight. The overload
factor n = 1,5
Figure 4-26: Pile transportation verification

PILE FOUNDATIONS
82
Pile positioning
When the pile portion length is 8m, a 3rd hook shall be used for the positioning
when pile installation. With same principal of optimization, the distance b from this
hook to pile top is: b = 0,294.l and M = 0,086.q.l2
Figure 4-27: Pile positioning verification

The maximal flexural moment will be used for verification of longitudinal rebar in
the pile.
4.4.10 Selection of hammer for driven piles

The selection of hammer is very important to ensure the driving process but not to
destruct the pile head. In case of a light hammer, we need a drop free height higher,
drop quantity more numerous, which can destruct the pile head concrete. In case of a
heavy hammer, it is complicate for displacement and the construction cost is higher.
The selection of hammer based on the energy capacity: E 25.ptt
Where : E Hammer energy capacity [N.m]
ptt ultimate pile load capacity [kN]
Empirical formula for hammer selection: K
Where, K
Q
q
Qq
E
Hammer adequacy coefficient

For double acting steam or diesel hammer: K 5
Simple acting steam:
K3
Drop hammer:
K2
Hammer weight
Weight of pile + cap piece + pile cushion + driver pile (if any),
PILE FOUNDATIONS
83
REFERENCES
Reference Books
1. Pham Quang Hung & Phan Huy Dong Soil Mechanics, Lecture notes for
civil engineering course in English, 2012.
2. V Cng Ng, Tnh ton v Thit k Mng nng; Nh xut bn Khoa hc
v K thut, 1982;
3. Phan Hng Qun, Nn v Mng, Nh xut bn Gio dc, 2006;
4. Ng Th Phong v nnk, Kt cu B tng Ct thp, Phn Kt cu Nh ca,
Nh xut bn Khoa hc v K thut, 2006;
5. Braja M. Das, Principle of Geotechnical Enginering, 7th edition, Cengage
Learning, 2010;
6. Braja M. Das, Principle of Foundation Engineering, SI, 7th edition, Cengage
Learning, 2011;
7. Joseph E. Bowles, Foundation Analysis and Design, 5th edition, The
McGraw-Hill, 2001;
8. Robert W. Day, Foundation engineering handbook: Design and Construction
with the 2006 International Building Code, The McGraw-Hill, 2006;
Reference Articles
9. Aboshi, H., Ichimoto, E., and Harada, K. (1979). The Compozera Method
to Improve Characteristics of Soft Clay by Inclusion of Large Diameter Sand
Column, Proceedings, International Conference on Soil Reinforcement,
Reinforced Earth and Other Techniques,Vol. 1, Paris, pp. 211216.
10. Bachus, R. C., and Barksdale, R. D. (1989). Design Methodology for
Foundations on Stone Columns, Proceedings, Foundation Engineering:
Current Principles and Practices American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 1,
pp. 244257.
11. Basore, C. E., and Boitano, J. D. (1969). Sand Densification by Piles and
Vibroflotation, Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 95, No. SM6, pp. 13031323.
12. Burke, G. K. (2004). Jet Grouting Systems: Advantages and Disadvantages,
Proceedings, GeoSupport 2004: Drilled Shafts, Micropiling, Deep Mixing,
Remedial Methods, and Special Foundation Systems, American Society of
Civil Engineers, pp. 875886.
13. Hughes, J. M. O., and Withers, N. J. (1974). Reinforcing of Soft Cohesive
Soil with Stone Columns, Ground Engineering, Vol. 7, pp. 4249.
14. Hughes, J. M. O., Withers, N. J., and Greenwood, D. A. (1975). A Field Trial
of Reinforcing Effects of Stone Columns in Soil, Geotechnique, Vol. 25, No.
1, pp. 3134.
REFERENCES
84
15. Ichimoto, A. (1981). Construction and Design of Sand Compaction Piles,

Soil Improvement, General Civil Engineering Laboratory (in Japanese), Vol. 5.
pp. 3745.
16. Leonards, G. A., Cutter, W. A., and Holtz, R. D. (1980). Dynamic
Compaction of GranularSoils, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Division,
ASCE, Vol. 96, No. GT1, pp. 73110.
17. Mitchell, J. K. (1970). In-Place Treatment of Foundation Soils, Journal of
the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, American Society of Civil
Engineers, Vol. 96, No. SM1, pp. 73110.
18. Mitchell, J. K., and Huber, T. R. (1985). Performance of a Stone Column
Foundation, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, American Society of Civil
Engineers, Vol. 111, No. GT2, pp. 205223.
19. Ohta, S., and Shibazaki, M. (1982). A Unique Underpinning of Soil
Specification Utilizing Super-High Pressure Liquid Jet, Proceedings,
Conference on Grouting in Geotechnical Engineering, New Orleans, Louisiana.
20. Murayama, S. (1962). An Analysis of Vibro-Compozer Method on Cohesive
Soils, Construction in Mechanization (in Japanese), No. 150, pp. 1015.
21. Welsh, J. P., and Burke, G. K. (1991). Jet GroutingUses for Soil
Improvement, Proceedings, Geotechnical Engineering Congress, American
Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 1, pp. 334345.
22. Welsh, J. P., Rubright, R. M., and Coomber, D. B. (1986). Jet Grouting for
support of Structures,presented at the Spring Convention of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, Seattle, Washington.
REFERENCES

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NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

DIVISION OF SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

NGUYEN BAO VIET

National University of Civil Engineering

SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS ............................................................. 3

Main Components of Shallow Foundations ................................................5

Contact Pressure Distribution beneath Base of Footing .............................. 7

2.3.1 Contact Pressure Distribution of Spread Footing ........................................9

Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundation ...................................12

2.4.1 General .......................................................................................................12

Shallow Foundation Design .......................................................................21

2.5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 21

SOIL IMPROVEMENT .....................................................................30

Sand Replacement ......................................................................................31

Sand Compaction Piles ..............................................................................32

3.2.1 Characteristics of Sand Compaction Piles .................................................34

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3.2.4 Principle of Sand Compaction Pile Analyses ............................................36

Stone Columns ........................................................................................... 45

Dynamic Compaction ................................................................................46

Jet Grouting ................................................................................................ 48

Recommendation of Improvement Methods for Soils............................... 49

PILE FOUNDATIONS ......................................................................50

Definitions and classifications ...................................................................50

Constitution of a Prefabricated Reinforced Concrete Pile .........................62

Bearing Capacity of a Single Pile .............................................................. 66

Design of Low Pile Cap Foundation .........................................................74

4.4.1 Design hypotheses .....................................................................................74

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Figure 3-9 Vibroflotation unit ....................................................................................... 42

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Figure 2-2 Examples of spread foundations

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2.2 Main Components of Shallow Foundations

Figure 2-5 A typical cross section of spread footing

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Figure 2-6 Reinforcement of a spread footing

Figure 2-7 Behavior of foundations with connecting beams

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Figure 2-8 Ground beam and footing reinforcements

2.3 Contact Pressure Distribution beneath Base of Footing

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Figure 2-11: Linear distribution of contact pressure

N is vertical axial force at footing level;

, weight of footing and soil above footing

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=20kN/m3 (approximate), average unit weight of footing material

N is vertical axial force distributed for 1m long at footing level;

, weight of footing and soil above footing for 1m long;

2.3.3 Net Load Applied on Footing Base

tb = effective unit weight of soils above footing base level.

2.3.4 Vertical Stress Increase

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Figure 2-12 2:1 method of finding stress increase under a foundation

for spread footing

for strip footing

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2.4 Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundation