DC-DC Converters (Basic Converters)

Linear Voltage regulators (LVRs), a basic switching converter

(SMPC), Comparison between LVR and SMPC, Principle of operation
and analysis of Buck converter analysis, inductor current ripple,
Output voltage ripple, Capacitor resistance effect, Synchronous
Rectification,

Design

considerations,

Buck

converter

for

discontinuous current operation Principle of operation and analysis of

Boost converter, Inductor current ripple, Output voltage ripple,
Inductor Resistance effect, Design considerations, Boost converter
for discontinuous current operation, Principle of operation and
analysis of Buck Boost converter, Inductor current ripple, Output
voltage ripple, design considerations, Buck boost converter for
discontinuous current operation, Principle of operation and analysis of
Cuk converter, Inductor current ripple, Output voltage ripple,
Capacitor Resistor effect, Design Considerations, Single Ended
Primary Inductance Converter (SEPIC)

Derived Converter
Introduction, Transformer Models, Principle of operation and analysis
of Flyback converter, Continuous and discontinuous mode of
operation, Design considerations, Principle of operation and analysis
of Forward

converter, Design considerations, Double ended (Two

Switch) Forward converter, Principle of operation and analysis of

pushpull converter, design considerations, Principle of operation and
analysis of full bridge and half bridge DC-DC converters, design
considerations, Current fed converters, multiple outputs

Control of DC-DC converter

Modelling of DC-DC converters, Power supply control, control loop
stability, small signal analysis, Switch transfer function, Filter transfer
function, PWM transfer function, Type-2 error amplifier with
compensation, design, PSPICE simulation of feedback control, Type3 error amplifier with compensation, design

Resonant Converters
Introduction, Resonant switch ZCS converter, Principle of operation
and analysis, Resonant switch ZVS converter, Principle of operation
and analysis, Series resonant inverter, Series resonant DC-DC
converter,

Parallel

resonant

DC-DC

converter,

Series-parallel

resonant DC-DC converter, Resonant converters comparison,

Resonant DC link converter, classification, Basic resonant circuit
concepts, Resonant switch converters, Zero voltage switching,
Clamped voltage topologies, Resonant DC link converters and high
frequency link integral half cycle converters, Design of inductor and
transformers for SMPC

SMPC

(Lesson
Plan)

DAYANANDASAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
LESSON PLAN for Even Semester: 2013
Subject: Switched Mode Power Conversion
Subject Code: 12EPE22

Sl

Date

Class: MTech Second Semester

Teacher: T.N. Venkataraman

Details of portion Coverage

No:
1

05/03/2013

DC-DC Converters (Basic Converters)

Linear Voltage regulators (LVRs),

06/03/2013

A Basic Switching Converter (SMPC)

08/03/2013

Comparison between LVR and SMPC

12/03/2013

Principle of operation and analysis of Buck converter

13/03/2013

Inductor current ripple, Output voltage ripple

15/03/2013

Capacitor resistance effect, Synchronous Rectification

16/03/2013

Design considerations, Buck converter for DCM

19/03/2013

Principle of operation and analysis of Boost converter

20/03/2013

Inductor current ripple, Output voltage ripple, Inductor

Resistance effect

10

22/03/2013

Design considerations, Boost converter for DCM

11

23/03/2013

Principle of operation and analysis of Buck Boost

converter

Remarks

12

26/03/2013

Inductor current ripple, Output voltage ripple, design

considerations

13

27/03/2013 Buck boost converter for DCM

14

30/03/2013 Principle of operation and analysis of Cuk converter

15

02/04/2013 Indcutor current ripple and output voltage ripple,

Capacitor Resistor effect, Design Considerations

16
17

03/04/2013 Single Ended Primary Inductance Converter (SEPIC)

Derived Converter
05/04/2013
Introduction, Transformer Models

18

06/04/2013 Principle of operation and analysis of Flyback converter

19

09/04/2013 Continuous and discontinuous mode of operation,

Design considerations

20

10/04/2013 Principle of operation and analysis

of

Forward

converter
21

12/04/2013 Design considerations, Double ended (Two Switch)

Forward converter

22

13/04/2013 Principle of operation and analysis of pushpull

converter, design considerations

23

16/04/2013 Principle of operation and analysis of full bridge and

half bridge DC-DC converters, design considerations

24
25

17/04/2013 Current fed converters, multiple outputs

Controlof DC-DC converter
19/04/2013
Modelling of DC-DC converters

26

20/04/2013 Power supply control, control loop stability, small signal

analysis

27

24/04/2013 Switch transfer function

28

30/04/2013 Filter transfer function

29

03/05/2013 PWM transfer function

30

04/05/2013 Type-2 error amplifier with compensation, design

31

07/05/2013 PSPICE simulation of feedback control

32

08/05/2013 Type-3 error amplifier with compensation, design

Resonant Converters
10/05/2013

33

Introduction
34

11/05/2013

Resonant switch ZCS converter

35

14/05/2013 Principle of operation and analysis

36

15/05/2013 Resonant switch ZVS converter

37

17/05/2013 Principle of operation and analysis

38

18/05/2013 Series resonant inverter

39

21/05/2013 Series resonant DC-DC converter

40

22/05/2013 Parallel resonant DC-DC converter

41

28/05/2013 Series-parallel resonant DC-DC converter

42

29/05/2013 Resonant converters comparison

43

31/05/2013 Resonant DC link converter, classification

44

01/06/2013 Basic resonant circuit concepts

45

04/06/2013 Resonant switch converters

46

05/06/2013 Zero voltage switching

47

07/06/2013 Clamped voltage topologies

48

08/06/2013 Clamped voltage topologies

49

18/06/2013 Resonant DC link converters and high frequency link

integral half cycle converters

50

19/06/2013 Resonant DC link converters and high frequency link

integral half cycle converters

51

21/06/2013 Design of inductor and transformers for SMPC

52

22/06/2013 Design of inductor and transformers for SMPC

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Daniel W. Hart Power Electronics Tata McGraw Hill 2011
2. Rashid M.H. Power Electroncis, Circuits Devices and Applications. 3 rd Edition Pearson
2011
3. D M Mitchell, DC-DC Switching Regulator Analysis McGraw-Hill Ltd 1988
4. Umanand L and Bhatt S R Design of Magnetic Components for Switched Mode Power
Converters, Wiley Eastern Publicaitons
5. NedMohan, Tore M. Undeland, William P. Robbins, Power Electronics Converters,
Applications and Design, 3rd Edition, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd 2010.

DC-DC

Converters

(Basic Converters)
Linear Voltage Regulators
The linear regulator is the basic building block of nearly every power supply used in
electronics. The IC linear regulator is so easy to use that it is virtually foolproof, and
so inexpensive that it is usually one of the cheapest components in an electronic
assembly. Every electronic circuit is designed to operate off of some supply voltage,
which is usually assumed to be constant. A voltage regulator provides this constant DC
output voltage and contains circuitry that continuously holds the output voltage at the
design value regardless of changes in load current or input voltage.

The Basic Linear Regulator

A linear regulator operates by using a voltage-controlled current source to force a fixed
voltage to appear at the regulator output terminal. The control circuitry must monitor

(sense) the output voltage, and adjust the current source (as required by the load) to
hold the output voltage at the desired value. The design limit of the current source
defines the maximum load current the regulator can source and still maintain
regulation.The output voltage is controlled using a feedback loop, which requires some
type of compensation to assure loop stability.

Most linear regulators have built-in

compensation, and are completely stable without external components.

Some

regulators, do require some external capacitance connected from the output lead to
ground to assure regulator stability. Another characteristic of any linear regulator is that
it requires a finite amount of time to "correct" the output voltage after a change in load
current demand. This "time lag" defines the characteristic called transient response,
which is a measure of how fast the regulator returns to steady-state conditions after a
load change. Linear regulators can only deliver output at lower voltages from the input.
They are very inefficient when the voltage drop is large and the current is high as they
dissipate heat equal to the product of the output current and the voltage drop;
consequently they are not normally used for large-drop high-current applications. The
inefficiency wastes power and requires higher-rated and consequently more expensive
and larger components. The heat dissipated by high-power supplies is a problem in
itself and it must be removed from the circuitry to prevent unacceptable temperature
rises. Linear regulators are practical if the current is low, the power dissipated being
small, although it may still be a large fraction of the total power consumed. They are
often used as part of a simple regulated power supply for higher currents: a transformer
generates a voltage which, when rectified, is a little higher than that needed to bias the
linear regulator. The linear regulator drops the excess voltage, reducing hum-generating
ripple current and providing a constant output voltage independent of normal
fluctuations of the unregulated input voltage from the transformer/bridge rectifier circuit
and of the load current. Linear regulators are inexpensive, reliable if good heat sinks are
used and much simpler than switching regulators. As part of a power supply they may
require a transformer, which is larger for a given power level than that required by a
switch-mode power supply. Linear regulators can provide a very low-noise output
voltage, and are very suitable for powering noise-sensitive low-power analog and radio

frequency circuits. A popular design approach is to use an LDO, Low Drop-out

Regulator, that provides a local "point of load" DC supply to a low power circuit.

Switched Mode Power Conversion

Electronic switch-mode DC to DC converters convert one DC voltage level to another,
by storing the input energy temporarily and then releasing that energy to the output at a
different voltage. The storage may be in either magnetic field storage components
(inductors, transformers) or electric field storage components (capacitors). This
conversion method is more power efficient (often 75% to 98%) than linear voltage
regulation (which dissipates unwanted power as heat). This efficiency is beneficial to
increasing the running time of battery operated devices. The efficiency has increased
since the late 1980s due to the use of power FETs, which are able to switch at high
frequency more efficiently than power bipolar transistors, which incur more switching
losses and require a more complicated drive circuit. Another important innovation in DCDC converters is the use of synchronous rectification replacing the flywheel diode with a

power FET with low "on resistance", thereby reducing switching losses. Before the wide
availability of power semiconductors, low power DC to DC converters of this family
consisted of an electro-mechanical vibrator followed by a voltage step-up transformer
and a vacuum tube or semiconductor rectifier or synchronous rectifier contacts on the
vibrator. Most AC-to-DC converters are designed to move power in only one direction,
from the input to the output. However, all switching regulator topologies can be made bidirectional by replacing all diodes with independently controlled active rectification. A bidirectional converter can move power in either direction, which is useful in applications
requiring regenerative braking. Drawbacks of switching converters include complexity,
electronic noise (EMI / RFI) and to some extent cost, although this has come down with
advances in chip design. DC-to-DC converters are now available as integrated circuits
needing minimal additional components. They are also available as a complete hybrid
circuit component, ready for use within an electronic assembly.

Buck Converter
A buck converter is a step-down DC to DC converter. It is a switched-mode power
supply that uses two switches (a transistor and a diode), an inductor and a capacitor.
The simplest way to reduce the voltage of a DC supply is to use a linear regulator, but
linear regulators waste energy as they operate by dissipating excess power as heat.
Buck converters, on the other hand, can be remarkably efficient (95% or higher for
integrated circuits), making them useful for tasks such as converting the main voltage in
a computer (12 V in a desktop, 12-24 V in a laptop) down to the 0.8-1.8 volts needed by
the processor.

Theory of operation

Buck converter circuit diagram.

The two circuit configurations of a buck converter: On-state, when the switch is closed,
and Off-state, when the switch is open (Arrows indicate current as the conventional flow
model).

The basic operation of the buck converter has the current in an inductor controlled by
two switches (usually a transistor and a diode). In the idealised converter, all the
components are considered to be perfect. Specifically, the switch and the diode have
zero voltage drop when on and zero current flow when off and the inductor has zero
series resistance. Further, it is assumed that the input and output voltages do not
change over the course of a cycle (this would imply the output capacitance as being
infinite).

Concepts
The conceptual model of the buck converter is best understood in terms of an
inductor's "reluctance" to allow a change in current. Beginning with the switch open (in
the "off" position), the current in the circuit is 0. When the switch is first closed, the
current will begin to increase, but the inductor doesn't want it to change from 0, so it will
attempt to fight the increase by dropping a voltage. This voltage drop counteracts the
voltage of the source and therefore reduces the net voltage across the load. Over time,
the inductor will allow the current to increase slowly by decreasing the voltage it drops
and therefore increasing the net voltage seen by the load. During this time, the inductor
is storing energy in the form of a magnetic field. If the switch is opened before the
inductor has fully charged (i.e., before it has allowed all of the current to pass through
by reducing its own voltage drop to 0), then there will always be a voltage drop across it,
so the net voltage seen by the load will always be less than the input voltage source.
When the switch is opened again, the voltage source will be removed from the circuit,
so the current will try to drop. Again, the inductor will try to fight against it changing,
which it does by reversing the direction of its voltage and acting like a voltage source.
Put another way, there is a certain current flowing through the load due to the input
voltage source: in order to maintain this current when the input source is removed, the
inductor will have to take the place of the voltage source and provide the same net
voltage to the load. Over time, the inductor will allow the current to decrease gradually,
which it does by decreasing the voltage across itself. During this time, the inductor is
discharging its stored energy into the rest of the circuit. If the switch is closed again

before the inductor fully discharges, the load will always see a non-zero voltage. The
capacitor placed in parallel with the load helps to smooth out voltage waveform as the
inductor charges and discharges in each cycle.

Continuous mode
A buck converter operates in continuous mode if the current through the inductor (IL)
never falls to zero during the commutation cycle. When the switch pictured above is
closed (On-state, top of figure 2), the voltage across the inductor is

. The

current through the inductor rises linearly. As the diode is reverse-biased by the voltage
source V, no current flows through it;

When the switch is opened (off state, bottom of figure 2), the diode is forward
biased. The voltage across the inductor is

(neglecting diode drop).

Current IL decreases.
The energy stored in inductor L is

Therefore, it can be seen that the energy stored in L increases during On-time (as IL
increases) and then decreases during the Off-state. L is used to transfer energy from
the input to the output of the converter.
The rate of change of IL can be calculated from:

With VL equal to

during the On-state and to

the increase in current during the On-state is given by:

during the Off-state. Therefore,

Identically, the decrease in current during the Off-state is given by:

If we assume that the converter operates in steady state, the energy stored in each
component at the end of a commutation cycle T is equal to that at the beginning of the
cycle. That means that the current IL is the same at t=0 and at t=T (see figure 4).
So we can write from the above equations:

is proportional to the area of the yellow surface, and

to the area of the

orange surface, as these surfaces are defined by the inductor voltage (red) curve. As
these surfaces are simple rectangles, their areas can be found easily:
the yellow rectangle and

for

for the orange one. For steady state operation, these

areas must be equal.

As can be seen on figure 4,

and

. Where D is a scalar called the

duty cycle with a value between 0 and 1. This yields:

From this equation, it can be seen that the output voltage of the converter varies linearly
with the duty cycle for a given input voltage. As the duty cycle D is equal to the ratio

between tOn and the period T, it cannot be more than 1. Therefore,

. This is why

this converter is referred to as step-down converter.

So, for example, stepping 12 V down to 3 V (output voltage equal to a fourth of the input
voltage) would require a duty cycle of 25%, in our theoretically ideal circuit.

Discontinuous mode
In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is too small. In this case, the
current through the inductor falls to zero during part of the period. The only difference in
the principle described above is that the inductor is completely discharged at the end of
the commutation cycle (see figure 5). This has, however, some effect on the previous
equations. The energy in the inductor is the same at the beginning and at the end of the
cycle (in the case of discontinuous mode, it is zero). This means that the average value
of the inductor voltage (VL) is zero; i.e., that the area of the yellow and orange
rectangles in figure 5 are the same. This yields:

So the value of is:

The output current delivered to the load (

) is constant, as we consider that the

output capacitor is large enough to maintain a constant voltage across its terminals
during a commutation cycle. This implies that the current flowing through the capacitor
has a zero average value. Therefore, we have :

Where

is the average value of the inductor current. As can be seen in figure 5,

the inductor current waveform has a triangular shape. Therefore, the average value of I L
can be sorted out geometrically as follow:

The inductor current is zero at the beginning and rises during t on up to ILmax. That
means that ILmax is equal to:

Substituting the value of ILmax in the previous equation leads to:

And substituting by the expression given above yields:

This expression can be rewritten as:

It can be seen that the output voltage of a buck converter operating in

discontinuous mode is much more complicated than its counterpart of the continuous
mode. Furthermore, the output voltage is now a function not only of the input voltage

(Vi) and the duty cycle D, but also of the inductor value (L), the commutation period (T)

and the output current (Io).

Evolution of the normalized output voltages with the normalized output current.
The converter operates in discontinuous mode when low current is drawn by the
load, and in continuous mode at higher load current levels. The limit between
discontinuous and continuous modes is reached when the inductor current falls to zero
exactly at the end of the commutation cycle. Using the notations of figure 5, this
corresponds to :

Therefore, the output current (equal to the average inductor current) at the limit
between discontinuous and continuous modes is (see above):

Substituting ILmax by its value:

On the limit between the two modes, the output voltage obeys both the
expressions given respectively in the continuous and the discontinuous sections. In
particular, the former is

So Iolim can be written as:

the normalized voltage, defined by

when

. It is zero when

, and 1

the normalized current, defined by

. The term

is equal to the

maximum increase of the inductor current during a cycle; i.e., the increase of the
inductor current with a duty cycle D=1. So, in steady state operation of the
converter, this means that

equals 0 for no output current, and 1 for the

maximum current the converter can deliver.

Using these notations, we have:

in continuous mode:

in discontinuous mode:

the current at the limit between continuous and discontinuous mode is:

Therefore, the locus of the limit between continuous and discontinuous modes is given
by:

In continuous mode, the output voltage does only depend on the duty cycle,
whereas it is far more complex in the discontinuous mode. This is important from a
control point of view.
Non-ideal circuit

Evolution of the output voltage of a buck converter with the duty cycle when the
parasitic resistance of the inductor increases.
The following assumptions are made:

The output capacitor has enough capacitance to supply power to the load (a
simple resistance) without any noticeable variation in its voltage.

The voltage drop across the diode when forward biased is zero

No commutation losses in the switch nor in the diode

These assumptions can be fairly far from reality, and the imperfections of the real
components can have a detrimental effect on the operation of the converter.

Output voltage ripple

Output voltage ripple is the name given to the phenomenon where the output
voltage rises during the On-state and falls during the Off-state. Several factors
contribute to this including, but not limited to, switching frequency, output capacitance,
inductor, load and any current limiting features of the control circuitry. At the most basic
level the output voltage will rise and fall as a result of the output capacitor charging and
discharging:

During the Off-state, the current in this equation is the load current. In the Onstate the current is the difference between the switch current (or source current) and the
load current. The duration of time (dT) is defined by the duty cycle and by the switching
frequency.
For the On-state:

For the Off-state:

Qualitatively, as the output capacitor or switching frequency increase, the

magnitude of the ripple decreases. Output voltage ripple is typically a design
specification for the power supply and is selected based on several factors. Capacitor
selection is normally determined based on cost, physical size and non-idealities of
various capacitor types. Switching frequency selection is typically determined based on
efficiency requirements, which tends to decrease at higher operating frequencies, as
described below in Effects of non-ideality on the efficiency. Higher switching frequency
can also reduce efficiency and possibly raise EMI concerns. Output voltage ripple is one
of the disadvantages of a switching power supply, and can also be a measure of its
quality.
Example : The buck dc-dc converter has the following parameters: Vs = 50 V, D = 0.4,
L = 400 H, C = 100 F, f = 20 kHz, R = 20 Assuming ideal components, calculate (a)
the output voltage Vo, (b) the maximum and minimum inductor current, and (c) the
output voltage ripple.

Solution
(a) The inductor current is assumed to be continuous, and the output voltage is
Vo= VsD = (50)(0.4) =20 V

(b) Maximum and minimum inductor currents are

The output voltage ripple is

Boost Converter

A boost converter (step-up converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter with an output

voltage greater than its input voltage. It is a class of switched-mode power supply
(SMPS) containing at least two semiconductor switches (a diode and a transistor) and
at least one energy storage element, a capacitor, inductor, or the two in combination.
Filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors) are normally
added to the output of the converter to reduce output voltage ripple. Power for the boost
converter can come from any suitable DC sources, such as batteries, solar panels,
rectifiers and DC generators. A process that changes one DC voltage to a different DC
voltage is called DC to DC conversion. A boost converter is a DC to DC converter with
an output voltage greater than the source voltage. A boost converter is sometimes
called a step-up converter since it steps up the source voltage. Since power (
) must be conserved, the output current is lower than the source current. For high
efficiency, the SMPS switch must turn on and off quickly and have low losses. The
advent of a commercial semiconductor switch in the 1950s represented a major
milestone that made SMPSs such as the boost converter possible. The major DC to DC
converters were developed in the early 1960s when semiconductor switches had
become available. The aerospace industrys need for small, lightweight, and efficient
power converters led to the converters rapid development. Battery powered systems
often stack cells in series to achieve higher voltage. However, sufficient stacking of cells
is not possible in many high voltage applications due to lack of space. Boost converters
can increase the voltage and reduce the number of cells. Two battery-powered
applications that use boost converters are hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) and lighting
systems. This circuit topology is used with low power battery applications, and is aimed
at the ability of a boost converter to 'steal' the remaining energy in a battery. This energy
would otherwise be wasted since the low voltage of a nearly depleted battery makes it
unusable for a normal load. This energy would otherwise remain untapped because
many applications do not allow enough current to flow through a load when voltage
decreases. This voltage decrease occurs as batteries become depleted, and is a
characteristic of the ubiquitous alkaline battery. Since (

) as well, and R

tends to be stable, power available to the load goes down significantly as voltage
decreases.

Operating principle
The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to
resist changes in current. In a boost converter, the output voltage is always higher than
the input voltage. (a) When the switch is closed, current flows through the inductor in
clockwise direction and the inductor stores the energy. Polarity of the left side of the
inductor is positive. (b) When the switch is opened, current will be reduced as the
impedance is higher. Therefore, change or reduction in current will be opposed by the
inductor. Thus the polarity will be reversed (means left side of inductor will be negative
now). As a result two sources will be in series causing a higher voltage to charge the
capacitor through the diode D. If the switch is cycled fast enough, the inductor will not
discharge fully in between charging stages, and the load will always see a voltage
greater than that of the input source alone when the switch is opened. Also while the
switch is opened, the capacitor in parallel with the load is charged to this combined
voltage. When the switch is then closed and the right hand side is shorted out from the
left hand side, the capacitor is therefore able to provide the voltage and energy to the
load. During this time, the blocking diode prevents the capacitor from discharging
through the switch. The switch must of course be opened again fast enough to prevent
the capacitor from discharging too much.

Boost converter schematic

The two configurations of a boost converter, depending on the state of the switch S.
The basic principle of a Boost converter consists of 2 distinct states:

in the On-state, the switch S is closed, resulting in an increase in the inductor

current;

in the Off-state, the switch is open and the only path offered to inductor current is
through the flyback diode D, the capacitor C and the load R. This results in
transferring the energy accumulated during the On-state into the capacitor.

The input current is the same as the inductor current as can be seen in figure 2.
So it is not discontinuous as in the buck converter and the requirements on the
input filter are relaxed compared to a buck converter.

Continuous mode

Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost converter operating in continuous mode.

When a boost converter operates in continuous mode, the current through the
inductor (

) never falls to zero. Figure 3 shows the typical waveforms of currents and

voltages in a converter operating in this mode. The output voltage can be calculated as
follows, in the case of an ideal converter (i.e. using components with an ideal behaviour)
operating in steady conditions: During the On-state, the switch S is closed, which makes
the input voltage ( ) appear across the inductor, which causes a change in current (

flowing through the inductor during a time period (t) by the formula:

At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:

D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation period T during which
the switch is On. Therefore D ranges between 0 (S is never on) and 1 (S is always on).
During the Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through
the load. If we consider zero voltage drop in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for
its voltage to remain constant, the evolution of I L is:

Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is:

As we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the

amount of energy stored in each of its components has to be the same at the beginning
and at the end of a commutation cycle. In particular, the energy stored in the inductor is
given by:

So, the inductor current has to be the same at the start and end of the
commutation cycle. This means the overall change in the current (the sum of the
changes) is zero:

Substituting

and

by their expressions yields:

This can be written as:

Which in turn reveals the duty cycle to be:

The above expression shows that the output voltage is always higher than the input
voltage (as the duty cycle goes from 0 to 1), and that it increases with D, theoretically to
infinity as D approaches 1. This is why this converter is sometimes referred to as a stepup converter.

Discontinuous mode

Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost converter operating in discontinuous mode.

If the ripple amplitude of the current is too high, the inductor may be completely
discharged before the end of a whole commutation cycle. This commonly occurs under
light loads. In this case, the current through the inductor falls to zero during part of the
period (see waveforms in figure 4). Although slight, the difference has a strong effect on
the output voltage equation. It can be calculated as follows: As the inductor current at
the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum value

During the off-period, IL falls to zero after

Using the two previous equations, is:

(at

) is

The load current Io is equal to the average diode current (I D). the diode current is equal
to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore the output current can be written
as:

Replacing ILmax and by their respective expressions yields:

Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as follows:

Compared to the expression of the output voltage for the continuous mode, this
expression is much more complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the
output voltage gain not only depends on the duty cycle, but also on the inductor value,
the input voltage, the switching frequency, and the output current.

Example: Design a boost converter that will have an output of 30 V from a 12-V
source. Design for continuous inductor current and an output ripple voltage of less than
one percent. The load is a resistance of 50. Assume ideal components for this design.

Solution : The duty ratio is D= 1- (V /V ) = 0.6

s

If the switching frequency is selected at 25 kHz to be above the audio range, then the
minimum inductance for continuous current is

To provide a margin to ensure continuous current, let L =120 H..

Imax = 1.5+1.2 = 2.7A; Imin = 1.5-1.2 = 0.3A

The minimum capacitance required to limit the output ripple voltage to 1 percent is

Buck-Boost Converter
The buckboost converter is a type of DC-to-DC converter that has an output voltage
magnitude that is either greater than or less than the input voltage magnitude. Two
different topologies are called buckboost converter. Both of them can produce a range
of output voltages, from an output voltage much larger (in absolute magnitude) than the
input voltage, down to almost zero.The output voltage is of the opposite polarity than the
input. This is a switched-mode power supply with a similar circuit topology to the boost
converter and the buck converter. The output voltage is adjustable based on the duty
cycle of the switching transistor. One possible drawback of this converter is that the
switch does not have a terminal at ground; this complicates the driving circuitry. Neither
drawback is of any consequence if the power supply is isolated from the load circuit (if,
for example, the supply is a battery) because the supply and diode polarity can simply
be reversed. The switch can be on either the ground side or the supply side.

Principle of operation

Fig. 1: Schematic of a buckboost converter.

The two operating states of a buckboost converter: When the switch is turned-on, the
input voltage source supplies current to the inductor, and the capacitor supplies current
to the resistor (output load). When the switch is opened, the inductor supplies current to
the load via the diode D. The basic principle of the buckboost converter is fairly simple

while in the On-state, the input voltage source is directly connected to the
inductor (L). This results in accumulating energy in L. In this stage, the capacitor
supplies energy to the output load.

while in the Off-state, the inductor is connected to the output load and capacitor,
so energy is transferred from L to C and R.

Compared to the buck and boost converters, the characteristics of the buckboost
converter are mainly:

polarity of the output voltage is opposite to that of the input;

Like the buck and boost converters, the operation of the buck-boost is best understood
in terms of the inductor's "reluctance" to allow rapid change in current. From the initial
state in which nothing is charged and the switch is open, the current through the
inductor is zero. When the switch is first closed, the blocking diode prevents current
from flowing into the right hand side of the circuit, so it must all flow through the
inductor. However, since the inductor doesn't like rapid current change, it will initially
keep the current low by dropping most of the voltage provided by the source. Over time,
the inductor will allow the current to slowly increase by decreasing its voltage drop. Also
during this time, the inductor will store energy in the form of a magnetic field.When the
switch is then opened, the inductor will be cut off from the input voltage supply, so the
current will tend to drop to zero. Again, the inductor will fight such an abrupt change in
current. To do so, it must now act like a voltage source to the rest of the circuit, which it
can do using the energy it stored while charging. Since current was previously flowing
"down" the inductor, it will want to maintain this direction, and so the voltage that it
provides will be inverted relative to input supply. During this time, the inductor will
discharge through the load and the rest of the circuit, which will cause its voltage to

decrease over time. Also during this time, the capacitor in parallel with the load will
charge up to the voltage presented by the inductor.When the switch is once again
closed, the diode is reverse biased by the input supply, cutting the load off from the left
hand side of the circuit. During this time, the capacitor will discharge into the load,
providing energy and voltage to it. By cycling the switch fast enough, the inductor can
be allowed to charge and discharge only slightly in each cycle, maintaining a relatively
steady voltage to the load. Similarly, the capacitor will only need to discharge slightly
while the switch is open before it has a chance to recharge again while the switch is
closed.The voltage presented by the inductor to the load depends on how long the
switch is opened and closed. When the switch is closed and the inductor is charging,
the current through the inductor is ramping up linearly. The longer the switch is closed,
the higher the current will get. When the switch is then opened, it is the end current that
the inductor will try to maintain by acting like a voltage source. The higher this current is,
the more voltage the inductor will need to provide in order to produce it. Thus, the
longer the switch is closed during the on stage, the higher the output voltage will be.

Continuous mode

Waveforms of current and voltage in a buckboost converter operating in continuous

mode.

If the current through the inductor L never falls to zero during a commutation
cycle, the converter is said to operate in continuous mode. From

to

, the

converter is in On-State, so the switch S is closed. The rate of change in the inductor
current (IL) is therefore given by

At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:

D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation period T during which
the switch is On. Therefore D ranges between 0 (S is never on) and 1 (S is always on).
During the Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through
the load. If we assume zero voltage drop in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for
its voltage to remain constant, the evolution of IL is:

Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is:

The converter operates in steady-state conditions, the amount of energy stored

in each of its components has to be the same at the beginning and at the end of a
commutation cycle. As the energy in an inductor is given by:

The value of IL at the end of the Off state must be the same with the value of IL at
the beginning of the On-state, i.e. the sum of the variations of IL during the on and the
off states must be zero:

Substituting

and

by their expressions yields:

This can be written as:

This in return yields that:

From the above expression it can be seen that the polarity of the output voltage
is always negative (because the duty cycle goes from 0 to 1), and that its absolute value
increases with D, theoretically up to minus infinity when D approaches 1. Apart from the
polarity, this converter is either step-up (a boost converter) or step-down (a buck
converter). Thus it is named a buckboost converter.

Discontinuous mode

Waveforms of current and voltage in a buckboost converter operating in discontinuous

mode.
In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is small enough to be
transferred in a time smaller than the whole commutation period. In this case, the
current through the inductor falls to zero during part of the period. The only difference in
the principle described above is that the inductor is completely discharged at the end of
the commutation cycle (see waveforms in figure 4). Although slight, the difference has a
strong effect on the output voltage equation. It can be calculated like follows:Because
the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum value

(at

) is

During the off-period, IL falls to zero after .T:

Using the two previous equations, is:

The load current

is equal to the average diode current (

). As can be seen on figure

4, the diode current is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore, the
output current can be written as:

Replacing

and by their respective expressions yields:

Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as:

Compared to the expression of the output voltage gain for the continuous mode, this
expression is much more complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the
output voltage not only depends on the duty cycle, but also on the inductor value, the
input voltage and the output current.

Limit between continuous and discontinuous

modes

Evolution of the normalized output voltage with the normalized output current in a buck
boost converter.The converter operates in discontinuous mode when low current is
drawn by the load, and in continuous mode at higher load current levels. The limit
between discontinuous and continuous modes is reached when the inductor current
falls to zero exactly at the end of the commutation cycle. with the notations of figure 4,
this corresponds to :

In this case, the output current

(output current at the limit between continuous and

discontinuous modes) is given by:

Replacing

by the expression given in the discontinuous mode section yields:

As the current at the limit between continuous and discontinuous modes of operations, it
satisfies the expressions of both modes. Therefore, using the expression of the output
voltage in continuous mode, the previous expression can be written as:

The normalized voltage, defined by

. It corresponds to the gain in voltage

of the converter;

The normalized current, defined by

. The term

is equal to the

maximum increase of the inductor current during a cycle; i.e., the increase of the
inductor current with a duty cycle D=1. So, in steady state operation of the

converter, this means that

equals 0 for no output current, and 1 for the

maximum current the converter can deliver.

Using these notations, we have:

in continuous mode,

in discontinuous mode,

the current at the limit between continuous and discontinuous mode is

. Therefore the locus of the limit between

continuous and discontinuous modes is given by

Example : The buck-boost circuit has these parameters:

Vs = 24 V; D= 0.4; R = 5; L=20H; C = 80F; f =100 kHz Determine the output
voltage, inductor current average, maximum and minimum values, and the output
voltage ripple.

Solution : The output voltage is

Inductor current is

Output ripple voltage is

Cuk Converter
The uk converter (pronounced Chook; sometimes incorrectly spelled Cuk, uk or Ck)
is a type of DC-DC converter that has an output voltage magnitude that is either greater
than or less than the input voltage magnitude.

Operating Principle

Schematic of a non-isolated uk converter.

The two operating states of a non-isolated uk converter.

The two operating states of a non-isolated uk converter. In this figure, the diode
and the switch are either replaced by a short circuit when they are on or by an open
circuit when they are off. It can be seen that when in the Off state, the capacitor C is
being charged by the input source through the inductor L 1. When in the On state, the
capacitor C transfers the energy to the output capacitor through the inductance L 2.
A non-isolated uk converter comprises two inductors, two capacitors, a switch (usually
a transistor), and a diode. It is an inverting converter, so the output voltage is negative
with respect to the input voltage.The capacitor C is used to transfer energy and is
connected alternately to the input and to the output of the converter via the commutation
of the transistor and the diode The two inductors L 1 and L2 are used to convert
respectively the input voltage source (V i) and the output voltage source (C o) into current
sources. Indeed, at a short time scale an inductor can be considered as a current
source as it maintains a constant current. This conversion is necessary because if the
capacitor were connected directly to the voltage source, the current would be limited
only by (parasitic) resistance, resulting in high energy loss. Charging a capacitor with a
current source (the inductor) prevents resistive current limiting and its associated
energy loss.As with other converters (buck converter, boost converter, buck-boost
converter) the uk converter can either operate in continuous or discontinuous current
mode. However, unlike these converters, it can also operate in discontinuous voltage
mode

Continuous Mode

In steady state, the energy stored in the inductors has to remain the same at the
beginning and at the end of a commutation cycle. The energy in an inductor is given by:

This implies that the current through the inductors has to be the same at the beginning
and the end of the commutation cycle. As the evolution of the current through an
inductor is related to the voltage across it:

it can be seen that the average value of the inductor voltages over a commutation
period have to be zero to satisfy the steady-state requirements.
If we consider that the capacitors C and C o are large enough for the voltage ripple
across them to be negligible, the inductor voltages become:

in the off-state, inductor L1 is connected in series with V i and C (see figure 2).
Therefore

. As the diode D is forward biased (we consider zero

voltage drop), L2 is directly connected to the output capacitor. Therefore

in the on-state, inductor L1 is directly connected to the input source. Therefore

. Inductor L2 is connected in series with C and the output capacitor, so

The converter operates in on-state from t=0 to t=DT (D is the duty cycle), and in off
state from DT to T (that is, during a period equal to (1-D)T). The average values of V L1
and VL2 are therefore:

As both average voltage have to be zero to satisfy the steady-state conditions we

can write, using the last equation:

So the average voltage across L1 becomes:

Which can be written as:

It can be seen that this relation is the same as that obtained for the Buck-boost
converter.

Discontinuous Mode
Cuk converters rely on the ability of the inductors in the circuit to provide continuous
current, in much the same way a capacitor in a rectifier filter provides continuous
voltage. If this inductor is too small or below the "critical inductance", then the current
will be discontinuous. This state of operation is usually not studied in much depth, as it
is not used beyond a demonstrating of why the minimum inductance is crucial.
The minimum inductance is given by:

Where

is the switching frequency

Example: A Cuk converter has an input of 12 V and is to have an output of _18

V supplying a 40-W load. Select the duty ratio, the switching frequency, the inductor
sizes such that the change in inductor currents is no more than 10 percent of the
average inductor current, the output ripple voltage is no more than 1 percent.

Solution : The duty ratio is obtained from

Let f = 50KHz, The average inductor currents

=649H;

=432H;

=> D=0.6

SEPIC
(Single Ended Primary Inductor Converter)
Single-ended primary-inductor converter (SEPIC) is a type of DC-DC converter
allowing the electrical potential (voltage) at its output to be greater than, less than, or
equal to that at its input; the output of the SEPIC is controlled by the duty cycle of the
control transistor. A SEPIC is similar to a traditional buck-boost converter, but has
advantages of having non-inverted output (the output has the same voltage polarity as
the input), using a series capacitor to couple energy from the input to the output (and
thus can respond more gracefully to a short-circuit output), and being capable of true
shutdown: when the switch is turned off, its output drops to 0 V, following a fairly hefty
transient dump of charge.
SEPICs are useful in applications in which a battery voltage can be above and
below that of the regulator's intended output. For example, a single lithium ion battery

typically discharges from 4.2 volts to 3 volts; if other components require 3.3 volts, then
the SEPIC would be effective.

Operation of the circuit :

As with other switched mode power supplies (specifically DC-to-DC converters),
the SEPIC exchanges energy between the capacitors and inductors in order to convert
from one voltage to another. The amount of energy exchanged is controlled by switch
S1, which is typically a transistor such as a MOSFET; MOSFETs offer much higher input
impedance and lower voltage drop than bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), and do not
require biasing resistors (as MOSFET switching is controlled by differences in voltage
rather than a current, as with BJTs).

Continuous Mode
A SEPIC is said to be in continuous-conduction mode ("continuous mode") if the current
through the inductor L1 never falls to zero. During a SEPIC's steady-state operation, the
average voltage across capacitor C1 (VC1) is equal to the input voltage (Vin). Because
capacitor C1 blocks direct current (DC), the average current across it (IC1) is zero,
making inductor L2 the only source of load current. Therefore, the average current
through inductor L2 (IL2) is the same as the average load current and hence
independent of the input voltage. Looking at average voltages, the following can be
written:

Because the average voltage of VC1 is equal to VIN,

VL1 = VL2. For this reason, the two inductors can be wound on the same core. Since the
voltages are the same in magnitude, their effects of the mutual inductance will be zero,
assuming the polarity of the windings is correct. Also, since the voltages are the same in
magnitude, the ripple currents from the two inductors will be equal in magnitude.The
average currents can be summed as follows:

When switch S1 is

turned on, current IL1 increases and the current IL2 increases in the negative direction.
(Mathematically, it decreases due to arrow direction.) The energy to increase the current
IL1 comes from the input source. Since S1 is a short while closed, and the instantaneous
voltage VC1 is approximately VIN, the voltage VL2 is approximately VIN. Therefore, the
capacitor C1 supplies the energy to increase the magnitude of the current in IL2 and thus
increase the energy stored in L2. The easiest way to visualize this is to consider the
bias voltages of the circuit in a d.c. state, then close S1.

With S1 closed current increases through L1 (green) and C1 discharges increasing

current in L2 (red)
When switch S1 is turned off, the current IC1 becomes the same as the current IL1, since
inductors do not allow instantaneous changes in current. The current IL2 will continue in
the negative direction, in fact it never reverses direction. It can be seen from the
diagram that a negative IL2 will add to the current IL1 to increase the current delivered to
the load. Using Kirchhoff's Current Law, it can be shown that ID1 = IC1 - IL2. It can then be
concluded, that while S1 is off, power is delivered to the load from both L2 and L1. C1,

however is being charged by L1 during this off cycle, and will in turn recharge L2 during
the on cycle.

With S1 open current through L1 (green) and current through L2 (red) produce
current through the load
Because the potential (voltage) across capacitor C1 may reverse direction every cycle,
a non-polarized capacitor should be used. However, a polarized tantalum or electrolytic
capacitor may be used in some cases, because the potential (voltage) across capacitor
C1 will not change unless the switch is closed long enough for a half cycle of resonance
with inductor L2, and by this time the current in inductor L1 could be quite large. The
capacitor CIN is required to reduce the effects of the parasitic inductance and internal
resistance of the power supply. The boost/buck capabilities of the SEPIC are possible
because of capacitor C1 and inductor L2. Inductor L1 and switch S1 create a standard
boost converter, which generates a voltage (VS1) that is higher than VIN, whose
magnitude is determined by the duty cycle of the switch S1. Since the average voltage
across C1 is VIN, the output voltage (VO) is VS1 - VIN. If VS1 is less than double VIN, then
the output voltage will be less than the input voltage. If VS1 is greater than double VIN,
then the output voltage will be greater than the input voltage. The evolution of switchedpower supplies can be seen by coupling the two inductors in a SEPIC converter
together, which begins to resemble a Flyback converter, the most basic of the
transformer-isolated SMPS topologies.

Discontinuous Mode
A SEPIC is said to be in discontinuous-conduction mode (or, discontinuous mode) if the
current through the inductor L1 is allowed to fall to zero. The voltage drop and switching
time of diode D1 is critical to a SEPIC's reliability and efficiency. The diode's switching
time needs to be extremely fast in order to not generate high voltage spikes across the
inductors, which could cause damage to components. Fast conventional diodes or
Schottky diodes may be used. The resistances in the inductors and the capacitors can
also have large effects on the converter efficiency and ripple. Inductors with lower series
resistance allow less energy to be dissipated as heat, resulting in greater efficiency (a
larger portion of the input power being transferred to the load). Capacitors with low
equivalent series resistance (ESR) should also be used for C1 and C2 to minimize
ripple and prevent heat build-up, especially in C1 where the current is changing
direction frequently.

Disadvantages :
Like buckboost converters, SEPICs have a pulsating output current. The similar
uk converter does not have this disadvantage, but it can only have negative output
polarity, unless the isolated uk converter is used.
Since the SEPIC converter transfers all its energy via the series capacitor, a
capacitor with high capacitance and current handling capability is required.
The fourth-order nature of the converter also makes the SEPIC converter difficult to
control, making them only suitable for very slow varying applications.

Derived
Converters

Flyback Converter
The flyback converter is used in both AC/DC and DC/DC conversion with galvanic
isolation between the input and any outputs. More precisely, the flyback converter is a
buck-boost converter with the inductor split to form a transformer, so that the voltage
ratios are multiplied with an additional advantage of isolation.

It is equivalent to that of a buck-boost converter, with the inductor split to form a

transformer . Therefore the operating principle of both converters is very close:

When the switch is closed the primary of the transformer is directly connected to
the input voltage source. The primary current and magnetic flux in the
transformer increases, storing energy in the transformer. The voltage induced in
the secondary winding is negative, so the diode is reverse-biased (i.e., blocked).
The output capacitor supplies energy to the output load.

When the switch is opened the primary current and magnetic flux drops. The
secondary voltage is positive, forward-biasing the diode, allowing current to flow
from the transformer. The energy from the transformer core recharges the
capacitor and supplies the load.

The operation of storing energy in the transformer before transferring to the output of
the converter allows the topology to easily generate multiple outputs with little additional
circuitry, although the output voltages have to be able to match each other through the
turns ratio. Also there is a need for a controlling rail which has to be loaded before load
is applied to the uncontrolled rails, this is to allow the PWM to open up and supply
enough energy to the transformer.

Operation :The flyback converter is an isolated power converter, therefore the isolation of
the control circuit is also needed. The two prevailing control schemes are voltage mode
control and current mode control (in the majority of cases current mode control needs to

be dominant for stability during operation). Both require a signal related to the output
voltage. There are two common ways to generate this voltage. The first is to use an
optocoupler on the secondary circuitry to send a signal to the controller. The second is
to wind a separate winding on the coil and rely on the cross regulation of the design.
The first technique involving an optocoupler has been used to obtain tight voltage and
current regulation, whereas the alternative approach was developed for cost-sensitive
applications where the output did not need to be as tightly controlled but up to 11
components including the optocoupler could be eliminated from the overall design. Also,
in applications where reliability is critical, optocouplers can be detrimental to the MTBF
(Mean Time Between Failure) calculations. Recent developments in primary-side
sensing technology, where the output voltage and current are regulated by monitoring
the waveforms in the auxiliary winding used to power the control IC itself, have
improved the accuracy of both voltage and current regulation. Previously, a
measurement was taken across the whole of the flyback waveform which led to error,
but it was realized that measurements at the so-called knee point allow for a much more
accurate measurement of what is happening on the secondary side. This topology is
now replacing ringing choke converters in applications such as mobile phone chargers.

Limitations :

The voltage feedback loop requires a lower bandwidth due to a zero in the
response of the converter.

The current feedback loop used in current mode control needs slope
compensation in cases where the duty cycle is above 50%.

The power switches are now turning on with positive current flow - this means
that in addition to turn-off speed, the switch turn-on speed is also important for
efficiency and reducing waste heat in the switching element.

Discontinuous mode has the following disadvantages, which limit the efficiency of the
converter:

High RMS and peak currents in the design

High flux excursions in the inductor

Applications

Low-power switch-mode power supplies (cell phone charger, standby power

supply in PCs)

Low-cost multiple-output power supplies (e.g., main PC supplies <250 W)

High voltage supply for the CRT in TVs and monitors (the flyback converter is
often combined with the horizontal deflection drive)

High voltage generation (e.g., for xenon flash lamps, lasers, copiers, etc.)

Isolated gate driver

Example : A flyback converter of Fig. 7-2 has the following circuit parameters:
Vs = 24 V; N1/N2 = 3.0; Lm = 500 H; R = 5 ; C = 200F; f = 40 kHz; Vo = 5 V
Determine (a) the required duty ratio D; (b) the average, maximum, and minimum
values for the current in Lm; and (c) the output voltage ripple. Assume that all
components are ideal.

Solution :

=> D= 0.385

The average current is ILm = (V02/VsDR) = 540mA

The change in Ilm is ILm = VsD/Lmf = 460mA

The maximum and minimum inductor currents are I LM(max) = 770mA;

and ILM(min) 310mA. The output voltage ripple is V 0/V0 = D/RCf = 0.96%

Forward Converter

The forward converter is a DC/DC converter that uses a transformer to increase or

decrease the output voltage (depending on the transformer ratio) and provide galvanic
isolation for the load. With multiple output windings, it is possible to provide both higher
and lower voltage outputs. It operates in a manner similar to the flyback converter, but is
generally more energy efficient. A flyback converter stores energy as a magnetic field in
an inductor airgap during the time the converter switching element (transistor) is
conducting. When the switch turns off, the stored magnetic field collapses and the
energy is transferred to the output of the flyback converter as electric current. The
flyback converter can be viewed as two inductors sharing a common core. In contrast
the forward converter (which is based on a transformer) does not store energy during
the conduction time of the switching element - transformers cannot store a significant
amount of energy unlike inductors. Instead, energy is passed directly to the output of
the forward converter by transformer action during the switch conduction phase. The
use of the forward converter constrains the maximum output voltage by the transformer
turns ratio

where

is the pulse width modulator duty cycle.

The forward converter is used to provide an intermediate power output (100200 Watts)

Example :
The forward converter has the following parameters:
Vs = 48 V; R = 10 ; Lx = 0.4 mH, Lm = 5 mH; C = 100 F; f = 35 kHz;N1/N2 = 1.5,
N1/N3 = 1;D = 0.4 (a) Determine the output voltage, the maximum and minimum
currents in Lx, and the output voltage ripple. (b) Determine the peak current in the
transformer primary winding.

Solution: -

V0 = VsD(N2/N1) = 12.8V

Average current in Lx is the same as the current in the load

Ilx = 1.28A. Ilx = V0(1-D)/Lxf = 0.55A Ilx (max) = Ilx+ Ilx/2 = 1.56A
Ilx (min) = Ilx- Ilx/2 = 1.01A;
The peak magnetising current is Ilm(max) = Ilm = VsDT/Lm = 0.11A

Pushpull Converter
A pushpull converter is a type of DC-to-DC converter, a switching converter that uses a
transformer to change the voltage of a DC power supply. The distinguishing feature of a
push-pull converter is that the transformer primary is supplied with current from the input
line by pairs of transistors in a symmetrical push-pull circuit. The transistors are
alternately switched on and off, periodically reversing the current in the transformer.
Therefore current is drawn from the line during both halves of the switching cycle. This
contrasts with buck-boost converters, in which the input current is supplied by a single

transistor which is switched on and off, so current is only drawn from the line during half
the switching cycle. During the other half the output power is supplied by energy stored
in inductors or capacitors in the power supply. Pushpull converters have steadier input
current, create less noise on the input line, and are more efficient in higher power
applications.

Operation:-

The term pushpull is sometimes used to generally refer to any converter with
bidirectional excitation of the transformer. For example, in a full-bridge converter, the
switches (connected as an H-bridge) alternate the voltage across the supply side of the
transformer, causing the transformer to function as it would for AC power and produce a
voltage on its output side. However, pushpull more commonly refers to a two-switch
topology with a split primary winding. In any case, the output is then rectified and sent to
the load. Capacitors are often included at the output to buffer against the inevitable
switching noise. In practice, it is necessary to allow a small interval between powering
the transformer one way and powering it the other: the switches are usually pairs of
transistors (or similar devices), and were the two transistors in the pair to switch
simultaneously there would be a risk of shorting out the power supply. Hence, a small
wait is needed to avoid this problem. This wait time is called "Dead Time" and is
necessary to avoid transistor shoot-through. Transistors N-type and P-type power
transistors can be used. Power MOSFETs are often chosen for this role due to their high
current switching capability and their inherently low ON resistance. The gates or bases

of the power transistors are tied via a resistor to one of the supply voltages. A P-type
transistor is used to pull up the N-type power transistor gate (common source) and an
N-type transistor is used to pull down the P-type power transistor gate. Alternatively, all
power transistors can be N-type, which offer around three times the gain of their P-type
equivalents. In this alternative the N-type transistor used in place of the P-type has to be
driven in this way: The voltage is amplified by one P-type transistor and one N-type
transistor in common base configuration to rail-to-rail amplitude. Then the power
transistor is driven in common drain configuration to amplify the current. In high
frequency applications both transistors are driven with common source. The operation
of the circuit means that both transistors are actually pushing, and the pulling is done by
a low pass filter (coil) in general, and by a center tap of the transformer in the converter
application. But because the transistors push in an alternating fashion, the device is
called a push-pull converter. If both transistors are in their on state, a short circuit
results. On the other hand if both transistors are in their off state, high voltage peaks
appear due to back EMF. If the driver for the transistors is powerful and fast enough, the
back EMF has no time to charge the capacity of the windings and of the body-diode of
the MOSFETs to high voltages. If a microcontroller is used, it can be used to measure
the peak voltage and digitally adjust the timing for the transistors, so that the peak only
just appears. This is especially useful when the transistors are starting from cold with no
peaks, and are in their boot phase. The cycle starts with no voltage and no current.
Then one transistor turns on, a constant voltage is applied to the primary, current
increases linearly, and a constant voltage is induced in the secondary. After some time T
the transistor is turned off, the parasitic capacities of the transistors and the transformer
and the inductance of the transformer form an LC circuit which swings to the opposite
polarity. Then the other transistor turns on. For the same time T charge flows back into
the storage capacitor, then changes the direction automatically, and for another time T
the charge flows in the transformer. Then again the first transistor turns on until the
current is stopped. Then the cycle is finished, another cycle can start anytime later.

Half Bridge Converter

The half-bridge converter has capacitors C1 and C2 which are large and equal in
value. The input voltage is equally divided between the capacitors. Switches Sw1
and Sw2 close with the sequence shown, producing an alternating voltage pulse
vP on the transformer primary. The rectied secondary voltage vx has the
waveform Voltage vx is the same form as for the push-pull and the full-bridge
converters, but the amplitude is one-half the value. The relationship between the
input and output voltages for the half-bridge converter is V o = Vs(Ns/Np)D

Full bridge converter

The full-bridge and half-bridge converters shown in Figs. 7-9 and 7-10 are similar in operation to the push-pull converter. Assuming that the transformer is
ideal, the full-bridge converter of Fig. 7-9a has switch pairs (Sw1, Sw2) and (Sw3,
Sw4) alternate closing. When Sw1 and Sw2 are closed, the voltage across the
transformer primary is Vs. When Sw3 and Sw4 are closed, the transformer primary voltage is Vs. For an ideal transformer, having all switches open will
make vp 0. With a proper switching sequence, the voltage vp across the transformer primary is the alternating pulse waveform shown in Fig. 7-9c. Diodes D1
and D2 on the transformer secondary rectify this waveform to produce the voltage vx. This vx is for the push-pull converter. Hence the output of the full-bridge
converter is analyzed as for the push-pull converter, resulting in V o = 2 Vs(Ns/Np)D
where D is the duty ratio of each switch pair. Note that the maximum voltage across
an open switch for the full-bridge converter is Vs, rather than 2Vs as for the push-

pull and single-ended forward converters. Reduced voltage stress across an open
switch is important when the input voltage is high, giving the full-bridge converter an
advantage.

Current fed converter

Another method of controlling output is to establish a constant source current and use
the switches to direct the current. Current control has advantages over voltage control
for some converters. A circuit that operates by switching current rather than voltage is
called a current-fed converter. It is a circuit that is a modification of the push-pull
converter. The inductor Lx has been moved from the output side of the transformer to
the input side. A large inductor in this position establishes a nearly constant source
current. Switch Sw1 directs the current through winding P1, and switch Sw2 directs the
current through winding P2. With both switches closed, the current divides evenly
between the windings. At least one switch must be closed to provide a current path.
The switching sequence and waveforms are described below The following analysis
assumes that Lx is large and the current in it is a constant ILx. The transformer is
assumed to be ideal.
Sw1 Closed and Sw2 Open The inductor current ILx flows through primary winding P1
and through D1 on the secondary when switch 1 is closed and switch 2 is open. D1 is
on, D2 is off.
Sw1 Open and Sw2 Closed With switch 1 open and switch 2 closed, ILx flows through
primary winding P2 and through D2 on the secondary. D1 is off and D2 ison.
Both Sw1 and Sw2 Closed With both switches closed, ILx divides evenly between the
two primary windings, and both D1 and D2 are off. The voltage on each primary winding
is zero, Inductor Lx then has the source voltage across it. Vo = (Vs/(2(1-D))(Ns/Np)

Multiple Outputs

The dc power supply circuits discussed thus far in this chapter have only one
output voltage. With additional transformer windings, multiple outputs are
possible. Flyback and forward converters with two outputs are mentioned.
Multiple outputs are useful when different output voltages are necessary.The duty
ratio of the switch and the turns ratio of the primary to the specific secondary
winding determine the output/input voltage ratio. An example is a single converter
with three windings on the output producing voltages of 12, 5, and 5 V with
respect to a common ground on the output side.However, that only one of the
outputs can be regulated with a feedback control loop. Other outputs will follow
according to the duty ratio and the load.

Control of
DC-DC
Converters

Power Supply Control

In ideal switching dc-dc converters, the output voltage is a function of the input voltage
and duty ratio. In real circuits with nonideal components, the output is also a function of
the load current because of resistances in the components. A power supply output is
regulated by modulating the duty ratio to compensate for variations in the input or load.
A feedback control system for power supply con-trol compares output voltage to a
reference and converts the error to a duty ratio.The buck converter operating in the
continuous-current mode is used to illustrate the basics of power supply control. The
converterand feedback loop consisting of The switch, including the diode and drive
circuit The output lter A compensated error amplier A pulse-width modulating circuit
that converts the output of the compensated error amplier to a duty ratio to drive the
switch

Control Loop Stability

Performance and stability of the control loop for regulating the output voltage for
The gain at low frequencies should be large so the steady-state error between
the output and the reference signal is small.2. The gain at the converters
switching frequency should be small. The open-loop phase shift at the crossover
frequency (the frequency where the open-loop gain is unity) must lag by less
than 180 . If the phase lag were 180 (or 180 ), negative feedback provides a shift
of another 180 , resulting in a total of 360 (or zero). A gain of magnitude 1 and
phase of 360 around the loop make the loop unstable. The open-loop phase shift
less than 180 at crossover is called the phase margin. A phase margin of at least
45 is a commonly used criterion for stability. The concept of phase margin. Note
that phase margin is the angle between the phase shift and zero when the 180
phase angle of the inverting operational amplier is included, which is convenient
for use with PSpice analysis. The transfer function of each block of the system
must be developed

Small Signal Analysis

Control loop analysis is based on the dynamic behavior of voltages, currents, and
switching, unlike the steady-state analysis where the averaged circuit quantities
are constants. Dynamic behavior can be described in terms of small-signal
inductor current, source voltage, and other quantities are represented. the
steady-state or dc term is represented by the uppercase letters, the ~ (tilde)
quantity represents the ac term or small-signal perturbation, and the sum is the
total quantity, represented by the lowercase letters. variations around a steadystate operating point. Output voltage, duty ratio.

Switch Transfer Function

For control purposes, the average values of voltages and currents are of greater interest
than the instantaneous values that occur during the switching period. Equivalent
representations of the switch in a buck converter. The relationship between input and
output for the switch for a time-varying duty ratio is represented by the ideal
transformation of 1 : d. Here, d represents a time-varying duty ratio consisting of a dc
(constant) component D plus a small-signal component d. An alternative representation
of the switch separates the steady-state and small-signal components. The transformer
secondary voltage vx is related to the source voltage, Neglecting the product of the
small-signal terms, Similarly, the current on the source side of the transformer is related
to the secondary current b The circuit with the transformer ratio xed at D and the small
signal terms included with the dependent sources, satises the voltage and current
requirements of the switch expressed

Filter transfer function

The input to the buck converter lter is the switch output, which is vx vs d on an
averaged circuit basis in the continuous current mode. The RLC lter of the buck
converter has a transfer function developed from a straightforward application of circuit
analysis in the s domain. The transfer function of the lter with the load resistor is
calculated. The above transfer function is based on ideal lter components. An
equivalent series resistance (ESR) of rC for a nonideal capacitor results in a lter
transfer function A general technique for establishing the switch and lter transfer
function is state-space averaging The numerator of shows that the ESR of the capacitor
produces a zero in the transfer function, which may be important in determining system
stability

PWM transfer function

The pulse-width modulation (PWM) circuit converts the output from the
compensated error amplier to a duty ratio. The error amplier output voltage vc is
compared to a sawtooth waveform with amplitude Vp,. The output of the PWM circuit
is high while vc is larger than the sawtooth and is zero when vc is less than the
sawtooth. If the output voltage falls below the reference, the error between the
converter output and the reference signal increases, causing vc to increase and the
duty ratio to increase. Conversely, a rise in output voltage reduces the duty ratio. A
transfer function for the PWM process is derived from the linear relation

Type-2 error amplifier with compensation

The error amplier compares the converter output voltage with a reference voltage to produce an error signal that is used to adjust the duty ratio of the switch
Compensation associated with the amplier determines control loop performance
and provides for a stable control system. The transfer function of the
compensated error amplier should give a total loop characteristic consistent with
the stability criteria described previously Namely, the amplier should have a high
gain at low frequencies, a low gain at high frequencies, and an appropriate phase
shift at the crossover frequency. An amplifier that suits this purpose for many
applications. This is commonly referer to as a type 2 compensated error
amplier. The amplier is analyzed for the small-signal transfer function, so the
dc reference voltage Vref has no effect on the small-signal portion. of the
analysis. Furthermore, a resistor can be placed between the inverting input
terminal and ground to act as a voltage divider to adjust the converter output
voltage, and that resistor will have no effect on the small-signal analysis because
the small-signal voltage at the noninverting terminal, and therefore at the
inverting terminal, is zero. small-signal transfer function (with dc terms set to
zero) of the amplier is expressed in terms of input and feedback impedances Zi
and Zf. The gain function G(s) is expressed as the ratio of the compensated error
amplier small-signal output ~c to the input, which is the converter. The
frequency response of this amplier has the form shown.The values of R1, R2,
C1, and C2 are chosen to make the overall control system have the desired
attributes.The combined frequency response of the transfer functions of the
PWM circuit, the switch, and the output lter of a converter. The ESR of the lter
capacitor puts a zero at1/rcC. A simulation program such as PSpice is useful to
determine the frequency response. Otherwise, the transfer function may be
evaluated with s

Type-3 error amplifier with compensation

The type 2 compensation circuit described previously is sometimes not capable of
providing sufcient phase angle difference to meet the stability criterion of a 45 phase
margin. Another compensation circuit, known as the type 3 amplier, is shown. The type
3 amplier provides an additional phase angle boost compared to the type 2 circuit and
is used when an adequate phase margin is not achievable using the type 2 amplier.
The small-signal transfer function is expressed in terms of input and feedback
impedances Zi and Zf,

Resonant
Converters

Introduction
Imperfect switching is a major contributor to power loss in converters.Switching devices
absorb power when they turn on or off if they go through a transition when both voltage
and current are nonzero. As the switching frequency increases, these transitions occur
more often and the average power loss in the device increases. High switching
frequencies are otherwise desirable because of the reduced size of filter components
and transformers, which reduces the size and weight of the converter. In resonant
switching circuits, switching takes place when voltage and/or current is zero, thus
avoiding simultaneous transitions of voltage and current and thereby eliminating
switching losses. This type of switching is called soft switching, as opposed to hard
switching in circuits such as the buck converter. Resonant converters include resonant
switch converters, load resonant converters, and resonant dc link converters.

Resonant switch ZCS converter

(Principle of operation and analysis)
One method for taking advantage of the oscillations caused by an LC circuit for
reducing the switching losses in a dc-dc converter is using ZCS. This circuit is similar to
the buck converter. The current in the output inductor Lo is assumed to be ripple-free
and equal to the load current Io. When the switch is open, the diode is forward-biased to
carry the output inductor current, and the voltage across Cr is zero. When the switch
closes, the diode initially remains forward-biased to carry Io, and the voltage across Lr
is the same as the source voltage Vs . The current in Lr increases linearly, and the
diode remains forward-biased while iL is less than Io. When iL reaches Io, the diode
turns off. . If Io is a constant, the load appears as a current source, and the
underdamped LC circuit oscillates. Consequently, iL returns to zero and remains there,
assuming the switch is unidirectional. The switch is turned off after the current reaches
zero, resulting in zero-current switching and no switching power loss. After the current in
the switch reaches zero, the positive capacitor voltage keeps the diode reverse-biased,
so load current Io flows through Cr, with ic = I. If Io is constant, the capacitor voltage
decreases linearly. When the capacitor voltage reaches zero, the diode becomes
forward-biased to carry Io. The circuit is then back at the starting point.

Resonant switch ZVS converter

(Principle of operation and analysis)
The circuit

shows a method for using the oscillations of an LC circuit for

switching at zero voltage. The analysis assumes that the output lter produces a
ripple-free current Io in Lo. Beginning with the switch closed, the current in the
switch and in Lr is Io, the currents in D1 and Ds are zero, and the voltage across
Cr and the switch is zero. The switch is opened (with zero voltage across it), and
iL Io ows through the capacitor Cr, causing vC to increase linearly). When vC
reaches the source voltage Vs, the diode D1 becomes forward-biased, in effect
forming a series circuit with Vs, Cr, and Lr as shown in Fig. 9-2c. At this time, iL
and vC in this underdamped series circuit begin to oscillate.

When vC returns

to zero, diode Ds turns on to carry iL, which is negative The voltage across Lr is
Vs, causing iL to increase linearly. The switch should be closed just after Ds turns
on for zero-voltage turn-on. When iL becomes positive, Ds turns off and iL is
carried by the switch. When iL reaches Io, D1 turns off, and circuit conditions are
back at the starting point. The analysis for each circuit condition is given next.

Series Resonant Inverter

The series resonant inverter (dc-to-ac converter) is one application of resonant
converters. In a series resonant inverter, an inductor and a capacitor are placed in
series with a load resistor. The switches produce a square wave voltage, and the
inductor-capacitor combination is selected such that the resonant frequency is the same
as the switching frequency. The analysis begins by considering the frequency response
of the RLC circuit The input and output voltage amplitudes are related. At resonance,
the impedances of the inductance and capacitance cancel, and the load appears as a
resistance. If the bridge output is a square wave at frequency f0, the LC combination
acts as a filter, passing the fundamental frequency and attenuating the harmonics. If the
third and higher harmonics of the square wave bridge output are effectively removed,
the voltage across the load resistor is essentially a sinusoid at the square waves
fundamental frequency. The frequency response of the filter could be expressed in
terms of bandwidth, which is also characterized by the quality factor Q. The normalized
frequency response with Q as a parameter. The total harmonic distortion THD, of the
voltage across the load resistor is reduced by increasing the Q of the filter. Increasing
inductance and reducing capacitance increase Q. An important feature of the resonant
inverter is that switch losses are reduced over that of the inverters. If switching is at the
resonant frequency and the Q of the circuit is high, the switches operate when the load.
current is at or near zero. This is significant because the power absorbed by the
switches is less than in the nonresonant inverter.

Amplitude Control
If the frequency of the load voltage is not critical, the amplitude of the fundamental
frequency across the load resistor can be controlled by shifting the switching frequency
off of resonance. Power absorbed by the load resistor is thus controlled by the switching
frequency. Induction heating is an application. The switching frequency should be
shifted higher than resonance rather than lower when controlling the output. Higher
switching frequencies moves the harmonics of the square wave higher, increasing the
filters effectiveness in removing them. Conversely, shifting the frequency lower than

resonance moves the harmonics, particularly the third harmonic, closer to resonance
and increases their amplitudes in the output.

Series resonant DC-DC converter

The upper switching frequency limit on dc-dc converters is largely due to the switching
losses, which increase with frequency. A method for using resonance to reduce the
switching losses in dc-dc converters is to start with a resonant inverter to produce an ac
signal and then rectify the output to obtain a dc voltage. A half-bridge inverter with a fullwave rectifier and a capacitor output filter across the load resistor RL. The two
capacitors on the input are large and serve to split the voltage of the source. The input
capacitors are not part of the resonant circuit. The basic operation of the circuit is to use
the switches to produce a square wave voltage for va. The series combination of Lr and
Cr forms a filter for the current iL. The current iL oscillates and is rectified and filtered to
produce a dc voltage output. Converter operation is dependent on the relationship
between the switching frequency and the resonant frequency of the filter. For the first
analysis, assume that the switching frequency _s is slightly larger than the resonant
frequency _o of the series LC combination. If the switching frequency is around the
resonant frequency of the LC filter, iL is approximately sinusoidal with frequency equal
to the switching frequency. The square wave input voltage va, the current iL, the switch
current iS1, and the input to the rectifier bridge vb. The current in the switches is turned
on at zero voltage to eliminate turn-on losses, but the switches are turned off at nonzero
current, so turnoff losses could exist. However, capacitors could be placed across the
switches to act as lossless snubbers to prevent turn off losses. The series resonant dcdc converter is analyzed by considering the fundamental frequency of the Fourier series
for the voltages and currents. The input voltage to the filter va is a square wave of _Vs /
2. If the output voltage is assumed to be a constant Vo, then the input voltage to the
bridge vb is Vo when iL is positive and is _Vo when iL is negative because of the
condition of the rectifier diodes for each of these cases. The amplitudes of the
fundamental frequencies

Parallel resonant DC-DC converter

The converter shown is a parallel dc-dc converter. The capacitor Cr is placed in
parallel with the rectier bridge rather than in series. An output lter inductor Lo
produces essentially a constant current from the bridge output to the load. The
switching action causes the voltage across the capacitor and bridge input to
oscillate. When the capacitor voltage is positive, rectier diodes DR1 and DR2
are forward-biased and carry current Io. When the capacitor voltage is negative,
DR3 and DR4 are forward-biased and carry current Io. The current ib at the input
to the bridge is therefore a square wave current of Io. The bridge output voltage
is the full-wave rectied waveform of voltage vb. The average voltage across the
output inductor Lo is zero, so the output voltage is the average of rectied vb.
The parallel dc-dc converter can be analyzed by assuming that the voltage
across the capacitor Cr is sinusoidal, taking only the fundamental frequencies of
the square wave voltage input and square wave current into the bridge. The
equivalent ac circuit is shown in Fig. 9-10b. The equivalent resistance for this
circuit is the ratio of capacitor voltage to the fundamental frequency of the square
wave current. Assuming that the capacitor voltage is sinusoidal, the average of
the rectied sine wave at the bridge output (vx) is the same as Vo, The curves
are more accurate for switching frequencies larger than 0 because of the sinelike quality of the capacitor voltage for these frequencies. Note that the output
can be larger than the input for the parallel resonant dc-dc converter, but the
output is limited to Vs /2 for the series resonant dc-dc converter.

Series-parallel resonant DC-DC converter

The series-parallel dc-dc converter of Fig. 9-11a has both a series and a parallel
capacitor. The analysis is similar to the parallel converter discussed
previously.The switches produce a square wave voltage va, and the voltage vb at
the input to the rectier is ideally a sinusoid at the fundamental frequency of the
input square wave. The output inductor Lo is assumed to produce a ripple-free
current, causing the input current ib to the rectier bridge to be a square
wave.These curves are more accurate above 0 than below because the
harmonics of the square wave are more adequately ltered, resulting in the ac
analysis being more representative of the actual situation. The series capacitor
Cs can be incorporated into the voltage-divider capacitors, each equal to Cs /2,
for the half-bridge circuit as was shown in Fig. 9-9 for the series resonant dc-dc
converter

Resonant converters comparison

A drawback of the series converter described previously is that the output cannot
be regulated for the no-load condition. As RL goes to innity, Q in goes to zero.
The output voltage is then independent of frequency. However, theparallel
converter is able to regulate the output at no load. For the parallel converter Q
becomes larger as the load resistor increases, and the output remains dependent
on the switching frequency. A drawback of the parallel converter is that the
current in the resonant components is relatively independent of load. The
conduction losses are xed, and the efciency of the converter is relatively poor
for light loads.The series-parallel converter combines the advantages of the
series and parallel converters. The output is controllable for no load or light load,
and the light load efciency is relatively high.

Resonant DC link converter

The circuit is the basic topology for a switching scheme for an inverter that has
zero-voltage switching. The analysis proceeds like that of the resonant switch
converters. During the switching interval, the load current is assumed to be
essentially constant at Io. The resistance represents losses in the circuit. When
the switch is closed, the voltage across the RLr combination is Vs.If the time
constant Lr /R is large compared to the time that the switch is closed, the current
rises nearly linearly. When the switch is opened, the equivalent circuit is shown in
Fig. 9-12b. Kirchhoffs voltage and current laws yield the equations. When the
switch is opened, the inductor current and capacitor voltage oscillate. The switch
can be reclosed when the capacitor voltage returns to zero and thereby avoids
switching losses. The switch should remain closed until the inductor current
reaches some selected value I1 which is above the load current Io. This allows
the capacitor voltage to return to zero for lossless switching.An important
application of this resonant switching principle is for inverter circuits. The threephase inverter of Fig. 9-13 can have PWM switching and can include intervals
when both switches in one of the three legs are closed to cause the input voltage
to the bridge to oscillate. The switches can then turn on or off when the capacitor
voltage is zero.

Design of inductor and transformers for SMPC

Design of Inductor
Better efficiency, reduced size, and lower costs have combined to make the switching
regulator a viable method for converting unfiltered DC input voltages into regulated DC
outputs

A typical circuit consists of three parts: transistor switch, diode clamp, and an LC filter.
An unregulated DC voltage is applied to the transistor switch which usually operates at
a frequency of 1 to 50 kilohertz. When the switch is ON, the input voltage, Ein, is
applied to the LC filter, thus causing current through the inductor to increase; excess
energy is stored in the inductor and capacitor to maintain output power during the OFF
time of the switch. Regulation is obtained by adjusting the ON time, ton, of the transistor
switch, using a feedback system from the output. The switching system consists of a
transistor and a feedback from the output of the regulator. Transistor selection involves
two factors(1) voltage ratings should be greater than the maximum input voltage, and
(2) the frequency cutoff characteristics must be high compared to the actual switching
frequency to insure efficient operation. The feedback circuits usually include operational
amplifiers and comparators. Requirements for the diode clamp are identical to those of
the transistor. The design of the LC filter stage is easily achieved. Given (1) maximum
and minimum input voltage, (2) required output, (3) maximum allowable ripple voltage,
(4) maximum and minimum load currents, and (5) the desired switching frequency, the
values for the inductance and capacitance can be obtained. Two different types of core

materials are commonly used for the inductor in a switching regulator Powder Cores
and Ferrite Cores. It is difficult to recommend one material over the other since the
designer must take into consideration factors such as cost, volume, size and space
limitations, and winding capabilities. Each material type has advantages as described
below. MAGNETICS POWDER CORES have a distributed air gap structure, making
them ideal for switching regulator applications. This structure gives a soft saturation
characteristic that has many design benefits, including an overall smaller core size, and
overcurrent protection. It also alleviates the fringing flux difficulties which occur if a
discrete gap design is used. The DC bias characteristics of Powder Cores allow them to
be used at high drive levels without saturating. FERRITE CORES offer the advantages
of decreased cost and low cores losses at high frequencies. For switching regulators,
power ferrite materials (F, P, R, and K) are recommended because of their core loss and
DC bias characteristics. By adding discrete air gaps to these ferrite shapes, the cores
can be used efficiently while avoiding saturation. Magnetics produces many sizes and
shapes to suit a variety of needs. Hardware is also available for most parts. These core
selection procedures simplify the design of inductors for switching regulator
applications. For Powder Cores: One can determine the smallest core size, assuming a
maximum decrease in inductance of 50% and wire current carrying capacity of 500
circular mils per ampere. Only two parameters of the design application must be known
(1) Inductance required with DC bias, (2) DC current. In this bulletin, Molypermalloy
Powder Cores are featured in the examples. However, this design procedure can be
used for any of the Powder Core types, including the Kool Mu E-cores. Simply refer to
the design charts and data within those catalogs for the material and shape of choice.
Compute the product of LI where: L= minimum inductance required with DC bias
(millihenries) I= maximum DC output current = I0 max + i. Locate the LI value on the
Core Selection Chart. The Molypermalloy DC bias Core Selector Chart will quickly yield
the optimum permeability and smallest core size for most switching regulator
applications. This chart is based on a permeability decrease of no more than 50% with
DC bias and typical winding factors of 40%. Follow this coordinate to the intersection
with the first core size that lies above the solid permeability line. This core size is the
smallest that can be used.N= 1000 The optimum permeability for that coordinate can

also be read from the solid permeability line. For most applications with a given LI
value, the permeability indicated will result in the smallest core size possible. This is due
to the tradeoff between the quicker DC bias rolloff of a higher permeability core versus
the additional

windings that would

be necessary for a lower

permeability

core.Inductance, core size and permeability are now known. The AL (millihenries per
thousand turns) can be obtained from catalog MPP-400. With this information, calculate
the number of turns needed to obtain the required inductance. This number will then
have to be adjusted for the DC bias roll-off. The procedure for this adjustment is
described within each of the Magnetics Choose the correct wire size For Ferrite Cores:
Compute the product of LI where: L= minimum inductance required with DC bias
(millihenries) I= maximum DC output current = l0 max + i. Locate the LI value on the
Ferrite Core Selection charts (also located in the Magnetics Ferrite Cores Catalog).
Follow this coordinate to the intersection with the first core size curve for the ferrite
shape of choice. Read the maximum nominal inductance (AL) on the Y-axis. This
represents the smallest core size and maximum AL at which saturation will be avoided.
Any core size line that intersects the LI coordinate represents a workable core for the
inductor if the cores AL value is less than the maximum value obtained from the chart. It
is important to remember that the AL value for a gapped ferrite core comes with a
tolerance range, and therefore the high end of the tolerance range should be noted to
ensure that it is not higher than the AL value obtained from the chart. Required
inductance L, core size, and core nominal inductance (AL) are known. Calculate the
number of turns using Where L is in millihenries. Choose the wire size from the wire.
While Molypermalloy and Ferrite cores are featured in this brochure, Magnetics Kool Mu
and High Flux powder cores are also excellent for inductor applications. cores offer an
economical advantage over all three types.