TYPES OF NETWORKS

LAN (LOCAL AREA NETWORK)

These are privately owned networks within a single building or campus of up to a few
a kilometres in size.
LANs are distinguished from other networks by three characteristics:
1. Their size.
2. Their transmission technology.
3. Their topology.
LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is
bounded and known in advance.
LANs often use a transmission technology consisting of a single cable to which all
the machines are attached.
LANs run at speeds of 10 to 100 Mbps, have low delays, and make very few errors.

LAN SETUP
IEEE has produced several standards for LANs. These standards collectively known
as IEEE 802 .IEEE802.3 (Ethernet), IEEE802.4 (Token Bus), IEEE802.5 (Token
Ring)

WAN (WIDE AREA NETWORK)

It is a Computer network that spans a relatively large geographical area, often a
country or continent. Typically a WAN consists of two or more Local Area Network.
Computers connected to WAN are often connected through public networks such as
telephone systems. They can also be connected through leased lines or satellites.
The largest WAN in existence is Internet. WANs run at speed of maximum 2 to 10
Mbps

WAN SETUP
For most WANs, the long distance bandwidth is relatively slow: on the order of
kilobits per second (kbps) as opposed to megabits per second (Mbps) for local-area
networks (LANs). For example, an Ethernet LAN has a 10 Mbps bandwidth; a WAN
using part or all of a T1 carrier has a bandwidth of 1.544 Mbps.
Three types of approaches are used to connect WANs:
1) Circuit switching, which provides a fixed connection (at least for the duration of a
call or session), so that each packet takes the same path. Examples of this
approach include ISDN, Switched 56, and Switched T1.
2) Packet switching, which establishes connections during the transmission process
so that different packets from the same transmission may take different routes and
may arrive out of sequence at the destination. Examples of this approach are
X.25, frame relay, and ATM.
3) Leased lines, which can provide a dedicated connection for private use.

NETWORK MODELS
Layering Concepts and Benefits
Many benefits can be gained from the process of breaking up the functions or tasks
of networking into smaller chunks, called layers, and defining standard interfaces
between these layers. The layers break a large, complex set of concepts and
protocols into smaller pieces, making it easier to talk about, to implement with
hardware and software, and to troubleshoot.
The following list summarizes the benefits of layered protocol Specifications:
Humans can more easily discuss and learn about the many details of a protocol
specification.
Standardized interfaces among layers facilitate modular engineering.
A better environment for interoperability is created. One vendor can write software
that implements higher layersfor example, a Web browserand another can write
software that implements the lower layersfor example, Microsofts built-in TCP/IP
software in its operating systems.
Reduced complexity allows easier program changes and faster product evolution.
One layer uses the services of the layer immediately below it. Therefore,
remembering what each layer does is easier. (For example, the network layer needs

to deliver data from end to end. To do this, it uses data links to forward data to the
next successive device along that end-to-end path.)

OSI NETWORK MODEL

The OSI model describes how information makes its way from application programs
through a network medium to another application program in other computer. It
divides one big problem in to seven smaller problems. Each problem is addressed by
one of the seven layers of the OSI model.

Functions of Network Layers in Brief:

APPLICATION LAYER

Used for applications specifically written to run over the network

Allows access to network services that support applications;
Directly represents the services that directly support user applications
Handles network access, flow control and error recovery
Example apps are file transfer, e-mail, Net BIOS-based applications

PRESENTATION LAYER

Translates from application to network format and vice-versa

All different formats from all sources are made into a common uniform format
that the rest of the OSI model can understand
Responsible for protocol conversion, character conversion, data encryption /
decryption, expanding graphics commands, data compression
Sets standards for different systems to provide seamless communication from
multiple protocol stacks
Not always implemented in a network protocol

SESSION LAYER

Establishes, maintains and ends sessions across the network

Responsible for name recognition (identification) so only the designated
parties can participate in the session
Provides synchronization services by planning check points in the data stream
=> if session fails, only data after the most recent checkpoint need be
transmitted
Manages who can transmit data at a certain time and for how long
Examples are interactive login and file transfer connections, the session
would connect and re-connect if there was an interruption; recognize names
in sessions and register names in history.

TRANSPORT LAYER

Additional connection below the session layer

Manages the flow control of data between parties across the network
Divides streams of data into chunks or packets; the transport layer of the
receiving computer reassembles the message from packets
"Train" is a good analogy => the data is divided into identical units
Provides error-checking to guarantee error-free data delivery, with on losses
or duplications
Provides acknowledgment of successful
transmissions; requests
retransmission if some packets dont arrive error-free
Provides flow control and error-handling TCP, ARP, RARP.

NETWORK LAYER

Translates logical network address and names to their physical address

(E.g. computer name ==> MAC address)
Responsible for addressing and determining routes for sending
Managing network problems such as packet switching, data congestion and
routing
If router cant send data frame as large as the source computer sends, the
network layer compensates by breaking the data into smaller units. At the
receiving end, the network layer reassembles the data
Think of this layer stamping the addresses on each train car IP; ARP; RARP,
ICMP; RIP; OSFP.

DATA LINK LAYER

Turns packets into raw bits 100101 and at the receiving end turns bits into
packets.
Handles data frames between the Network and Physical layers
The receiving end packages raw data from the Physical layer into data frames
for delivery to the Network layer
Responsible for error-free transfer of frames to other computer via the
Physical Layer
This layer defines the methods used to transmit and receive data on the
network. It consists of the wiring, the devices use to connect the NIC to the
wiring, the signalling involved to transmit / receive data and the ability to
detect signalling errors on the network media
Error correction and flow control.
Manages link control and defines SAPs.

PHYSICAL LAYER

Transmits raw bit stream over physical cable

Defines cables, cards, and physical aspects
Defines NIC attachments to hardware, how cable is attached to NIC
Defines techniques to transfer bit stream in cable.

COMPUTER NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

What is Topology?
A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or
network devices are connected to each other. Topologies may define both
physical and logical aspect of the network. Both logical and physical
topologies could be same or different in a same network.

TYPES OF NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

(1)

Point-to-Point

Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer,

switches or routers, servers connected back to back using a single piece
of cable. Often, the receiving end of one host is connected to sending
end of the other and vice-versa.

If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then may have

multiple intermediate devices. But the end hosts are unaware of
underlying network and see each other as if they are connected directly.

(2) Bus Topology

In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or
cable. Bus topology may have problem while multiple hosts sending data
at the same time. Therefore, Bus topology either uses CSMA/CD
technology or recognizes one host as Bus Master to solve the issue. It is
one of the simple forms of networking where a failure of a device does
not affect the other devices. But failure of the shared communication line
can make all other devices stop functioning.

Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is sent in
only one direction and as soon as it reaches the extreme end, the
terminator removes the data from the line.

(3) Star Topology

All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as
hub device, using a point-to-point connection. That is, there exists a
point to point connection between hosts and hub. The hub device can be
any of the following:

Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater

Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge

Layer-3 device such as router or gateway

As in Bus topology, hub acts as single point of failure. If hub fails,

connectivity of all hosts to all other hosts fails. Every communication
between hosts, takes place through only the hub. Star topology is not
expensive as to connect one more host, only one cable is required and
configuration is simple.

(4) Ring Topology

In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other
machines, creating a circular network structure. When one host tries to
communicate or send message to a host which is not adjacent to it, the
data travels through all intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in
the existing structure, the administrator may need only one more extra
cable.

Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring.Thus, every

connection in the ring is a point of failure. There are methods which
employ one more backup ring.

(5) Mesh Topology

In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts.This
topology has hosts in point-to-point connection with every other host or
may also have hosts which are in point-to-point connection to few hosts
only.

Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not
have direct point-to-point links. Mesh technology comes into two types:

Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in
the network. Thus for every new host n(n-1)/2 connections are required. It
provides the most reliable network structure among all network topologies.

Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other
host. Hosts connect to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology
exists where we need to provide reliability to some hosts out of all.

(6) Tree Topology

Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of
network topology in use presently. This topology imitates as extended
Star topology and inherits properties of bus topology.
This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network.
Mainly in LANs, a network is bifurcated into three types of network
devices. The lowermost is access-layer where computers are attached.
The middle layer is known as distribution layer, which works as mediator
between upper layer and lower layer. The highest layer is known as core

layer, and is central point of the network, i.e. root of the tree from which
all nodes fork.

All neighbouring hosts have point-to-point connection between them.

Similar to the Bus topology, if the root goes down, then the entire
network suffers even. Though it is not the single point of failure. Every
connection serves as point of failure, failing of which divides the network
into unreachable segment.

(7) Daisy Chain

This topology connects all the hosts in a linear fashion. Similar to Ring
topology, all hosts are connected to two hosts only, except the end hosts.
Means, if the end hosts in daisy chain are connected then it represents
Ring topology.

Each link in daisy chain topology represents single point of failure. Every
link failure splits the network into two segments.Every intermediate host
works as relay for its immediate hosts.

(8) Hybrid Topology

A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is
said to be hybrid topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits
of all the incorporating topologies.

The above picture represents an arbitrarily hybrid topology. The

combining topologies may contain attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, and
Daisy-chain topologies. Most WANs are connected by means of Dual-Ring
topology and networks connected to them are mostly Star topology
networks. Internet is the best example of largest Hybrid topology