Introduction to Optical Mineralc THIRD EDITION Wituam D. University ofContents Preface xi CHAPTER 1: UGHT 1 The Nature of Light 1 Electromagnetic Radiation 1 Phase 3 The Perception of Color 4 Interaction of Light and Matter 5 Transmitted Light 5 Velocity 5 Index of Refraction § Reflection 7 Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection 7 Optical Class 8 Dispersion 9 Light Absorption and Color 10 Polarized Light 10 Polarization by Double Refraction 11 Polarization by Reflection 12 Polarization by Scattering 13 CHAPTER 2: THE PETROGRAPHIC MICROSCOPE 14 Direction Conventions 14 Samples 14 Wuminator 15 Substage Assembly 16 Microscope Stage 17 Objective Lenses 17 Vertical illuminator 18 Upper Polarizer 18 Bertrand Lens 19 Ocular 19 Focusing Mechanism 19 Accessories 20 Additional Equipment 20 General Care of the Microscope 20 Adjustment of the Microscope 21 ‘Adjusting the Oculars 21 Focusing 22 Adjusting the Illuminator 22 Centering the Objectives 22 Adjusting the Substage 23 Alignment of Polarizers 23 General Considerations 24 CHAPTER 3: REFRACTOMETRY 25} Relief 25 Becke Line Method 25 Dispersion Effects 28 Oblique Illumination Method 30 Practical Considerations 31 Accuracy of the Immersion Method 32 Determining Indices of Refraction in Thin Section 33vi @ Contents CHAPTER 4: OPTICS OF ISOTROPIC MATERIALS _ Isotropic Indicatrix 34 Distinguishing Between Isotropic and Anisotropic Minerals 34 Identification of Isotropic Minerals Grain Mount 35 Thin Section 36 CHAPTER 5: OPTICS OF ANISOTROPIC MINERALS: INTRODUCTION 35 a) LTR OU Ce SSS 39 Monochromatic illumination Retardation 39 Birefringence 40 Interference of the Two Rays Polychromatic illumination Orders of Interferente Colors 43 ‘Anomalous Interference Colors 43 Determining Thickness of a Sample Thin Section 43 Grain Mount 44 Determining Birefringence from the Color Chart 45 Thin Section 45 Grain Mount 45 Recognizing the Different Orders of Interference Colors 45 Extinction 45 Categories of Extinction Use of the Accessory Plates Interference Phenomena 39. 40 4 46 47 Sign of Elongation 50 Relief 51 Pleochroism 51 be a3 CHAPTER 6: UNIAXIAL OPTICS optic Sign 53 Crystallographic Considerations Uniaxial Indicatrix 55 Use of the Indicatrix 56 .gence and Interference 34 Birefrin Colors Extinction 60 Fetragonal Minerals 61 Hexagonal Minerals 61 Rhombohedral Cleavage 61 Prismatic and Pinacoidal Cleavage 63 Pleochroism 64 Interference Figure 65 Optic Axis Interference Figure Formation of Isochromes 66 Formation of Isogyres 67 Determining Optic Sign 67 Off-Center Optic Axis Figure Flash Figure 69 Selecting Grains to Give Interference Figures 72 Optic Axis Figure 72 Flash Figure 72 Determining Indices of Refraction Grain Mount 72 Determining Ns Determining ne Thin Section 74 Spindle Stage 74 65 69 n 72 23 CHAPTER 7: BIAXIAL OPTICS Biaxial Indicatrix 76 Mathematical Relationships 6 78Use of the Indicatrix 79 Normal Incidence Parallel to an Indicatrix Axis 81 Normal incidence Parallel to an Optic Axis. 81 Normal incidence in a Random Direction 82 Inclined incidence 82 Crystallographic Orientation of Indicatrix Axes 83 Orthorhombic Minerals 83 Monoclinic Minerals 84 Triclinic Minerals 84 Biaxial Interference Figure 84 Acute Bisectrix Figure 85 Formation of lsochromes 85 Vibration Directions and Formation of Isogyres 86 Centered Optic Axis Figure 88 Obtuse Bisectrix Figure 89 Optic Normal Figure 89 Off-Center Figures 90 an ‘Acute Bisectrix Figure 91 Obtuse Bisectrix Figure 94 Optic Axis Figure 91 Flash Figures 91 Determining 2V 95 2V Versus 2E 95 Mallard’s Method 95 Tobi's Method 96 Kamb’s Method 97 Wright Method 98 Selecting Grains to Produce Interference Figures 99 Pleochroism 101 Extinction 101 Orthorhombic Minerals 101 Monoclinic Minerals 102 Triclinic Minerals 103 Contents @ vil Sign of Elongation 103 Indices of Refraction 104 Grain Mount 104 Spindle Stage 104 Dispersion in Biaxial Minerals 106 Orthorhombic Minerals 106 Monoclinic Minerals 107 Triclinic Minerals 108 CHAPTER 8: REFLECTED LIGHT OPTICS 110 Physical Properties Observed with Polished Sections 110 Crystal Form and Habit 110 Hardness 111 Observation in Plane Polarized Light 114 Reflectance 114 Bireflectance 115 ‘Measurement of Reflectance ‘and Birelectance 116 Color and Pleochroism 117 Isotropic Minerals 117 Anisotropic Minerals 117 ‘Observations with Crossed Polarizers 118 Polarization Colors 118 Isotropic Minerals. 118 Anisotropic Minerals 118 Internal Reflections 119 Observations Related to Conoscopic Illumination 120 Practical Considerations 120 CHAPTER 9: IDENTIFICATION OF MINERALS 122 Descriptive Features 122 Cleavage 122vill @ Contents Twinning Alteration 123 Association 123 ‘ Tactics for Mineral Identification Thin Section Identification 123 Grain Mount Identification 124 Polished Section Identification 125 Use of the Identification Tables 125 Nonminerals 126 Problems in Paradise 123 123 126 Inconsistencies in Crystallographic Settings Poor Data 127 127 CHAPTER 10: FRAMEWORK SILICATES Silica Group 128 Quartz 128 Chalcedony Tridymite Cristobalite Opal 132 Voleanic Glass Feldspars 134 Plagioclase 135, Thin Section 138 Grain Mount 142 Alkali Feldspars. 144 Sanidine 148 Orthoclase 149 Microcline 150 Adularia 150 Anorthoclase Feldspathoids 151 Nepheline 151 Sodalite Group Leucite 153 Cancrinite-Vishnevite Zeolites 155 Analcime (Analcite) 128 128 131 132 133 151 153 154 156 157 158 Natrolite Thomsonite Stilbite 159 Chabazite 159 Heulandite 160 Laumontite 161 Other Minerals and Mineraloids 162 162 Scapolite CHAPTER 11: SHEET SILICATES 166 164 TO Layer Silicates Kaolinite 166 Serpentine 166 TOT Layer Silicates Pyrophyllite 167 Talc 168 TOT + interlayer Cation Layer Silicates 169 71 173 174 167 169 Muscovite Biotite Lepidolite Glauconite Margarite 175 Clintonite 175 TOT + O Layer Silicates Chiorite 176 Clay Minerals 178 Other Sheet Silicates Stilpnomelane 180 Prehnite 181 Apophyllite 182 176 180 CHAPTER 12: CHAIN SILICATES Pyroxenes 185 Enstatite-Ferrosilite (Orthopyroxene) Pigeonite 190 Calcic Clinopyroxene (Augite) 184 187 192 im204 te-Grunerite 205 Andalusite ‘Actinolite 207 ilfimanite 250 Hornblenc 252 foxynomplencs Ss Kaersutite 211x © Contents Phosphates 280 ‘Apatite 280 Monazite 282 Xenotime 283 CHAPTER 16: NATIVE ELEMENTS, SULFIDES, HALIDES, OXIDES, AND HYDROXIDES a 285 Native Elements 285 sulfur 285 Graphite 286 Gold 286 Silver 287 Copper 287 Sufides and Related Minerals 288 Pyrite 293 Marcasite 294 Sphalerite 295 Galena 296 Pyrthotite 296 Chalcopyrite 297 Halides 297 Halite 297 SyWvite 298 Fluorite 299 Oxides 299 Periclase 299 Cuprite 300 Rutile 300 Anatase 307 Cassiterite 302 Corundum _ 303 Hematite 304 limenite 305 Perovskite 306 The Spinel Group Spinel Series 307 Magnetite 308 Chromite 309 307 Hydroxides 309 Brucite 309 Gibbsite 310 Diaspore 311 Bohmite (Boehmite) 312 Goethite 313 Lepidocrocite 314 Limonite 315 Appendix A: Sample Preparation 316 Grain Mount 316 Thin Section 316 Spindle Stage 317 Polished Section 317 Appendix B: Identification Tables 319 Appendix C: Mineral Associations 335 Mineral Index 339 Subject Index 343CHAPTER 1 Light The Nature of Light In some ways light is an enigma, We know that itis a form of energy that is transmitted from one place to another at finite velocity and that it can be detected) with the eye. In many ways it behaves as though it were composed of numerous tiny particles that travel bullet-like from one point to another. But it also be- haves as though it were a wave phenomena in which the energy moves somewhat like the waves started by dropping a pebble in a pond. Because light behaves in these two seemingly contradictory ways, two differ- ent theories, the particle theory and the wave theory, have been developed to explain it. In the particle theory, ight is considered to be com- posed of subatomic particles called photons. When atoms are sufficiently heated, or otherwise excited, the: outer electrons are forced into a higher-than-normal energy level. When the electrons revert to their nor- mal energy level, a small amount of energy is released in the form of a photon, which is @ small particle with essentially zero mass. ‘The wave theory considers light to be a form of ra- diant energy that travels wave-like from one point to another, These waves have both electrical and mag- netic properties and are therefore called electromag- netic radiation. Light is just a small portion of a con- tinuous spectrum of radiation ranging from cosmic rays at one end, to radio waves and long electrical ‘waves at the other (Figure 1.1). ‘Modern theories of matter and energy involving ‘quantum mechanics have reconciled the seemingly contradictory particle and wave theories of light. Un- fortunately, much of quantum mechanics does not lend itself to interpretation by simple analogs, such as bul- Jets or waves, but can be understood only in abstract mathematical form, Both the particle and wave theo- ries have been shown to be correct, it’s just that in their simple forms, neither completely describes light. ‘They are complementary theories and both can be used effectively in appropriate contexts. Because wave the- ‘ory very effectively describes the phenomena of po- larization, reflection, refraction, and interference—the ‘meat ofan optical mineralogy course—this book treats light as electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic Radiation All electromagnetic radiation, light included, is con- sidered to consist of electric and magnetic vectors that vibrate at right angles to the direction in which the ra- diation is moving (Figure 1.2). For purposes of min- eral optics it is necessary to consider only the vibra- tion of the electric vector. It is the interaction of the electric vector with the electrical character of the atoms ‘and chemical bonds in minerals that affects the be- havior of light. Forces arising from the magnetic vee~ tor of light are generally very small and can be ignored for our purposes. It is important to note that the vi- bration direction of the electric vector is transverse: it vibrates perpendicular to the direction in which the light wave is propagating, The vibration direction of the electric vector is, in some ways, analogous to the movement of water in a water wave or the move- ‘ment of the solid earth with the passage of an earth- ‘quake $ wave. In both cases, the energy is propagated through the material, but the particles of water or earth move from side to side asthe wave passes. The anal2 © Light dom) fiber) 10°. om) a Cosmic ays Ulraviolet 10%. wes Violet ‘Gamma rays F107 Be sso] Xe 2 Ultraviolet rays| 1016 won| sigs 9 Yellow 10F infrared 00, “ 2 One 102g ‘ Micmwaves [ re |" 108 eo r 108 Inrarsd 2] Ratio waves 10! 10% 10°) Long ee wines Caop Figure 1.1 The electromagnetic spectrum. Visible light is small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum and. has wavelengths of between about 400 and 700 nm (lnm 10°7 em) ina vacuum, ogy is not complete, however, because with light itis ‘not matter that vibrates from side to side but rather an electric field that oscillates from side to side, In the chapters that follow, the vibration direction of light is discussed at length. In all cases, it will be the electric. Vibration direction to which reference is being made. A light wave can be described using the same nomenclature applied to any wave phenomenon, It has velocity, frequency, and wavelength (Figure 1.3), Which are related by the equation v ie a Where V is the velocity, 4 is the wavelength or tance from one wave crest o another, and fis the fre ‘Quency or number of wave crests per second that pass rrr Electric component ) Magnetic ‘component igure 1.2 Electromagnetic radiation consis of leet rd agate components that irate a ght angles to ech tther and at igh angle ( te direction that the ight i proposing 4 particular point. Frequency is usually expressed as cycles per second or hertz (Hz). With some excep- tions involving fluorescence that do not affect us here, the frequency of light remains constant regardless of the material that the light travels through. Hence, if the velocity changes, the wavelength also must change, Consider a wave train that is slowed when it passes through a piece of glass (Figure I.4) The number of wave crests that enter the glass per sec- ond is the same as the number that exit the glass Hence, the number of crests that pass a point inside the glass per second is the same as outside the glass, so the frequency remains constant. However, because the velocity in the glass is substantially slower than in the air, the waves bunch up and the wavelength decreases a A Figure 1-3 Wave nomenclature. The wave is traveling tothe Feht with velocity V. The wavelength (A) is the distance be- {cen successive wave crests, The frequency (f) is the nutt- ber of wave erests that pass some point per second and is expressed as cycles per second or hertz (Hz). The amplitude (A) is the height of the wave, The intensity or brightness of the light is proportional to the square of the amplitude (A).The light space doc: ave B (dated) by retardation A. The height inerfrence ina single plane. 2) Wave A (ashe) lags wave B( on The ie eh alan wate fol oan pont elo thes of he hap of anes a Cob) hat pa) Waves and Bae in pase (A= nso te cinsucivelyintecere and produce resultant wave are out of phase [ An observer would see no light the two waves are out of phase. They destructively interfere and cancel each other (Figure 1.6c). When the retardation is some intermediate value, the light is partially in phase (or partially out of phase, if you pre- fer) and the interference is partially constructive (or Partially destructive) (Figure 1.6a) If two waves A and B vibrate at an angle to each other, they can be resolved into a resultant wave by ‘means of vector addition. The vibration direction of the resultant wave 2 in Figure 1.7a is obtained by con- structing a parallelogram whose sides are parallel to the vibration directions of waves A and B. Similarly, 8 component of a single wave may be resolved into any arbitrary vibration direction, as shown in Figure 1.76, The component of wave X resolved into a new vibration direction Z, is obtained by constructing a ‘ight triangle with X asthe hypotenuse, The amplitude of Zi given by the equation Z=X cos 0 12 where X is the amplitude of wave X and 8 is the an- Ble between the vibration direction of X and the new Vibration direction Z, Note that if Zis 90° to the orig- inal vibration direction, the resolved component nice (7+ )N), Because the amplitudes of A and B are equal, they cancel and the result has zero amplitude. bbe zero. This is an important observation and accounts for a number of optical properties described in the fol- owing chapters. The Perception of Color The human eye is constructed so that itis able to dis- criminate the different wavelengths of light. Light whose wavelength in a vacuum is about 660 nm is per- ceived as red, light whose vacuum wavelength is about (600 nm is perceived as orange, and so forth. It would Perhaps be better to talk about the different frequen- cies of light rather than wavelengths because fre- queney does not change on passing through different materials. However, the convention is to identify the different colors with their wavelengths in a vacuum ‘and that convention will be followed here. If the light reaching the eye is essentially all one ‘wavelength, its monochromatic light and it is per- ‘ceived as whatever wavelength is present. However if Polychromatic light, which consists of more than one Wavelength, strikes the color receptors of the eye, the Combination of wavelengths is still perceived as a sin- ‘le color, even though the wavelength associated with rrrFigure 1.7 Vector resolution of light waves, (a) Waves A (light shading) and B (dark shading) form a resultant R. (8) A component Z of wave X can be resolved in a new di- rection at angle @ from X. that color may not actually be present in the light, In fact, the sensation of all colors except those corre- sponding to wavelengths of about 420, 500, and 660 1m (violet, green, and red) can be produced by suitable ‘combinations of two or more different wavelengths. ‘When all of the visible spectrum is present, the eye perceives it as white. The eye also will perceive as ‘white various combinations of two colors called com- plementary light colors. There are an infinite number of complementary light color sets. but none that in- clude wavelengths in the green field. Other color sen- tions such as purple and brown have no counterpart inthe visible spectrum and are formed by combining various wavelengths. The sensation of purple is pro- duced by mixtures of red and violet light; brown is formed by iste oe ese ee light. About 4 percent of the population (mostly male) tele ee tion of cotor. For most: ti - ‘and the color blind Interaction of Light and Matter @ 5 | tical mineralogy, and the inability o correctly perceive color may pose a hardship. This problem is manage~ able, and most people with it adapt by paying greater attention to the properties of minerals that do not re- Quire the accurate perception of color. The first step in dealing with the problem is to recognize that it ex= ists. Not all people that have color blindness are aware Of it because some forms are quite subtle. If an indi= Vidual shows any indication of color blindness, a vie sion specialist should be consulted Interaction of Light and Matter ‘When light strikes matter, some of the Tight is trans mitted into the material and some is reflected from the surface. TRANSMITTED LIGHT Velocity oe, ‘The velocity of light depends on the nature « ‘material that it travels through and the wave the light. The maximum possible velocity i 101 cm/sec (3 X 107 nm/sec) in a i light enters any other medium, itis slowed detailed explanation of why the light slows beyond the scope of this book, but it invol teraction between the electric vector of t the electronic environment around each atom consists of a positively charged rounded by a number of negatively charged. ‘The nucleus is generally too heavy to respo forces imposed by the electric vector 0 the electrons have low mass and can re6 © waht pe 18) A us 13 eV ste velco light na vacuum and i the ely rah in the mater The index of = foals acum i herefore, 10 an forall tenis ret han 1.. Mest mies have in Ses conta al beans of 40 bo tpeveloly a acum 30m con be consid 1.0 Iorouepurpres Neha high index neat ow teal and ce er (@ Figure 1.8 Refraction. (a) Light passing from material 1 (ow index) to material 2 (high index) is bent as shown, The amount of refraction is given by Snell's law. (b) The wave fronts and wave normals (WN) must be bent atthe interface because Ao is shorter than Rr ‘The equation that allows the calculation of how much the light will be bent on traveling from one ma. terial to another is called Snell’s law, sin) ; sin@, 7 4 where m and; are the indices of refraction of mate. fials 1 and 2, and @, and @> are the angles shown in Figure 1.8a between the wave normal and the normal to the boundary. The wave normal is the line at right lngles to the wave front (Figure 1.5), and the normal to the boundary isthe line at right angles to the bound, ary, This equation holds whether the light passes from 1 to 2 or from 2 to 1. In general, light is refracted to- ‘wards the normal o the boundary upon entering a ma. terial with higher refractive index and is refracted away from the normal upon entering a material with lower refractive index That the light must be bent on entering a material with a different index can be shown by referring to Figure 1.8h. Light in material 1 with wavelength \, strikes the boundary at angle 6. On entering material 2, the light is slowed down. Because the frequency does not change, Equation 1.1 tells us that the wave length dz must be shorter than A because the veloc. ity in 2s lower than in 1. The only way for the wave fronts to be closer together in material 2 is to bend them at the boundary as shown, The wave normals, which ate perpendicular to the wave fronts and indi cate the direction the waves are moving, must also be bent, hence the light is bent on entering material 2 Snell's law can be derived from Figure 1.86. From Equation 1.1 we see that 15 ‘and Vo are the velocities in materials t and 2, respectively. But based a Ri igure 1.85, on the geometry shown it A= ab sin 6, »: ab sin 03and, from Equation 1.3, and Vm we where my and ny are the i rials | and 2, respectively. With substitution in Equa- tion 1.5 and rearrangement, we get % ab sin) ab sind, Ve Es sin Oy _ ns Sins ny ‘which is Snell’s law. Shell’s law applies for both isotropic and aniso- tropic materials. However, in anisotropic materials, the angles @, and 65 must be measured from the wave notmals, not the rays. AS we will see, rays and wave normals may not be coincident in anisotropic miner- als, Refraction in isotropic and anisotropic materials is discussed in Chapters 5, 6, and 7. REFLECTION When light is reflected from Heleoneenietg a ‘wo materials, Saino cnetreflection Figure 110 Critical angle and al ine Tress pe, bad el be erated rm ai Tea toons mace proved tht he angle of Oka tes tan crcl age (CA). A prion hse seca bee) wa eft according w Equalon 1.6 Rvs ed that ave an angle of nedence eter than the etal angle are enti refeted (2), fraction is almost 90°. For any angle of incidence larger than CA, the angle of refraction would have to be larger than 90°, This is not possible, however, be- cause an angle greater than 90° would prevent the light, from entering the low-index material. Instead of be- ing refracted, light rays like d, reaching the boundary at angles of incidence greater than CA, exhibit total internal reflection because all of the light is reflected a the boundary. If m and ns are known, the critical angle (CA) in material I can be calculated from Equa- tion 1.4 as follows: m(low) _ sin CA rn (high) sin 90° which gives m20%) _ cq Rm 19 {Ifthe low-index material (2) is air or vacuum (ny = 1), this becomes = 1 maine 110 Optical CLass Minerals are grouped into three optical classes 3 de Pending on the crystal system to which they belong: ——— pe, uniaxial, and biaxial. Uniaxial and bia {otro isotropic ils are optically tically isotropic: Light velocity does not vary wih euevion, They require a single unit cell dimension {oto describe their crystallographic properties, anda pate index of refraction to describe their optical erties, Voleanie and other natural ory eal bonds are the same in all directions, a feast on average, so the electron clouds can oscillate the same in every direction. The electronic environ tment that the light “sees” is therefore independent of direction in the material Minerals in the hexagonal, tetragonal, ortho. rhombie, monoclinic, and triclinic crystal systems are optically anisotropic: Light velocity is different in different directions. Minerals in these crystal ys tems have lower symmetry than those in the isome fie system and show different strengths of chemical bonding in different directions. The electron clouds of the atoms or ions are not able to vibrate the same ia all directions, so the velocity of light is different in different directions. One characteristic of anisotropic materials is that light passing in most directions is doubly refracted. That means that the light is spit into two plane polarized rays that vibrate at right an- gles. Directions along which the light is not split into ‘two rays are known as optic axes. Uniaxial minerals haye one optic axis, biaxial minerals have two. Minerals that belong to the tetragonal and hexa- gonal crystal systems are optically uniaxial. They are anisotropic and have a single direction, of optic axis, along which the light is not split into two plane. polarized rays. Minerals in the tetragonal and hexag- ‘onal crystal systems require two different unit cell de mensions (a and c) to describe their crystallographic Properties, and two different indices of refraction (ma. and n.) to describe their optical properties. The opti- cal properties of uniaxial minerals are described it ‘Chapter 6, Minerals that belong to the orthorhombic, mono ci, and triclinic erystal systems are optically bi- |. They are anisotropic and have two directions OF optic axes, along which the light is not split into ‘two plane polarized Fays (hence biaxial), Minerals i the orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic crys Systems require three different unit cell dimensions (® , and c) to describe their crystallographic properties I glasses also areInteraction of Light and Matter @ and three different indices of refraction (na, np. and ‘y) to describe theit optical properties, The optical properties of biaxial minerals are described in Chap- ter? DISPERSION. The index of refraction of a material is not the same for all wavelengths of light. This is easily demon- strated by passing white light through a prism (Figure 1.1. The light at the violet end of the spectrum is more strongly refracted than the light at the red end of the spectrum. This relationship, in which the in- ices of refraction decrease for increasing wavelengths of light, is called normal dispersion of the refrac- tive indices. Certain wavelength bands may have ab- normal dispersion of the refractive indices, and the indices of refraction increase for increasing wave- lengths, These terms are somewhat misleading because all materials show abnormal dispersion at certain wave- lengths, but these wavelengths may be outside of the visible spectrum, Dispersion is a consequence of the interaction of light with the natural resonant frequencies of the elec- tron clouds around each atom. As was described ear- lier, the electric vector of the light causes the electron cloud around an atom 10 resonate at the Frequency of the light. The atom then re-emits the light but it is not in phase with the incident light. The degree to which the re-emitied light is out of phase with the incident light depends on the degree to which the frequency of the incident light differs from the natural resonant fre- Hating eh i a GBI ‘quency of the electron clouds. Through a complex set Nopanen ee ‘of equations, it can be shown that the index increases with increasing frequency (decreasing wavelength), producing normal dispersion if the frequency of the light is significantly different from a resonant fre quency of the electron clouds (Figure 1.11). If the frequency of the light is nearly the same as one of the natural resonant frequencies of the electron clouds, the light is strongly absorbed and the index of refrac- tion sharply decreases with increasing frequency (de- teasing wavelength), producing abnormal dispersion (Figure 1.1 1c). 1a seer tie ti eee nec- Indes of Refraction S&S10 * Light “The coefficient of dispersion is defined as the value ‘where ny and nc are the indices for the F and C Fraun- hofer lines at 486 and 656 nm, respectively. A large ‘coefficient of dispersion means that the material shows ‘a large change of index as a function of wavelength. ‘A related term, called the dispersive power, is de- fined as the value ‘A large value for dispersive power means that the ma- {erial shows a large change of index as a function of wavelength. Lick ABsoRPTION AND COLOR ‘The color of a mineral or any other object is the color of light that is not absorbed on transmission (or reflection, Usually the color of an object is simi lar in reflected and transmitted light, although there are exceptions. A white object looks white because it reflects essentially all ofthe visible spectrum. A clear mineral similarly transmits essentially all ofthe visi- ble spectrum, A black object absorbs all wavelengths ‘of light. Ifa mineral is colored, it is because it selec tively absorbs certain wavelengths of light and trans- its or reflects the remaining light to our eye. The color that is perceived depends on which wavelengths fare transmitted to the eye and on how the eye inter- prets these wavelengths, as was described earlier. A ‘numberof different objects may appear to be the same color even though they each reflect a different com- plement of wavelengths to the observer, Note that the perceived color of an object depends ‘on the color ofthe incident light. An object thats white in sunlight is blue in blue light, yellow in yellow light, and so on, because these are the only wavelengths of light available to be transmitted to the observer. Col- ‘ored objects may appear black in monochromatic light unless they are capable of reflecting or transmiting the wavelength of the monochromatic light, ‘On the atomic seale, the colors of light that a min- eral absorbs depend om the interaction between the electric vector of the light and the natural resonances Of the electron clouds around each atom. IF the fre. uency of the light is significantly different from the ‘natural resonance, then the light is transmitted, How. sve if the frequency ofthe light i nearly the same ee al equeney ofthe electron clouds, then 2 porn the ight The equencies tha show aa rin als sow abnoial dispersion, The Seed ght energy usually is converted (0 heat en acne dark-colored materials absorb moe of cry eA than plecolred materials, they het p in pftser when exposed 1 sunlight or ober sour of light. Polarized Light Ordinary light, like that coming directly from the sun fran incandescent light bulb, vibrates in all directions fright angles tothe direction of propagation (Figure 1.12a) and is unpolarized. The vibration direction of polarized lights constrained so that its not uniformly disiributed around the dizection of propagation, Three different but related types of polarization can be ree ‘ognized: plane polarization, circular polarization, and elliptical polarization. In plane polarization (also called linear polariza- tion), the electric vector vibrates in a single plane (Fig- ure 1.12b). The light wave is a simple sine wave with the vibration direction lying in the plane of polariza- tion, Plane polarized light, or simply plane light, is of primary interest in this book. Circular polarized light is produced by two waves of plane polarized light with the same amplitude and whose vibration directions lie at right angles to each. other (Figure 1.12c). One wave is retarded + ) relative ‘o the other. The two electric vectors can be added vee torially so that at any point along the wave path the {wo vectors produce a resultant vector, The resultant vectors sweep outa helical surface that resembles th threads on a screw. When viewed along the direction of propagation, the outline of the helix is a circle. Elliptical polarized light is produced in the same manner as circular polarized light except the (v0 waves that produce it are retarded relative to each othet by a value different than | \ (Figure 1.12d). The re sults stil ahelix, but instead of being circular in e108 Section, the helix is elliptical, Because circular and elliptical polarized light ca be considered to be composed of two waves of pla Polarized light that vibrate at right angles to each othe it is convenient in this book to treat circular and @ Liptical polarization in terms of the two compo waves. *Figure 1.12 Polarization of light. (a) Unpolarized light. The light vibrates in all directions at right angles to the di- rection of propagation. (b) Plane or lin- lar po- lanzation. Two waves with equal amplic tude vibrate at right angles to each other with one wave retarded ! wavelength rele ative to the other. The veetor sum a these two waves isa helix whose cross section is circular. (d) Eliptical polarization, ‘Two waves vibrate at right angles to each cer with one wave retarded relative to te other by other tha length, The resultant cross section is an ellipse PoLaRiZATION By DousLe REFRACTION ‘When light enters an anisotropic material in most di- ‘ections, it experiences What i ‘itis lit Sue spl ae ae sere devoted12% Light Figure 1.13 Polarization by seetive absorption, Unplar iz ight is split ino two rays when entering courmaine ‘One ray is strongly absorbed and doesnot passthrough, The other ray is not absorbed and retains its polarization after exiting the mineral have relied on long hydrocarbon molecules in the plas- tic. The result is a sheet of polarizing film with sub- stantially better optical properties. Almost all modern petrographic microscopes use sheets of polarizing film to provide polarized light. ‘A second means of eliminating one of the two plane polarized rays produced by double refraction utilizes the critical angle effect. The most commonly known device using this principle isthe Nicol prism, which is constructed of clear calite (Figure 1.14). A crystal ‘of calcite is cut on the diagonal, as shown, and glued back together with balsam cement, which has an in- ‘dex of refraction of 1.537. As is discussed in detail in Chapters 5 and 6, when light enters the calcite, it is split into two plane polarized rays (w and e) that have different velocities and that vibrate at right angles to each other. Because the two rays have different ve- locities, each can be assigned an index of refraction, It tums out that m, < 1.537 < ng. The cut through the cerystal is oriented so that the w ray strikes the bound- ary between the balsam cement and the calcite at greater than the critical angle, hence it i internally re- flected and absorbed by black paint on the side of the prism. The € ray, with its lower index of refraction, is able to enter the balsam cement, so it is transmitted through the prism to emerge at the top as plane po- larized light, Nicol prisms, or other more optically ef- ace were the preferred means of polariz- ing light in petrographic microscopes until by polarizing film. eins Balsam n= 1537 sure 1.14 Polarization by double refraction, the Nicol He ism is constructed of calcite which has been onal and glued back together with balsam ce- 37). Light entering the bottom of the clcie prism is split into two rays (o and ¢) that have differenti ices of retfaction (ne < 1.537 < na) The w ray encounters toll intemal reflection when it reaches the balsam, because the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle (CA). ‘The € ray passes through the balsam, because is index tess than 1-537, and it retains its polarization afr exiting the tp ofthe prism. The dots om the «ray indicate that vibrates in and out ofthe page. The c crystallographic axis ofthe caliteis indicated by the dashed line, POLARIZATION BY REFLECTION ‘When unpolarized light strikes a smooth surface, such as a piece of glass, a smooth table top, or the surface of a lake, the reflected light is polarized so that its vi bration direction i parallel to the reflecting surface (Figure 1.15a), The reflected light is not completely plane polarized unless the angle between the reflected and refracted rays is 90° (Figure 1.156). The angle of incidence needed to produce the 90° angle between the reflected and refracted rays is called Brewster's angle. If the indices of Tefraction are known, Brew- Ster’s angle (@3) can be derived from Snell's law (Equation 1.4), which with substitution of trigon metric identities, gives my a ull ny 7 108cing film 9 avelengtCHAPTER 2 The Petrographic Microscope ce are mumerous ptrogaphc microscope designs feale Wie ach i ferent inde al ave fundamentally the same design and construction tne 21) From the bottom up they consist of ail mminator,subsiage assembly, stage, objective lenses, Upper plazet, Bert lens, ard ocular lens. Moa modern microscopes are equipped with prism be- ‘tween the upper polarizer and ocular that allows the Ineoscope ube to be led from the vertical, and all have a focusing mechanism. Microscopes equipped for reflected fight work hive a vertical llminator Inoned above the objective lenses s that ight ean be dete ono the op surface ofthe sample Direction Conventions ‘The convention adopted throughout this text is to re- fer to the field of view seen through the microscope. in terms of compass directions, North is at the top, south at the bottom, and cast and west to the right and left, respectively. The northeast-southwest and. northwest-southeast directions may also be referred to.as the 45° positions, Samples The samples most commonly used with a petrographic microscope are grain mounts, thin sections, polished Section, or single grains on a spindle stage, Sample Preparation techniques are described in Appendix A. 14 ————— Grain mounts, thin sections, and the spindle stage are all used to examine transparent minerals with trans- mitted light, which is light that passes up through the sample from below. Polished sections are used to ‘examine opaque minerals using reflected light, which is light directed at the top surface of the mineral from the vertical illuminator and reflected back to the Grain mounts (Figure 2.2a) consist of small grains ‘of a mineral that are placed on a microscope slide and covered with a cover slip. The cover slip is a piece of 0.17-mm-thick glass. A dropper is used to introduce a liquid called an immersion oil between the slide and cover slip to surround and cover the grains. An epoxy or other cement may be used in place of the immer- sion oil if a permanent mount is desired. ‘Thin sections (Figure 2.2) are thin slices of rock ‘or mineral that are mounted on the microscope slide. ‘They are prepared by cementing a piece of rock of mineral to a microscope slide and then grinding it t0 « final thickness, usually 0,03 mm. A cover slip is ust ally cemented 0 the top surface of the sample. Thin Sections are examined with transmitted light and are extensively used in the study of rock mineralogy and textures, A spindle stage (Figure 2.2c) consists of a wire spindle on which a single mineral gain is cemented. The spindle is mounted on a base plate so that it piv- ots around a horizontal axis while holding a grain im ‘mersed in oil between a glass microscope slide and &Illuminator @ 15 Camera goes here Ocular ——~ (Lowes pieces ee IMluminator in base ——— p Vertical illuminator Upper polarizer — Accessory plate Arm pe ee Se cee ie _ Rheostat for light Figure 2.1 The petrographic microscope. Student model microscopes usually do not allow a camera to be mounted on the top ofthe instrument. The vertical illuminator will only be present on microscopes equipped for reflected light work. Photo courtesy of Nikon Ine, Instrument Division, Garden City, New York coverslip. For more information on the spindle stage, consult Bloss (1981). Polished seetions (Figure 2,24) are samples of rock or mineral whose top surface has been polished 10 a mirrorlike shine. Polished sections may consist of cither (1) a sample of rock or mineral mounted in an epoxy plug or (2) a thin section whose top surface has been polished. Muminator Most modern microscopes are equipped with an in- candescent light mounted in the base to provide trans- ‘mitted light. The light from the bulb is directed up- ward with a combination of lenses and mirrors. The light is usually diffused somewhat by passing through ‘piece of ground glass and filtered with a piece of blue glass so that the color balance of the light more closely approximates natural sunlight, Light intensity is adjusted with a rheostat control or with filters. Some microscopes are equipped with an iris diaphragm, called a field diaphragm, mounted in the base, The field diaphragm controls the size of the area on the sample that is illuminated. The illuminator may be replaced with a mirror in some microscopes. An external source of lights directed ‘at the mirror, which is adjusted to direct the light beam upward. The mirror is used when an external source of16 © The Petrographic Microscope (a) Mineral grains Cover slip il _— Immersion oi Microscope slide © Microscope Mineral grain under eover sip etty shown here utilizes a standard roscope slide and a piece of cover tion whose top surface has been polis ‘monochromatic light, such as a sodium vapor lamp, is ‘needed or when a built-in illuminator is not provided. Substage Assembly ‘The principal parts of the substage assembly are the lower polarizer, aperture diaphragm, condensing lens, ‘auxiliary condensing lens, and one or more filter hold. ers, The assembly is commonly mounted in a mecha. rnism that allows it to be raised or lowered ‘The lower polarizer on most moder microscopes consists of a piece of optical-quality polarizing film mounted in a ring that can be rotated at least 90° and Usually 180° oF 360°, This allows the vibration direc- tion of the polarized light passing through the micro. inobt to be set in any desired orientation. The polar. Nien Sometimes referred to as Nicols, because ‘Nicol prisms were used to provide polarized light on EEE Q mn ground (0 c : fos tek Brae —gia = ‘Microscope slide @ Surface polished to mirror shine Sample Epoxy Mounting) Ring Rock section ground to Surface polished 0.03 mm thick. to mirror shine Microscope slide igure 22 Samples used withthe petrographic microscope (a) Grain mount. (b) Thin section. (c) Spindle stage. The geom many early petrographic microscopes. In some cases, the lower polarizer is mounted on a Pivot so that it cat be swung out of the optical path. The aperture diaphragm is an iris diaphragn Mounted either above or below the fixed condensing lens. Its function is to adjust the size of the cone of light that passes up through the microscope. Closing the aperture diaphragm decreases the size of the co of light and increases the contrast in the ‘image sect through the microscope, The aperture diaphragm iso intended to be used to adjust the intensity of the ill mination. The rheostat control or neutral gray filles should be used for this purpose. : The condenser lenses serve to concentrate the ligh onto the area of the sample immediately beneath bP objective lens. The fixed condenser lens usually his humerical aperture (discussed shortly) about the salt 8 the numerical aperture of the medium-powet objective lens, Because the light reaching the sample from the fixed condenser is only moderately converg- ing, the illumination provided is called orthoscopic illumination. ‘The auxiliary condensing lens is mounted on a pivot so that it can swing in or out ofthe optical path. Its function is to provide conoscopic illumination, which consists of strongly converging light. This lens is swung into the optical path to allow production of. optical phenomena called interference figures, which are examined with the high-power objective, Not all microscopes are equipped with auxiliary condensers. If an auxiliary condenser is not present, the fixed condenser is usually designed to provide somewhat more strongly convergent light and provides a com= promise between the needs of orthoscopie and cono- scopic illumination. Some variation in the degree of convergence can be accomplished by adjusting the aperture diaphragm or by raising or lowering the con- denser, but this arrangement generally is not very successful. Colored or gray filters can be placed in slots or swing-out holders at the bottom of most substage as- semblies. Gray filters are used to adjust the intensity of the illumination, and colored filters can be used to adjust the color balance of the light or to produce roughly monochromatic light. Microscope Stage ‘The circular stage of the petrographic microscope is mounted on bearings so that it can be rotated smoothly. ‘The stage goniometer on the outside edge of the stage is marked in degrees so that angles of rotation can be measured accurately. Sometimes a vernier is provided by the index mark, although vernier accuracy is rarely needed for routine work. On some microscopes, a thumb serew or lever can be engaged to lock the stage and prevent it from rotating. Objective Lenses ‘The objective lenses provide the primary magnifica tion of the optical system and are, in effect, the heart of the microscope. Most student-mode! mii ‘are equipped with three objectives with - tions of around 2.5%, 10x, and 40%. Bither they are ‘mounted on a rotating nosepiece, or they may be de- ached and interchanged by releasing a smal eth. aoe ¥ Objective Lenses @ 17 ‘The numerical aperture (WA) of a lens is a mea- sure of the size of the cone of light that it can ac~ commodate. It is given by the equa NA =nsin > 21 ‘where 7 is the index of refraction of the medium be- ‘tween the objective lens and the item being examined, and AA is the angular aperture (Figure 2.32). ‘The resolution of a lens is a measure of the ability to reveal fine detail. The limit of resolution (d) is the smallest distance between two points that can still be distinguished. A small limit of resolution means the ()The Petrographic Microscope 18 © Jens has a high resolving power. The theoretical limit of resolution is given by the equation is 22 "Wa where dis the wavelength of the light. We can see that as the numerical aperture increases, the limit of reso- lution goes down and the resolving power of the lens {goes up. High numerical apertures are practical only with high-magnification lenses. If the material be- tween the lens and the object being examined is then n= 1, and the numerical aperture can, from Equation 2.1, be no more than 1. In pr ‘will not exceed 0.95, because the angular aperture ‘ust be somewhat less than 180° It should be apparent that the numeri and, therefore, the resolving power—could be in- creased substantially by placing something with a higher index of refraction between the lens and the ob- ject being examined. Oil immersion lenses are de~ signed so that a drop of mineral oil can be placed be- tween them and the microscope slide to inerease the ‘numerical aperture, The oil usually used has an index of 1.515, so the maximum numerical aperture usually obiainable is about 1.4, From Equation 2.2, we can’ see that the limit of resolution with an oil immersion lens using light from the middle of the visible spec- trum is about 200 nm. The high-power lens on most student-model microscopes has a numerical aperture f 0.65 and is used without oil, so the theoretical limit of resolution is about 400 nm. In practice, the limit of resolution will be substantially worse than the theo- retical limit The free working distance is the distance between the top of the slide and the bottom of the objective lens, High-power objectives have a free working distance of less than a millimeter, while low-power objectives have 4 free working distance of several centimeters. When using the high-power objective itis necessary to exer- cise caution, because itis quite easy to damage either the lens or the microscope slide by forcing the slide ainst the lens while focusing. Most high-power ob- Jectives are constructed so that the lower part of the lens can be pushed up into the body of the lens against spring tension to reduce the hazard, ‘An objective lens can be focused precisely at only oe Point. However, objects above and below the point The dace Berea eo oa i cts i lower and upper limits of ably sharp focus is called the depth of field, is low magnification and low numerica, Lenses wih om eel large depth of eld, an aperture Ha gh magnifeation and high numeric nose have a small depth of field aperture Wav lenses (Figure 2.30) are marked wi the reagnifl tion, numerical aperture, length of the to ee tis designed for (usally 160 mm land the thickness of cover slip that provides the great. Sea ae ican iol aioe thiekness is not very important with lower-power ob. jectives but may be quite important with high-power Objectives. If the objective is designed as an oil im mersion lens, it will be marked “oil” or “oel:” Oj] should never be used with lenses that are not designed for it, Microscopes equipped for reflected light work require lenses specifically designed for that purpose, Vertical Mluminator ‘On microscopes fitted to examine opaque minerals with reflected light, a vertical illuminator is mounted so that light can be directed down through the objec- tive lens onto the top surface of the sample. It is typ- sally equipped with a polarizer, lenses, and two iris diaphragms to control the size of the beam of light di rected onto the sample. A half-silvered mirror or prism arrangement is utilized to direct the light onto the sam- ple and also allow the reflected light to pass back up through the microscope tube to the oculars and the viewer's eyes. Upper Polarizer \ The upper polarizer is also known as the analyzer. It is located above the objective lens and is mounted on a slide or pivot so that it can be easily inserted or moved from the optical path. It usually is constructed of a piece of optical-quality polarizing film, although Nicol prisms or equivalent are used on many older mi croscopes. The vibration direction of the upper polat- izer may be adjusted on some microscopes, but on ot ers there is no provision for adjustment, The vibration direction of the lower and upper polarizers are cot ventionally set so that they are at right angles to each other. When the upper polarizer is inserted, the pola lzers are said to be crossed; with nothing on the mi croscope stage the field of view is dark because the Plane polarized light that passes the lower polarizet absorbed by the upper polarizer, If the upper polarize? .is removed, the polarizers are said t altemately, the view through the microscope is with Laie the light from the lower polarizer 10 be unerossed or, Bertrand Lens ‘The Bertrand lens (also called the Amici-Bertrand lens) isa small lens just below the ocula ‘na pivot or slide, so th or removed from the opii low the observer to view optical phenomena called i terference figures that are seen near the top surtace of the objective lens. Interference figures are described in detail in Chapters 6 and 7. In some cases, the Bertrand lens is equipped with an iris diaphragm or a pinhole to restrict the field of view, A focusing appa- ralus may also be provided. Ocular Oculars (eyepieces) are lenses that slide into the up- perend of the microscope tube, They magnify the im- age provided from the objective lens and focus the light so that it can be accepted by the human eye. The usual magnification of oculars is between 5% and 12x. Some microscopes come equipped with both lower- and higher-power oculars. The total magnifi- cation of a microscope is the magnification of the ob- jective lens times the magnification of the ocular While a high-power ocular increases the magnific tion, it does not increase the resolution, which is con- trolled by the numerical aperture of the objective. The image coming from the objective can be magnified as ‘much as desired, but the amount of detail in the im- age does not change. The fuzziness gets magnified ‘along with the image. For practical purposes, the max- sug —/0 01 02 08 micrometer (14, h4{rsssfuruifuunitisnfin cctar fon tenitn scale 024 Calbrion ofa ecuar iprorectr sales The “Ginicom of he or monte sale ten) Stbtend O31 mom: Each ocular micrometer division there fescue DODED ma A ferent calibration met bs made for each objective lens. a ‘Some oculars are equipped with a 1 {0 allow measurement of the size of ;20 ¢ The Petrographic Microscope sows for very precise adjustment. The mechanism may ae ye A single knob that incorporates, eth functions Accessories {A slot is provided immediately above the objective Tenses for insertion of accessory or compensator plates. ‘The usual accessory plates are the gypsum plate, mica plate, and quartz, wedge. Each consists of a metal or plastic frame with the optical element mounted in a hole or slot in the center. Their function is described in Chapters 5, 6, and 7. The gypsum ae ois known a one wavelength or first-order red plate, The optical element is usually ‘piece of quartz or gypsum, ground to a precise thick- ness and mounted between {wo pieces of glass. De- pending on the manufacturer, it may be marked Gips, Gyps, rot I, Quartz-sensitive tint, 1X, A = 550 nm, or A= $37 nm, ‘The mica plate (quarter-wavelength plate) consists of a piece of muscovite or quartz that is mounted be- tween two pieces of glass, just like the gypsum plate. Depending on the manufscturer, it may be marked Mica, Glimmer, #A, or A = 147 nm. ‘The quartz, wedge in its simplest form is a piece of quartz ground into a wedge shape and cemented be- tween two pieces of glass. Itis mounted in frame so that the thick end of the wedge is located nearest the handle Additional Equipment 'A mechanical stage (Figure 2.5) is mounted on the stage of the microscope and grasps a slide so that the Slide can be moved in a systematic way. It is most ‘commonly employed to determine the abundance of the different minerals in a rock thin section. The sam- ple is moved in set increments across the stage and the mineral under the cross hairs after each increment of movement is identified. Mechanical stages that ut. lize small electric motors to systematically move the slide also are available A universal stage (Figure 2.6) is an apparatus that allows a thin section to be rotated about several axes so that selected mineral grains can be precisely ori ented in the optical path. Procedures for using the uni- versal stage are beyond the scope of this book. Inter ested readers are referred 10 Hallimond (1972) or Wahilstrom (1979). General Care of the Microscope Microscopes must be kept as clean and dust-free as possible. They should be picked up by the base and arm only, never by the microscope tube, stage, or sub- stage, and the lenses should not be touched. Great care should be tdken when cleaning the lenses, because op. Figure 25 Mechanical stage. A me- chanical stage is mounted on the mi- foscope stage (Figure 2.1) and se- ‘cry holds a microscope slide. The small knobs are turned to move the slide. Detents are provided on the knobs to allow the slide to be moved in uniform increments, and the size Of the inerements ean be selected by using different knobs. Photograph courtesy of Wild Leitz USA, Inc.Adjustment of the Microscope @ 21 tical glass generally is softer than common glass and scratches easily. Dust should be removed only with compressed air and Sone Le ‘prints, and related soil should be removed with cloth intended for22 The Petrographic Microscope ‘To bring both oculars into focus, the microscope is first focused for the fixed ocular (after the cross hairs focus has been adjusted) and then the focus of the ad- justable ocular is manipulated to match. FocusiNG ‘The microscope is focused by turning the focusing knobs mounted on the microscope base. Usually, ifthe microscope is focused with one of the lenses, it will remain approximately focused when another lens is inserted. If the sample is not visible with the high- power objective, the following procedure will allow the sample 10 be brought into focus without risking damage from inadvertently raising the stage and sam- pple up against the objective lens 1. While looking at the objective lens and sample from the side, raise the stage so that the sample al- ‘most touches the high-power objective lens. Avoid geiting index of refraction oil on the lens if itis be- 1g used. While looking through the microscope, lower the stage to bring the sample into focus. If focus can- not be achieved, the thin section is probably upside down: ADJUSTING THE ILLUMINATOR Ideally, the intensity of illumination should be ad justed by inserting or removing neutral gray filters 10 preserve the same color balance at all intensities. How- ver, itusually is more convenient to adjust the inten- sity of light with a rheostat control, The color balance Of the light changes as a consequence, but this poses no problem for most work. The intensity of the light should be adjusted so that the field of view is well il- luminated but not uncomfortably bright. On some microscopes, the position of the light bulb can be ad- justed to provide uniform illumination, If a field di- aphragm is provided, it is adjusted per the manufac- turer’s instructions to provide illumination to an area on the sample just slightly larger than the field of view. CENTERING THE OBJECTIVES The objective lenses must be centered so S incide with the axis or rotation of the Sees the objectives are centered, the cross hairs are centered on the point about which the image rotates as the stage is tumed, The adjustment is accomplished in meet ases by moving the lenses from side to side with two screws located either in the let jounting hole in the rotating fotating rings sal acne sr sconce by 4 sere Tens body, The procedure is a fllows (Figure 2.7) Fe e rotate the stage. Find 1. Focus on a thin section and rotate the stag the center of rotation, which is the point about which the image rotates. Move the slide (if needed) to get a distinctive feature at the center of rotation, 2, Adjust the centering screws to move the cross hairs to the center of rotation (like aiming a rifle at a target). It will generally be necessary to recenter the lenses periodically. ‘On some microscopes, the location of the lenses cannot be adjusted, and the stage is moved to provide the necessary alignment. With this system, it is gen- erally possible to have correct alignment for only one lens. The high-power objective lens should be accu: Figure 2.7 Centering the objectives. The centering mech ism is adjusted to move the cross hairs to the center of > {ation (CR), seen when the stage is rotated, Rr sec -rately aligned and some misalignment tolerated in the ther lenses. The procedure is the same as described in Fig except that the stage, rather than the lens, is moved to produce alignment ADJUSTING THE SuBSTAGE In many microscop fe Substage can be adjusted so that its axis coincides with the axis of rotation of the stage. This adjustment can be made only afier the ob- jectives have been centered, The procedure is to insert the auxiliary condenser and stop the aperture di- phragm down until itis almost closed. With the low- power objective, only a small spot of light will be seen somewhere near the center of the field of view. Move the substage with its adjusting screws until the spot of light is centered on the cross hairs. For normal viewing through the microscope, the best-quality image generally is produced when the aperture diaphragm is adjusted so that the field illu- minated by the substage condenser is just slightly larger than the field of view seen through the ocular ‘This is most easily done by closing the diaphragm un- til the image just starts to dim, For optimum pertor- mance, the diaphragm should be readjusted for each change of objective lenses. the substage can be raised and lowered, it should. be raised all the way to its upper stop so the auxiliary condenser just clears a slide placed on the stage. If the mechanism is loose or worn, the substage may creep downward because of vibration and gravity and may therefore require periodic attention. ALIGNMENT OF POLARIZERS Depending on the instrument, the lower polarizer may, ‘pass light that vibrates either east-west or north-south. ‘The simplest way to check this alignment is with a thin section containing biotite (Figure 2.8). Biotite strongly absorbs light that vibrates parallel tits cleay- ‘age. In plane light (upper polarizer removed), biotite should be darkest when the cleavage is oriented par- allel to the vibration direction of the lower polarizer and lightest when the cleavage is at right angles. Tour- ‘maline also may be used, but it is lightest when the Jong dimension is parallel to the vibration direction of the lower polarizer. On most microscopes, the lower polarizer will be correctly oriented when the index mark on the polarizer mounting ring is placed at zero. ‘The upper polarizer may not be adjustable on ‘tudent-model microscopes and is set so that its vi- ‘Adjustment of the Microscope @ 23 Figure 2.8 Checking alignment of the lower polarizer. As shown in the figure, ifthe lower polarizer passes light vic trating east-west, a grain of biotite will be darkest in plane light (upper polarizer removed) if the cleavage is aligned ccast-west-and lightest when north-south, If the biotite is darkest on the north-south, then the lower polarizer passes light vibrating north-south, bration direction is at right angles to the lower polar- izer. If the upper polarizer is adjustable, itis normally ‘et so that its vibration direction is 90° to the lower. polarizer, That position should be attained when set to zero on the index mark on the adjustment mechanism. ‘When the upper polarizer is inserted into the optical path, the polarizers are crossed and the field of view shouldbe blak if noting is om he microscope tage If the field of view is dark, but not entirel a the polarizers are not oriented at exactly 90 other, Unless the upper polarizer has been ose or rotated in its mount, the problem ; that the lower polarizer has been to ensure that the ocular is properly “Lis essential that the microscopist ‘lower and upperSUGGESTION ADDITIONAL READING<2 Refractometry The simplest and most convenient way of measuring the index of refraction of @ mineral is the immersion ‘method. With this method, the index of refraction of the mineral is compared to the known index of an im- ‘mersion oil (Figure 3.1) Ifthe indices of oil and min- ‘ral are not the same, the light passing from the oil into the mineral i refracted and the mineral grains ap- pear fo stand out. Ifthe indices of oil and mineral are the same, the light passes through the oil-mineral boundary unrefracted and the mineral grains do not appear to stand out. Ifthe oil and mineral are both col- orless, the mineral grains may be almost indistin- guishable from the oil. This can easily be demon- strated by placing a piece of common glass in water (n= 1.33) and in carbon tetrachloride (n = 1,52), Be- cause the index of common glass is about 1.52,28 ¢ Refractometry B B (@) oil Tinea > Per \\ oil mineral 2 eee B B () oil Noieeai Mot, OF in the Oil if Mminent < Mot Hence, as the stage is lowered, the Becke line moves toward the material with the higher index of re- fraction. The reverse is true if the stage is raised. The careful observer may notice that the Becke line often is paired with a dark band or shadow that moves in the opposite direction as the stage is raised or low- ‘ered, The dark band exists because the light that might therwise be present there is reflected or refracted to form the Becke line ION EFFECTS aa not inmersion lis rater han te di rersion of most minerals, 0 itis possible to produce pein fr the indies at only one wavelength (Fg lire 3.7), Ideally, the object should be to produce a match at the wavelength of the yellow sodium vapor amp (589 nm) (Figure 3.72), because that is the wave. length for which indices of refraction are usually reported ; "if the dispersion curves intersect in the visible spec- trum, the oil will have higher indices of refraction for wavelengths shorter than the match, and the mineral will have higher indices of refraction for the longer wavelengths. This results in the formation of two Becke lines. One is composed of the shorter wave- lengths and it moves into the oil as the stage is low- ered. The other is composed of the longer wavelengths, (6) ae Menineral > Moll Figure 3.6 Movement of the Becke line as the stage is lov ered, The Becke line can be considered to be a cone of light that extends upwards from the edge of the mineral rain. @) ‘A mineral grain is immersed in oil where Mmnerat Mou. the cone of light forming the Beck line converges above the mineral. If the stage is lowered S° the plane of focus changes from F) to F, the Becke line 8 Pears to move into the mineral grain,a g Index of refraction eae g 7 and it moves into the mineral grain as the stage i ered. The color of the lines depends on the wavel At which the dispersion curves cross. There. described below are summarized in Table 3.1 IF the match is at $89-nm so that mga = (igure 3.7a), then the mineral has the higher of refraction for wavelengths longer than S89 he 500 1g, AGay ee aed magnet ieee el wavelengths shorter than S89 nm the ll has he higher index of refraction, and this light will form a bluish. white Becke line that moves into the oil as the sta Is towered, If the match is near the red (long ibe pecengsa ee30 © Refractometry table act. Becke Line Relationships Seen When the Microsco Obsery Condition tas ier for al wavelengths Whiteline ino ol = ra or rags ight fe lin ino mineral a ‘oie for yellow light Yellowish orange line in Yellowish whit ine in rw for blue ight White fine inv mineral Oblique Illumination Method The oblique illumination method of comparing the in- dices of a mineral and immersion liquid involves ex- mining the “shadows” cast by the grains when part ff the light coming up through the microscope is blocked. The light can be conveniently blocked by in serting a piece of cardboard (fingers also work) b tween the illuminator and substage so that it blocks about half ofthe light, or by partially inserting one of the accessory plates into the accessory slot. AS the cardboard or accessory plate is inserted, half of the field of view is darkened and the grains become bright ‘on one side and dark on the other (Figure 3.8). Com- monly, ifthe grains are bright on the side facing the darkened part of the field, then the index of the grains is higher than the index of the oil. Ifthe grains are dark on the side facing the darkened part of the field of view, the index of the grains is lower than the in- dex of the oil. Note that this relationship may be re- versed on some microscopes depending on design and where the stop is inserted. The petrographer should determine what the relationship is on his or her par- ticular microscope using a grain mount where the rel- ative indices of grains and oil are known, The principles involved in producing shadows in the oblique illumination method are similar to those in- volved in producing the Becke line, except that only light coming from one side of the field of view reaches the eye (Figure 3.9), Much of the light reflected or re- fracted on one side ofthe grains is deflected far enough that it misses the objective lens. Therefore, that side Of the grain is dark. Ifthe dispersion curves of grain and oil cross somewhere in the visible spectrum, two Sets of shadows will be formed: one side of the grain Will be illuminated by light of wavelengths greater pe Stat Intepretation mineral, blve-viokt line into Figure 3.8 Oblique illumination, Part of the incident ligh 's blocked, so half of the field of view is darkened. (Topl ‘nin > Moi. Mineral grains are bright on the side facing the darkened portion of the field of view. (Bottom) loin Ma AS pesdvced on the igh side ofthe ro is ceracted 40 does wot ‘Bective lens, Te let side is bright be Sike ray 21s internally refected. (tn Gai reseed beers Sado ison the left side ofthe gran be ‘tise my 2 Is refracted away from the ob feve lens.) Lens effect form The shadow is onthe i rays 1and 2 ae refracte tbjectve lens. (d) Lens wert shadow son the let side because fajs Tad 2 are refracted away om the Betive lens side hecause ay from the ¢ 31 Practical Considerations Coversip ei Maun < Moi than the match, and the other side will be illuminated by light of wavelengths less than the match. Practical Considerations Determining the index of refraction of an unknown mineral with grain mounts can be a tedious and frus- trating task unless it is approached systematically. The method recommended here for routine work involves successively bracketing the index of the unknown min- eral until a match can be obtained. With practice, 3 match can usually be obtained with the preparation of as few as four or five grain mounts as detailed in the following steps. 1. Prepare the first grain mount (see Appendix A) us- ing an immersion oil whose index of refraction is in the middle of the available range, Examine the rains with the microscope to determine the relief ‘and whether the mineral has a higher or lower in- dex than the oil. Either the Becke line or oblique illumination method can be employed. If reliet is very high, the oblique illumination method may igive better results. If the index of the mineral is32 © Refractometry jgher than the oil, then all indices less than the oil mites imited from consideration. the index ‘of the mineral is lower than the oil, then all the higher indices can be eliminated. 2, Prepare the second grain mount using an index oil somewhere in the middle of the remaining range of possible indices. Examine for relief and whether the mineral index is higher or lower than the oil. If the relief in the first mount was moderate or low. the second oil can be a little closer to the first, and if the relief in the first oil was very high, the sec- ‘ond oil can be a little further away. The object is to bracket the index of the mineral 3. Prepare a third grain mount using an index oil somewhere in the middle of the now much-reduced range of possible indices. Use the relief seen in the first and second mounts as a guide in selecting the oil Ifthe index of the mineral did not fall between the first and second oil and the mineral showed very high relief in the second oil, it may be advisable to Use the oil atthe extreme end of the available range (ie, either the lowest or highest) to determine ‘whether the mineral actually falls within the range of available oils. 4, Make a fourth grain mount, again selecting an oil {o split the range of possible indices. With luck, the first three steps will have provided a bracket nar- row enough to allow making a close match with the fourth oil. If in doubt, select the fourth oil to further narrow the bracket, rather than to produce an exact match, 5. Repeat until a match is obtained. If the index of refraction is being determined to con- firm a tentative identification, then the first mount should be made using the oil having the index of the tentatively identified mineral. Ifthe unknown mineral is anisotropic, a number of additional considerations are involved. Because the light is doubly refracted for most mineral orientations, wo plane polarized rays with different indices of re- fraction are present and the numerical value of those indices of refraction depends on mineral orientation, ‘Mineral identification requires measurement of two or three different indices of refraction for grains in spe- Cific orientations, These complexities are dealt with in later chapters. The practice of bracketing the indices Of refraction still applies, however, Accuracy of the Immersion Method ‘The accuracy of the immersion method depends on ae which the oils are calibrated, quality the accuracy (0 ‘ofthe microscope opties, and whether Shromatic light is used. For routine work with white Tight, accuracy of about 0,008 is possible. If a so dium vapor lamp is used to provide monochromatic yellow light, the accuracy can be improved to about 40.001. Improved accuracy can be obtained by care- fully controlling all the various factors involved, but itis not necessary for most mineral identification pur: poses. The variation between different samples of the Eame mineral is often greater than the errors involved in routine measurements. Commercially available immersion oils can be ob- tained in increments of 0.002, 0.004, oF 0.005. Inter. mediate indices can be obtained by mixing two of the oils in various proportions. A simple and moderately accurate method is to place equal-sized drops of the different oils on a slide or watch glass and then mix. More precise methods of measuring the amounts of the two liquids to be mixed also can be employed. If ‘great accuracy is required, the index of the mixed oil should be measured with a refractometer, which is an instrument used to measure refractive indices, ‘An important source of inaccuracy is contamination of the index oils. The usual culprits are interchanging droppers or bottle lids, or touching a dropper to a dirty slide, The index of refraction of an oil also may be al= tered if the container is left open so that some of the constituents of the oil are allowed to evaporate The indices of the oils also vary as a function of temperature, Most are calibrated for 20°C, which is ormal room temperature. If the temperature varies {rom that, a correction factor may be applied. The tem- Perature correction (dnd) and temperature (T;) at which the oil was calibrated will be printed on the bot: Ue for commercially prepared oils. The equation that ives the index of the ol for temperatures other than 7 is +r white or mono- dn nT) = ny + (T= ‘ ™m+(T=7,) a ‘where np is the index at T;, and T is the tem a tea index of refraction decreases with in- '€ temperature. The correction factor is usually around 0,0004/*C, so a few degrees variation from 20°C is not significant for routine work.n that of ed until the inde sich that of ‘mineral, which -a function of temperature, can be calCHAPTER 4 Optics of Isotropic Materials In isotropic materials. the velocity of light is the same in all ditections. Materials that are optically isotropic include gases, liquids, glasses, and minerals in the iso- metric system. In each of these materials, the chemi cal bonding is the same in all directions (at least on the average), so the light passing through them expe- riences the same electronic environment regardless of direction. However, ifthe solids are strained by bend- ing them or by unevenly squeezing them, some chem ical bonds will be stretched and others compressed, land the normally isotropic materials will become anisotropic. The so-called liquid crystals used in the displays of calculators and other electronic equipment are anisotropic because they contain strongly aligned asymmetric molecules that produce an anisotropic structure, Isotropic Indicatrix ‘A geometric figure that shows the index of refraction and vibration direction for light passing in any direc- tion through @ material is called an indicatrix (Figure 4.1), An indicatrix is constructed so that indices of refraction are plotted on lines from the origin that are parallel to the vibration directions of the light. Consider ray a traveling along the X axis in Figure 4,1 and vibrating parallel to the Z axis. The index of re- fraction for this ray is m, and is plowed on both ends of the Z axis. For ray'b, which propagates along the Yaxis and vibrates parallel to the X axis, the index of fefraction n, is plotted on the X axis. Because the ma- 34 EEE terial is isotropic, ng must equal mp, so the shape out lined in the X-Z plane is a circle. The light traveling any other direction through the material has the same index, so in three dimensions the indicatrix is a sphere To find the index of refraction for a light wave trav cling in any particular direction, the wave normal is constructed through the center of the indicatrix (Fig: ure 4.2), and a section through the center of the ind catrix is constructed perpendicular to the wave nor mal, This section is parallel to the wave front. The index of refraction for this light is the radius of the section that is parallel to the vibration direction of the light. Because the isotropic indicatrix is a sphere, all rai are the same length and the index of refraction isthe same for all propagation and vibration directions. i the indicatrix were for an anisotropic mineral, it would not be a sphere and the section parallel to the wave front would be an ellipse for most propagation dire tions. The axes of this ellipse define the vibration di: rections and indices of refraction of the doubly fracted light. These relationships are described i much more detail in Chapters 6 and 7. Distinguishing Between Isotropic and Anisotropic Minerals Isotropic and anisotropic minerals can be quickly dis tinguished by crossing the polarizers. All isotropit minerals are dark between crossed polarizers. Anis? tropic minerals are generally light unless they aially able to pas th ‘of anumber of conside lowing chapters, anisotropic mi cnet once 10° af micros il grains that ha36 © Optics of Isotropic Materials Once the index is known, Appendix B and the mineral descriptions can be consulted to determine the identity Unfortunately, the index of many minerals varies de- 1 ifferent miner- tls may have the same indes, Hence, other informa tion is often required to confirm an identification If samples of the unknown mineral are large enough, it is important to determine the physical properties (color, luster, streak, hardness, cleavage of fracture, etc.) if possible, These properties are often overlooked in the rush to get a sample on the microscope. While none are diagnostic by themselves, they can help con- firm a tentative identification Color is often useful in identifying a mineral but should be used with a certain amount of care, With some minerals, the color of different samples may be different because of chemical variation, the presence ‘of minute inclusions, or incipient alteration, The color erals remains the same on rotation of ‘of isotropic the stage While itis generally not possible to measure the an- gles between cleavages accurately, itis easy to deter- mine if the mineral has cleavage and, with careful observation, to ascertain which type of isometric cleavage is present (Figure 4.3). The cleavages com- ‘monly found in the isometric crystal system include cubic (001) (three at right angles), octahedral {111} (four cleavages that outline an octahedron), and do- decahedral (110) (six cleavages that outline a dodeca- hedron). If the mineral lacks cleavage, then the nature ‘of the fracture should be noted. Isometric minerals do ‘ot systematically fracture into elongate or splintery fragments. Mineral characteristics described as structures in- clude the presence of inclusions, color banding or vari- ation, and the nature of intergrowths with other miner- als. Because grain mounts are made of crushed samples, textures or structures are usually not recognizable. An estimate of hardness can sometimes be made by rub- bing the grains between two glass slides and seeing Whether the slides are scratched. Other materials also can be used. Figure 4.3 Cleavages in isometric minerals as seen in grain ‘mount, (@) Cubic (001) cleavage. (b) Octahedeal (111) cleavage. (c) Dodecahedral {110} cleavage. THIN SECTION Itis not possible to determine refractive indices in thin sections accurately, but estimates can sometimes be ‘made, as described in Chapter 3. Lacking a value for refractive index, other properties of the mineral must be used. In addition to the characteristics of the min- ‘eral described in the preceding section, it also is pos sible to get some idea of the crystal shape from the thin section. The shape seen in thin section is the shape of a random slice through the crystal, Allowance must bbe made for the fact that different slices may produce quite different shapes. Sections through cubic crystals commonly show as three- or four-sided shapes. Sec: tions through octahedrons usually show as four- or sit sided shapes, and sections through dodecahedron usually show as six- of eight-sided shapes. Cleavage in thin section usually shows as straight lines or cracks in the grains,CHAPTER 5 Optics of Anisotropic Minerals: Introduction Anisotropic mine! mater Is are distinguished from isotropic Is because (1) the velocity of light vares depending on direction through the mineral, and (2) they show double refraction. ‘The light that en- ters anisotropic minerals in most directions is split into ‘wo rays with different velocities. The two rays vibrate at right angles to each other. Each anisotropic mineral has either one or two directions, called optic axes, along which the light behaves as though the mineral \were isotropic. Minerals in the hexagonal and tetra- ional systems have one optic axis and are optically tuniaxial. Minerals in the orthorhombic, mono- clinic, and triclinic systems have two optic axes and are optically biaxial. We can demonstrate that the Tight is doubly re= fracted or split into two rays by placing a cleavage rhomb of clear calcite on a mark on a piece of paper (Figure 5.1), Two images corresponding t0 the wo rays are produced, If the calcite is viewed through a Piece of polarizing film whose vibration direction is parallel 10 the short axis of the rhomb, only one im- age is seen (Figure 5.14). When the polarizing film is rotated 90° so that its vibration direction is parallel to the long axis of the rhomb, only the other image is seen (Figure 5.1¢). The two rays must therefore be plane polarized and vibrate at right angles to each other Ifthe indices of refraction of the two rays are ‘measured, it will be found that one is higher than the cher. The ray with the lower index is called the fast ray, and the ray with the higher index is called the slow ray. ‘The reader is cautioned for this and all following discussions to clearly keep in mind the difference be- tween propagation direction and vibration direction. ‘The propagation direetion is the direction that the light is traveling. The vibration direction represents the side-to-side oscillation of the electric vector of the plane polarized light Electromagnetic theory explains why the velocity of light varies depending on direction through the aniso- tropic mineral. As described in Chapter 1, the strength Cf chemical bonding and the density of atoms are dif- ferent in different direetions. The light finds a differ- ent electronic environment depending. on direction, and the electron clouds about each atom vibrate with dif- ferent resonant frequencies in different directions. Be- ‘cause the light velocity depends on the interaction between the vibration of the electric vector and the res- ‘nant frequencies of the electron clouds, we can an- ticipate that velocity will vary with direction. Electromagnetic theory also explains of why the light entering an anisotropic mineral is split into wo. rays vibrating at right angles to each other, Consider a wave front propagating through an anisotropic min eral (Figure 5.2). As always, the vibration yeetor of the light must lie in (or tangent to) the wave front. The ‘wave front represents a planar section through the min- cral, Within that plane the strength of the electric field varies with direction. With appropriate mathematical ‘manipulations, it can be shown that a plot of the elee- tronic field strength within the plane of the wave front is an ellipse. Ts aes of ti lle lel ieeethe maximum and minimum field strengths, are at 90° {o each other and correspond to the vibration direc tions of the two rays, Because the two rays experience different electron cloud densities and field strengths ‘with different associated resonant frequencies, their velocities, and hence indices of refraction, must be dif- ferent, However, there will always be either one or two, planes through any anisotropic mineral for which a interacts With the electric fie ield must have a maximum in one di 38 Optics of Anisotropic Minerals: Introduction (ay S (b) eee o¢ e ee @ e. <@ le @ (c) Figure 5. Double refraction and the caleite experiment. (2) A cleaage thom of Gare on ao fds, Two ings ae produced bee -e- the ght spi into two rays that vibrate at right anges to each oe, M ©) yA potanzing fl with i vibration direction parallel to the short Sonal of the omb allows one st of dots to pass and absorbs the oes (6 Ifthe polarizing film is rotated 90°, the first set of dots is absorbed sou the other I allowed to pass. In intermediate orientations, both ey Ail be visible with subdued brightness. plot of the electric field strengths is a circle, Lines a right angles to these planes are the optic axes, which represent directions in the mineral along which light propagates without being split into two rays. ‘The mathematical rationalization of the foregoing is rather long. Because the important point is thatthe light és split into two rays with different velocities, the reader will be spared several pages of derivations. Z axes, respectively, Within a random wave fi! litection and must have a minimum at right rE‘mineral rays oF ise light is split into two 1 MONOCHROMATIC ILLUMINATION plate of pic. mine40% Optics of Anisotropic Minerals: Introduction ‘This relationship is particularly important and forms the basis of a great deal of what follows Birefringence Thorman = nscale biretringence (anise difference between the indices of refraction of the slow and fast rays, ls numerical value depends on the path followed by the light through the mineral. Some paths ie,, along optic axes) show zero birefringence. oth- ers show a maximum, and most will show an inte ‘mediate value.-The maximum birefringence is a char- acteristic of each mineral, Birefringence also may vary depending on the wavelength of the light, The disper- sion characteristics of the fast and slow rays may be different, so birefringence may be different for differ~ tent wavelengths of light. Unless stated otherwise, nt merical values of birefringence are for light whose ‘wavelength is 589 nm. Interference of the Two Rays ‘The microscope is arranged so that plane polarized light from the lower polarizer enters a mineral grain ‘on the stage where it is split into a slow ray and a fast ray that vibrate at right angles to each other. When they exit the top of the mineral, the fast ray will be ‘ahead of the slow ray by an amount equal to the re- tardation, Interference phenomena are produced when the two rays are resolved into the vibration direction Of the upper polarizer. What happens when the two) rays pass through the upper polarizer depends on ‘whether they are in or out of phase. In Figure 5.4a, the slow ray is retarded exactly one wavelength relative (o the fast ray (remember that we are still dealing with monochromatic light) or A= where i is an integer. When the light reaches the up- per polarizer (crossed polarizers) a component of each ray is resolved into the vibration direction of the up- per polarizer. When the two rays are in phase with each other but vibrating at right angles, the resolved components are in opposite directions so they de- structively interfere and cancel each other. No light passes the polarizer and the mineral grain appears In Figure 5.4b, the retardation is equ nes equal to one-half A=04 9d ESE where ‘is an integer. As before, the rays are resolved into the vibration direction of the upper polarizer. However, both components are in the same direction, interferes and light passes so the light constructivel ture 5.5), the thickness and retardation vary continu. ously along the wedge. When placed between crossed polaers the aeas along the wedge where the reta- ation is equal to iN are dark and the areas where the two rays are out of phase are light. The brightest illu mination is where the two rays are one-half wave length out of phase. For a colorless mineral and ideal optical conditions with no losses from reflection or ab sorption, the amount of light that passes through the upper polarizer is given by “Johannsen, 1918) (-sine SO sin 2 since = 907) 100. 54 where T is percent transmission, A and ) are the re- tardation and wavelength of the light, respectively, and 7 is the angle between lower polarizer vibration di- rection and the closest vibration direction in the min- eral. If the mineral is placed so that 7 = 45°, which yields the brightest illumination, this becomes a(t 24) a 35 Figure 5.5b graphically illustrates this relationship for the monochromatic light passing through the quartz wedge shown in Figure 5.5a. Confusion is sometimes encountered here because the light cancels when the rays are in phase, and the light passes the upper polarizer when the two rays are ‘ut of phase. This appears to contradict the discussion of interference in Chapter 1. Note, however, that in Figure 1.6 the two rays of light are vibrating in the same plane, When the two rays are in phase, they con- Structively interfere. In the present case, the two ris are in phase while vibrating at right angles to each other. The components of these two in-phase rays that are resolved into the vibration direction of the uppet Polarizer end up being out of phase (they are vibra ing in opposite directions), hence the light deste tively interferes, If the upper polarizer is rotated so that it is paral! with the lower polarizer, the relations described inthis Section are reversed. When the waves are in phas® they constructively interfere when resolved into the ts42 ¢ View between crossed polarizers (a) arene on + iV 3h iar Wed ©) 100 20 2 60 aod En =o OX $A 14 1A 20 2A BA SA 4A Retaration Figure 5.5 Interference pattern formed by a quartz wedge tic light. (2) Where the retardation is an mber of wavelengths, the slow and fast rays de~ siruetively interfere at the upper polarizer and a dark band is seen, Where the retardation is i + twavelengths the two rays constructively interfere atthe upper polarizer, and light, passes with maximum intensity. (b) Percent transmission by the upper polarizer, assuming ideal optical conditions. Com- puted from Equation 5.5. and therefore on the thickness and bireftingence of the mineral (Equation 5.3), Different Samples of the same mineral may display different interference colors, de- pending on the thickness and how the samples happen to be oriented Ifa quartz wedge is placed between crossed polar- izets, a range of colors is produced (Plate 1). At the thin edge of the wedge, the thickness and retardation are essentially zero, so all wavelengths cancel at the upper polarizer (A = 0A) and the color is black. As the thickness increases, the color changes to gray, white, yellow, red, and then a repeating sequence of blue, green, yellow, and red, with each repetition be- coming progressively paler. ‘The color produced at any particular point along the ‘wedge depends on which wavelengths of light pass the Upper polarizer and which are canceled (Figure 5.6). Ifthe retardation for all wavelengths is 250 nm, then the slow and fast rays for all of the visible spectrum Optics of Anisotropic Minerals: Introduction ee eee See ia uaeuee ek squation 5.5). The light appears white, with a sligh, ard violet ends of the spectrum arc canceled at the se ire 5.6a). If the retardation jy 500 “600 700 ‘Wavelength (nm) (b) = 500 nm 300) 600. 700 Wavelength (am) (©) _100 é s eS WV \ ‘ 400 300 000 Wavelength (am) Figure 5.6 Formation of interference colors with polyeho matic light. (a) The retardation for all wavelengths of ligh is 250 nm. The slow and fast rays are largely out of pas: for all wavelengths, so all wavelengths come through and are perceived as a first-order white interference color. (6) Retardation for all wavelengths is 500 nm. Only a portion of the red (700 nm) and violet (400 nm) ends of the spe trum are transmitted, and 500-nm light is compete’ blocked. This combination of wavelengths is. perceive! as firstorder red. (c) Retardation for all wavelengths ® 2500 nm. Wavelengths around 417, 500, and 625 nm ¥© canceled and wavelengths near 455, 555, and 7L4 am a passed with maximum intensity. The combination of tal ‘mitted light is perceived as upper-order white.4500 nm, then a substa oven he Hah tha pass nse et Substantial par of each section ofthe specrn eae white gure pO se wl We Ht ang he bone Se ‘ORDERS OF INTERFERENCE CoLoRs ‘As we can see on Plate 1, the interference colors go through a repeating sequence, with the change from red to blue occurring at retardations of approximately 350, 1100, and 1650 nm, For convenience, these boundaries are used to separate the color sequence into ‘orders. First-order colors are produced by retardations of less than 550 nm, second-order colors are for re- tardations between 550 and 1100 nm, and so forth. First- and second-order colors are the most vivid. The higher-order colors become progressively more and ore washed out so that, above fourth order, the col- ‘ors degenerate into a creamy white. ANOMALOUS INTERFERENCE COLORS Determining Thickness of a Sample @ 43 @) 4 sto “60 Wovelensth (om) Figure 87 Formation of anomalous inerference (a) Minera, which displays anomalous ican variation in btefringence and ‘wavelengths of light, Mineral 2,44 © Optics of Anisotropic Minerals: Inti serge varies rom 710 UP eva he grails thin sections. In a thin section teiteren aust ai my ares FEE to lene ste Bight iter chun) se ati rains showing imum birefrin- color ( i that is of interest, because the quart? 8} that color are oriented to have the maxi gence of 0.009. 2 has Once the highest i interference color for quar been recognized, the retardation corresponding (0 Vat color ean be read from the chart and 2 litle niet tion yields the thickness (Equation 5.3). The acthinett tan be bypassed by using the three sets of lines Sno on the color chart, The vertical lines are retardation Fines, the horizontal lines are thickness Hines, and (he diagonal lines are birefringence lines. An example (Figure 5.8) illustrates their use. Assume that the high= 2 = _pirctringence 900) 70550 7100 7680 Retardation (nm) (6) iS Birefringence 0.05 ygence Zoos Zo03| 3 002; —— = oor 0.00 : 5507501100 1650 Retardation (nm) Figure 8.8 Use ofthe interference color chart (Plate 1). Hor- ‘zontal lines indicate thickness, vertical lines indicate retar- dation (interference color), and diagonal lines are for bire- ffingence. (a) Determining thickness. Thickness is indicated fy the point where the retardation (interference color) and Dieftingence lines intersect (6) Determining birefringence. intzenee is indicated by the point where the retardation ‘interference color) and thickness lines intersect, roduction o wn by quartz in a thin se erference color shown by ‘a est interier™ order white with just a hint of yelloy an 2 where it intersects th fam line straight up (0 & 270-1 0,009 birefringence line. The. thickness Gas mm) is read_on the left side ofthe diagram op, tersection. posite the point of in Pow mineral with fairly low birefringence such a ispar, gypsum, and So on, can be apioclase, K-feldspar, gypsum, Peat o determine thickness, provided that the max jnam birefringence is known. Grain MOUNT ‘The thickness of grains in a grain mount can be esi ‘mated using the same technique employed for thin sec. tions. However, this method is less precise because it cannot be assumed that all of the grains are the same thickness, Also, minerals with cleavage may not be randomly oriented, because they tend to lie fat on Cleavage surfaces. In practice, itis sometimes better to estimate thickness by one of the following methods 1. Measure the dimensions of a number of grains ws. ing a micrometer eyepiece, calibrated as described in Chapter 2, Because grains tend to lie flat on the slide, the thickness will be somewhat less than either the width or length measured with the micro- meter eyepiece. 2. Determine maximum and minimum dimensions based on the size of sieves used to separate the grains (Table 5.1). If the grains are equant, they must be smaller than the sieve openings they pass through and larger than the openings through which they will not pass. The thickness of elongate or roé- ‘Table 5.1. Sieve Openings SRE Sass Opehines ih lesa oe SS ‘Openings (mm) a oun a 0.49 ra os im 0.105 re 0.088 a oon a 0.062 am 0053 “American Society for Testing and Material,like grains can be estimated in the same manner. although the length may be greater than the size of the openings through which they pass, Platy min crals give the most trouble, because very thin grains can be trapped if their width and length are larger than the sieve openings, Ee Determining Birefringence from the Color Chart Equation 5.3 again provides the basis for determining birefringence, but in this case, thickness must be known and the retardation is estimated by recogniz ing the interference color. The reader should recog. nize that there is room for error in determining the maximum birefringence of a mineral based on recog- nizing interference colors. If only a few grains of the mineral are present, none may be correctly oriented to display the maximum birefringence. Further, grains in ‘thin section or grain mount may not be of uniform thickness and difficulty may be experienced in reco, nizing precisely which interference color is present. For routine mineral identification in thin section, this method is quite adequate. If a precise value for bire- fringence is needed, then oil immersion methods must be employed to measure refractive indices, The tech- niques used to measure refractive indices of aniso- tropic minerals are described in Chapters 6 and 7. THIN SECTION In most cases, the value of maximum birefringence of the mineral is needed. To measure the maximum bire- fringence, scan the slide to find one or more grains of the unknown showing the highest-order inte! ference color. In the example in Figure 5.8, the terference color is assumed to be second-order green corresponding to a retardation of 750 nm, Follow the retardation line corresponding to that color up to where it intersects with the thickness line (usually 0.03 mm for correctly made thin sections). The diag- ‘onal birefringence line that goes through the point of intersection indicates the birefringence (0.025). Grain Mount Because thickness is not generally known with cer- tainty, itis difficult to make accurate estimates of bire- fringence based on identifying interference colors in grain mounts. An additional complication is that grains ‘may be over 0.1 mm thick, so high-order interference Extinction ¢ 45 colors are commonly encountered even for minerals: with moderate birefringence, As a consequence, it is more difficult to identify which interference color is present, Nonetheless, if an estimate of thickness can bbe made, and the interference color recognized, an es- timate of birefringence can be calculated (Equation 5.3) or obtained from the curves on the color chart (Plate 1), Recognizing the Different Orders of Interference Colors Colors in the first several orders of interference col (ors may appear similar and can be difficult to distin- uish at a glance, Colored minerals also tend to mask interference colors and add to the difficulty. In most ‘eases, the order of an interference color up to fourth ‘order and sometimes higher may be determined by. looking at the edges of grains, particularly those ated along the margin of a thin section. Many grains are thinner at their edges than in the center, so the en- tire interference color sequence may be present at the ‘edge of the grain, The order of the color in the center of the grain can be determined by “counting” the eol- ors in, If the color bands are closely spaced, it may only be possible to pick out the dark bands formed by the red and blue colors which mark the boundaries be- ‘ween the different orders. Persons with color blind- ness may find this method particularly useful Firstorder white and high-order white sometimes are confused. First-order white is usually a clear white that grades to bluish gray or yellow. High-order white tends to be somewhat creamy colored and may show pale pastel highlights of color due to irregularities on grain surfaces. If in doubt, check by inserting the gyp- sum plate: If the color is first-order white, it will cchange to an upper first- or lower second-order color; if the color is a high-order white little change in color will occur. Extinction Unless an optic axis is vertical, anisotropic minerals ‘go dark or extinct between crossed polarizers once in every 90° of rotation of the microscope stage. EX- tinction occurs when one vibration direction of the mineral is oriented parallel to the lower | (Fig- ure 5,9a). No component of the incident light can be resolved into the mineral vibration direction oriented. parallel to the upper polarizer, so all of the light pass-46 Optics of Anisotropic Minerals: Introduction (a) (b) ions of Extinction, (a) When the vibration dir {grain are parallel to the lower and upper polar izer, the mineral is dark or extinct between crossed polarz ers, (b) I'the grain is rotated so that its vibration directions ‘are not parallel to the polarizers, hen vector components of both rays pass the upper polarizer and the mineral appears bright 1g through the mineral is absorbed by the upper po- izer and the mineral appears dark. If the stage is rotated so that the vibration directions of the mineral are oriented in the 45° positions (Fig- ure 5.9), maximum component of both slow and fast ray is available to be resolved into the vibration direction of the upper polarizer. A maximum amount Of light passes and the mineral appears brightest. The interference color does not change with rotation other than to get brighter or dimmer. The phase relation be- tween slow and fast rays—and, therefore, the inter- ferenice color—is unaffected by stage rotation. Equation 5.4 can be used to predict extinction. If the angle 7 between mineral vibration direction and lower polarizer direction is 0°, percent transmission for all wavelengths is zero. IF the angle between min- eral and lower polarizer vibration directions is 45°, then a maximum amount of light is allowed to pass the upper polarizer. Many minerals are elongate or have easily recog- nized cleavage. The angle between the length or cleavage of a mineral and one of the mineral’s vi- bration directions is a diagnostic property called the extinction angle. It is easily measured as follows, (1. Rotate the stage of the microscope until the length, §— orcleavage of the mineral grain is aligned with the north-south cross hair (Figure 5.10a). Record the reading from the stage goniometer. | 2. Rotate the stage until the mineral grain gocs ex- tinct (Figure 5.10b). It does not matter whether you (@) Figure $.10 Measure: angle. (a) Grain or ented so that the cleavage or length is parallel to the N-S ross hair. (b) Stage rotated so that the grain is extinct. The extinction angle (EA) is the angle thatthe stage was rotated 10 go from (a) to (b), rotate to the right or left. Record the new reading from the stage goniometer. 3. The extinction angle (BA) is the angle of rotation needed to make the mineral go extinct and is the difference in goniometer readings in 1 and 2. Note that if the extinction angle determined with clock- wise rotation is EA, then the extinction angle de- termined with counterclockwise rotation is 90° — EA. Itis usually the smaller of the two angles that needs to be reported, although there are cases where it is necessary to specifically measure the extine- tion angle to the slow (or fast) vibration direction, ‘The technique to determine which ray is fast or slow is discussed in a later section, If extinction angles on a number of different grains ‘of a mineral are measured, it usually is found that they vary depending on exactly how the grains are oriented. ‘The diagnostic extinction angle is usually measured on grains in specific orientations. In many cases, ‘grains oriented to produce maximum birefringence are also in the orientation to produce the diagnostic ex- tinction angle. CATEGORIES OF EXTINCTION ‘The four different categories of extinction are paral- lel extinction, inclined extinction, symmetrical ex- tinetion, and no extinction angle (Figure 5.11). + Parallel extinetion (Figure 5.11a). The mineral is extinct when the cleavage or length is aligned with ‘one of the other of the cross hairs, The extinction angle is 0°,(b) (©) (d) EA EA, Figure 5.11 Categories of extinction. (a) Parallel extinetion, ‘The grain is extinct when the cleavage or length is parallel to a cross hair. (b) Inclined extinction, The mineral is ex- tinct when the cleavage or length is at an angle to the cross hairs, (c) Symmetrical extinction, Extinction angles EA, and EA; measured to the two cleavages are the same, (d) No ex- tinction angle, Grains without cleavages ora distinctive habit ‘do not have an extinction angle. + Inclined extinction (Figure 5.1 1b). The mineral is extinct when the cleavage or length is at some an- gle to the cross hairs. The extinction angle is mea- sured as previously described. + Symmetrical extinction (Figure 5.11). The min- eral displays either two cleavage directions or two. distinet crystal faces to which two extinction angles ‘can be measured, one from each cleavage or crystal face. If the two extinction angles are the same, the ‘mineral displays symmetrical extinction. + No extinction angle (Figure 5.11d). Many miner- als do not have an elongated habit or prominent cleavage. They go extinct once in every 90° of stage rotation, but no cleavage or elongation is available from which to measure an extinction angle. There- fore, these minerals do not have an extinction angle. No amount of stage rotation or head scratching will enable an extinction angle to be measured ifthe min- eral does not display an elongate habit or prominent cleavages, Use of the Accessory Plates @ 47 It is common to find that different pars of a single grain may go extinct at different points of stage rotation. There are two causes for this behavior: strain and chemical zoning, In rocks that have been deformed, some of the grains may be bent or strained, As @ consequence of the bending, different parts of a single grain are in slightly different orientations and therefore zo extinct at different times. If the extinction in a grain follows an irregular or wavy pattern it is called undulatory extinction. ‘A number of minerals, such as plagioclase, which show solid solution, may erystallize so that the center Of the grain has a different composition than the outer part. If the optical properties vary asa function of eom- position, the center of the crystal may go extinct at a different time than the outer part as the stage is ro- tated. There is no special term for this type of extine- tion, but grains displaying it are said to be zoned, Use of the Accessory Plates It is frequently necessary to determine which of the ‘wo rays coming through the mineral is the slow ray and which is the fast ray. This can be done quickly by using one of the accessory plates, The accessory plates consist of pieces of quartz, muscovite, or gypsum mounted in a holder so that their vibration directions are known. Consider the mineral grain shown in Figure 5.124, which is oriented on the stage so that its vibration rections are in the 45° positions and its slow ray vi- bration coincides with the slow ray direction in the ac- cessory plate. The light passing through the split into two rays. When these two rays leave 7 of the mineral grain, the slow ray is behind ray by a distance equal to the retardation Ay. the light enters the accessory plate, the slow ray is fe= tarded an additional distance A,, which is the retar- dation of the accessory plate. The result is a higher to- tal retardation Ay = Ay + Ag. When the two rays reach the upper polarizer, a higher-order interference color is produced. In Figure 5.12b, the mineral is rotated so that its fast ray vibration direction is parallel to the slow ray vibration direction of the accessory plate. The ray that ‘was the slow ray in the mineral becomes the fast ray in the accessory plate, The result is that the accessory48 % Optics of Anisotropic Minerals: Introduction © on (a) Gps 8530.0 (b) Mica A= 17am CQ @ 6 Gps 32330] Slow. o: Figure 5.12 Compensation with an accessory plate (a) Typical gypsum plate that can be removed from the accessory Sot in the microscope. The optical clement is a iece of gypsum or quartz cut to a thickness that produces a retardation 44 = 550 nm and whose slow vibration direction is across the width of the plate, (b) Fixed accessory plate permanently ‘mounted in the accessory slot. The central hole is empty; the other holes contain a gypsum and miea plates. () The mit eral sample, which produces retardation Ay. is oriented so its slow and fast ray vibration directions coincide with the 2 ccessory plate’s. The total retardation produced by sample and accessory is A, which equals Sy, + A. (d) The sample is rotated so its slow ray vibrates parallel to the fast ray vibration direction of the accessory plate and vice versa, The toal tardation Ay = |x ~ Sal plate cancels some of the retardation produced by the ‘mineral. The total retardation Ay is the absolute value of the difference between Ay and Ay (Ar = |dy- a). The interference color produced at the upper polarizer is the color associated with Ay and is always less than the retardation produced if the slow ray directions of ‘mineral and accessory plate coincide. Most petrographic microscopes are constructed so that the long dimension of the accessory plate is ot ented NW-SE. The fast ray direction of the accessor) plate is typically parallel to its length and the slow ry direction is across its width. Hence, when an acces Sory plate is inserted, the fast ray is NW-SE and the slow ray is NE-SW. Note, however, that other cor ventions may be used and that some manufacture have constructed gypsum and mica plates so that th eefollowed. “Acer pss bolus ara ergo ge so Win eli be eee ee Se niga Slorloeal Reee ‘between the first and second orders. The mica plate pro- duces 147 nm of retardation, which yields a first-order ‘white interference color. As the name implies, the quartz wedge is wedge-shaped and produces a range of retar- (een es determine vibration directions, but a quartz wedge or ‘mica plate also may be used. Sea ght See ‘grain belongs to the slow ray and which to the fast ray, eee 1, Rotate the stage of the microscope until the grain 1. In this position, one of the vibration di- rections is parallel to the north-south and the other parallel to the east-west cross hair (Figure 5.13a). Use of the Accessory Plates ¢ 49° 2. Rotate the stage 45° clockwise (Figure 5.136). The vibration direetion that was parallel to the north= south cross hair in step 1 is now oriented NE-SW. Use the stage goniometer to measure the 45° ac- ccurately. The grain should be brightly iluminated. Note the interference color, find it on the color chart, and record the retardation that with that color (Ayo. . Insert the gypsum plate into the accessory slot (Fig- ture 5.13¢). In most microscopes, the slow ray vie bration direction of the plate is oriented NE-SW. Determine whether the retardations added or can- cceled. In many cases, this can be done by inspec tion. If the retardations added, the new interference color should be the color on the chart produced by a retardation of Ay + 550 nm. Ifthe rel canceled, the new interference color sh color on the chart produced by a ret ‘Sy — 550 nm. Ifthe latter value is its absolute value. 4, Interpretation. If the retardations slow ray in the mineral is oriented N Jel to the slow ray in the50 Optics of Anisotropic Minerals: Introduction ference color) that should be obtained for both ad dition and cancellation as described in step 3 above, The mica plate also cam be used. It causes a smaller change in color because it produces a change in re- lardation of only 147 nm rather than 550 nm. With grain mounts. iti often useful to employ the quartz wedge instead of the mica or gypsum plate Grains are often thin on the edges and display a range of interference colors with the lowest-order color along the edges and the highest-order color in the cen- ter: As the quartz wedge is inserted (thin end first), the bands of interference colors along the edge of the grain move either into or out of the grain * If the color bands move out so that the higher-order colors from the center of the grain displace the lower-order colors along the margin, retardations are adding, The stow ray vibration directions of mineral and quartz, wedge are parallel If the lower-order color bands along the edge of the grain move in and displace the higher-order color in the center of the grain, retardations are canceling. ‘The slow ray vibration direction of the wedge is su- pperimposed on the fast ray vibration direction in the mineral is ten ‘color. (c) Insert the accessory the retardations add, the vibration direction nearest the trace fof cleavage is the slow ray and the mineral is length slow Figure $.14 Determining sign of elongation, (a) Mineral a, ‘extinction with the cleavage nearest the N-S cross hair (b) Rotate stage 45° clockwise to place the vibration direction nearest the trace of cleavage in the NE-SW orientation. De the retardation (1) associated with the interference with retardation Ay. If retardations cancel, the vibration direction nearest the trace of cleavage is the fast ray and the mineral is length Persons who are color blind may find that the quartz ‘wedge is useful to them. The movement of the color bands along the thin edges of grains, whether in thin section of grain mount, ean be recognized even if the individual colors cannot be distinguished. Sign of Elongation The terms length slow and length fast are repeatedly encountered in the mineral descriptions in the latter Part of this text. Length slow means that the slow ray vibrates more or less parallel to the length of an elongate mineral. Length fast means that the fast ray vibrates more or less parallel to the length of an elon- gale mineral. Length slow is called positive elonga- tion, and length fast is called negative elongation. Sign of elongation is not the same as optic sign. Op- tic sign is discussed in Chapters 6 and 7. To determine the sign of elongation of a mineral grain, proceed as follows (Figure 5.14): 1. Place the grain under the cross hairs, insert the up- per polarizers, and rotate the stage so the mineral fas, is extinct and the long dimension or cleavage is nearest the N-S cross hair (Figure 5.14a), Unless the mineral has parallel extinction, the cleavage will not be parallel to the cross hair. Rotate the stage clockwise 45° (Figure 5.14) This places the vibration direction closest to the Jong dimension or cleavage in the NE-SW posi- tion. Note the interference color and determine the retardation (Ay) associated with that color from the interference color chart (Plate 1). Insert the accessory plate (Figure 15.14c) whose retardation is (A.), note the new interference colot and determine the total retardation (A) associated with that color from the interference color chart. Ii the retardations added (Ap = Ay + Aq) the vibe tion direction closest to the trace of cleavage is the slow ray and the mineral is length slow. If the re tardations cancelled (Ay tion direction closest to the trace of cleavage fast ray and the mineral is length fast.Not all minerals have a sign of elongation, Ifa min- ral does not have an elongate habit, then the term ‘early does not apply. The other case where a sign of Slongation cannot be assigned is if the vibration rections are ~45° to the length of a crystal, Relief Minerals that display moderate to strong birefringence may display a change of relief as the stage is rotated in plane ight. It can be observed both in grain mount and in thin section. The change of relict is a conse- quence of the fact that the two rays coming through the mineral have different indices of refraction, Consider the grain of caleite shown in Figure 5.15, which is immersed in an oil having an index 1 1,560. If the stage is rotated so that the fast ray bration of the mineral is E-W, all the light coming through the mineral is fast ray with » = 1.57. Because this is nearly the same as the index of the oi, the re- lief is low. Ifthe grain is oriented so the slow ray vi- bration direction is oriented E-W, all the light com- ing through the mineral is slow ray with n = 1.658. Because this is substantially different than the index ‘of the oil, the relief is high. In intermediate orienta- tions, the relief appears to be intermediate. This is not because the index of the grain is intermediate. Two rays of light come through. One produces an image of high relief, the other produces a superimposed im- age of low relief. The eye effectively averages the two images so that we see an image of intermediate ‘elie. ‘Because birefringence depends on the direction that the light passes through a mineral, not all grains of the ow Pleochroism ‘mineral in a sample necessarily show the same change ‘of relief. Grains that are oriented to display maximum birefringence show a maximum change of relief as Well as highest interference color. Note also that a change of relief is seen only when the index ofthe” ‘mounting medium is close to the index of one of the rays. If birefringence is low, the change of relief usu- ally is not noticed. ‘There also are two different Becke lines produced, — fone for each ray. If both rays have indices of refrac- tion either higher or lower than the oil the two Becke ines afe superimposed and are_indistinguishable. line moves into the grain, and the other moves out as the stage is lowered Pleochroism ‘Many colored anisotropic minerals of color as the stage is rotated in is called pleochroism (or dic because the two rays of light are : as they pass through the have different colors. In FisSUGGESTION ADDITIONAL FCHAPTER “y Uniaxial Optics {A cleavage rhomb of calcite can be used to illustrate some of the optical properties of uniaxial minerals, As described in Chapter 5 (Figure 5.1), if the cleavage rhomb is placed on a dot or other image on a piece of paper, two images appear, each composed of plane po- larized light vibrating at right angles to the other. If the calcite rhomb is rotated about a vertical axis, one of the dots remains stationary, but the other rotates: with the calcite about the stationary image (Figure 6.1a). The image that moves behaves in a manner very different from anything found with isotropic materi- als, so itis called the extraordinary ray or € ray. The stationary image is formed of light that behaves as though it were in an isotropic material, so itis called the ordinary ray or w ray. The vibration vector of the ordinary ray always lies in the (001) plane and is at right angles to the ¢ axis (Figure 6.15). The extraor- dinary ray always vibrates perpendicular to the ordi- nary ray vibration direction in a plane that contains the c axis (Figure 6.1c). If, instead of a cleavage the optic axis, which is a direction ci im oc ey ordinary ray, however, is variable and ranges from 1.486 to 1.658. Ifthe light is propagating perpendi- cular to the © axis, the extraordinary ray shows the 1.486 index. Ifthe light is propagating almost paral- is, it shows an index of just than 1.658, andin intermediate direction, i termediate indices. Hence, bi i Hina aes PRanen tenors ‘ages show only slight separation, even sections of mineral. Opti Sign54 © Uniaxial Optics Extraordinary (ray ©) orinary.e) ny © and wave normal xraordinany Figure 6.1 The double refraction of calcite. (a) Two images are produced when a clear cleavage rhomb of calcite is placed ‘on a cross. The vibration directions for the two images indi- cated by the arrows are mutually perpendicular (cf. Figure 5.1), Ifthe calcite rhomb is rotated, the image formed of or- 14), the ellipsoid is prolate and is stretched out along the optic axis, If the mineral is optically negative (1,, > n,) (Figure 6.4), the ellip- soid is oblate and flattened along the optic axis. In ‘each case, the circular section of the indicatrix is per- pendicular to the optic axis and has a radius equal to ‘Ny. The radius of the indicatrix along the optic axis is always 1 A section through the indicatrix that includes the optic axis is called a principal section, which is an ellipse whose axes are 7, and n,. A section through the indicatrix perpendicular to the optic axis is the circular seetion whose radius is n,. Any random cut through the indicatrix produces an ellipse whose axes are ng, and nj’ Where n.’ is between ng and ne. Use OF THE INDICATRIX Jn practice, the uniaxial indicatrix is constructed so the circular section has radius n,, and the radius along the ‘optic axis is equal to ng It is oriented within the min- eral so that the optic axis is parallel to the c erystal- lographic axis. The light is considered to pass directly through the center of the indicatrix, Determining the indices of refraction and vibration directions of wave normals passing in a random direction through the mineral requires the following steps, 1. Construct the wave normal direction through the center of the indicatrix (Figure 6.5a). Recall that the wave normal is the direction that the wave fronts are traveling. 2. Construct a slice through the center of the indica- trix perpendicular to the wave normal (Figure 6.5b). Unless it is perpendicular to the optic axis, the section is an ellipse whose axes are n.’ and 1, The section is parallel to the wave fronts for both rays, 3. Interpretation. The vibration directions are parallet to the axes of the elliptical section and the indices of refraction are the lengths of the axes. In Figure 6.5b, the ordinary ray vibrates parallel to AB and has index n,. The extraordinary ray vibrates paral lel to AC and has index n¢. If the angle 8 between the € wave normal and the optic axis is known, the value of 7m," can be calculated from the equation a} which is the equation of the ellipse expressed in polar coordinates. The extraordinary ray direction can be determined by constructing a tangent to the indicatrix from the wave normal and parallel to AC (Figure 6.5c). The extraordinary ray goes through point D where the tangent touches the indicatrix. The angle W between the optic axis and the ex- traordinary ray is given by the equation 61 tan ¥ = Stan 0 62 If the ray direction for an extraordinary ray is spec- ified instead of the wave normal direction, the follow- ing steps allow the wave normal direction, vibration di- rection, and index of refraction to be determined. 1. Construct the ray direction through the center of the indicatrix (Figure 6.6a) at angle W from the optic axis. 2. Construct a surface tangent to the indicatrix at the point where the rays pierce it (Figure 6.6b). The angle ¢ between the tangent surface and the optic axis is given by the equation tan(90 — &) = tan W 63 which is derived from Equation 6,2 by substituting + = 90 ~ 6 (compare Figures 6.5d and 6.6¢). 3. Construct a section through the center of the indi- ccatrix parallel to the tangent surface (Figure 6.6). The section through the indicatrix is an ellipse whose axes are ng and n,’. Interpretation. The extraordinary ray vibrates par- allel to the ellipse axis AC and has index of re- fraction n,’. The wave front for the extraordinary ray is parallel to the section through the indicatrix and the wave normal is perpendicular to the wave front. (Figure 6.6c).Ba eo see wre geet a cence cereal wieo i mall et aoe niece Oran o58 © Uniaxial Optics Birefringence and Interference Colors nce, and therefore the interference color ‘of uniaxial minerals, depends on the direction that the light passes through the mineral. Four different cases will be examined, Three involve light that is normally incident to the surface of a mineral cut in different om centations and the fourth involves inclined incidence: ‘The three cases of normal incidence apply when the microscope is set up for normal viewing (orthoscopic illumination). Inclined incidence applies when the aux- iliary condenser is inserted to provide strongly con- vergent light (conoscopie illumination) [EHH Normal incidence on a sample cut so. that the top and bottom surfaces are parallel to the op= tic axis (Figure 6.72). This could be a grain of an un- known in a thin section or in a grain mount, Because the light entering the mineral has an angle of incidence of O°, the wave fronts are not refracted and remain parallel 10 the surface of the mineral section. A cut through the indicatrix parallel to the bottom of the mineral gives the indices of refraction and vibration directions of the light. In this case the indicatrix sec~ ‘The birefrin; @ (b) tion is a principal section with axes equal to n,, and n, The incident light is split into two rays. The ordinary ray has index n, and vibrates perpendicular to the op. tic axis, The extraordinary ray has index ng and vibrates parallel to the optic axis. The birefringence is ng ~ n,, Which is a maximum. In a thin section or grain mount ‘where all grains of the mineral are the samme thickness, this grain would show the highest interference color Note that this is the only case where the extraordinary ray and its wave normal are parallel : Normal incidence on a sample cut per. pendicularto the optic axis (Figure 6.7b). In this case, the slice through the indicatrix is a circular section ‘with radius m,. There is no preferred vibration direc. tion, so the light passes along the optic axis as an or- dinary ray and retains whatever vibration direction it had before entering the mineral. When placed between crossed polars, the light is entirely absorbed by the up- per polar, so the mineral should appear dark on rota tion just like an isotropic mineral. In an actual micto- scope, however, the light is somewhat converging Even though the optic axis is vertical, some of the light passes at an angle to the optic axis and, therefore, ex- ony ©. eray t Figure 6.7 Normally incident light. The optic axis is labeled OA. through the indicatrix is principal section with axes n,, and ny only case where the extraordinary ray and wave normal coincide. (b) Crystal cut perpendicular to the (a) Mineral cut parallel to the optic axis. The seston So the mineral displays maximum birefringence. This iszrain would ‘color. If the ex vill be found that ci the indicatriUniaxial Optics 60 ¢ (a) 20 0, (degrees) pri cil ic ix is shown where an inclined Figure 69 Ine incidence in principal section (The rnp stton ofthe indian Ay oh ene te mip Retacona to nae nomal Wo ease en elie ie he eeee ot shown buts perpendicular tothe w wave normal. The angle of refraction (@) ofthe ¢ wave normal CWNa) is determined in (6). The e-ray path is determined grapt and 6.5 (solid). The intersection of the curves gives m’ = 1.803 and 6, tions. The € ray direction can be determined by con- structing a tangent to the indicatrix that is at 90° to the wave normal or by using Equation 6.2. ‘The birefringence in this case must be intermediate since ng’ is intermediate. In general, the interference color will be higher than if the same birefringence were experienced with normal incidence because the inclined path through the mineral is longer (compare Equation 5.3), The most general case is where the incident and re- fracted rays do not lie in a principal section, The dex of the extraordinary ray and its angle of refrac. tion can be determined by a method similar to that described in case 4. Howeve ; the procedure is more complicated, because it involves dealing mathemati. cally with angles and planes in three dimensions rather than just two, Because this type of numerical calcula. tion will not be needed, the derivation will not be pur. sued here, ——_— lly (Compare Figure 6.8). (b) Simultaneous solution of Equations 64 (dashed) 6.1, Extinction Recall from the discussion in Chapter 5 that anisotropic minerals go extinct between crossed polarizers when the vibration direction of the two rays in the mineral coincide with the vibration direction of the lower and ‘upper polarizers. The previous section examined how the vibration directions in the mineral can be deter mined. The object in this section is to look at the r= lationship between the vibration directions and both Cleavages and crystal outlines for a variety of different cuts through both tetragonal and hexagonal minerals Ina thin section, cleavages typically appear as thin Parallel cracks in a mineral grain. If relief is high, cleavages usually can be recognized, but if relief is low, the cleavages may be difficult to see. Typically: only those cleavages that are at a substantial angle (0 the plane of the section are likely to be seen. How- ever, in Figures 6.10, 6.11, and 6.12, all cleavages are shown so that the overall geometry can be seen. Whet60 % Uniaxial Optics Ge, + @ oe ae oe & cso % Ad Zt a ! Mineral (degrees) Figure 6.9 Inclined incidence in a principal section. (a) The principal section of the indicatrix is shown where an inclined ray of light enters the not shown but is perpe ineral, Refraction ofthe o wave normal (WN) is computed from Snell's law. The w wave frontis {ular to the w wave normal, The angle of refraction (,) ofthe € wave normal (WN is determined in (b). The e-ay path is determined graphically (compare Figure 6.8). () Simultaneous solution of Equations 6.4 (dashed) and 6.5 (solid). The intersection of the curves gives my tions. The € ray direction can be determined by con- structing. a tangent to the indicatrix that is at 90° to the waye normal or by using Equation 6.2. The birefringence in this case must be intermediate since ne’ is intermediate. In general, the interference color will be higher than if the same birefringence ‘were experienced with normal incidence because the inclined path through the mineral is longer (compare Equation 5.3). ‘The most general case is where the incident and re- fracted rays do not lie in a principal section. The in- dex of the extraordinary ray and its angle of refrac~ tion can be determined by a method similar to that described in case 4. However, the procedure is more complicated, because it involves dealing mathemati- cally with angles and planes in three dimensions rather than just two. Because this type of numerical calcula- tion will not be needed, the derivation will not be pur- sued here, = 1,803 and 8, = 16.1°. minerals go extinct between crossed polarizers when the vibration direction of the two rays in the mineral coincide with the vibration direction of the lower and upper polarizers. The previous section examined how the vibration directions in the mineral can be deter- mined. The object in this section is to look at the re- lationship between the vibration directions and both cleavages and crystal outlines for a variety of different cuts through both tetragonal and hexagonal minerals. Ina thin section, cleavages typically appear as thin parallel cracks in a mineral grain. If relief is high, cleavages usually can be recognized, but if relief is low, the cleavages may be difficult to see. Typically only those cleavages that are at a substantial angle {0 the plane of the section are likely to be seen. How: ever, in Figures 6.10, 6.11, and 6.12, all cleavages are shown so that the overall geometry can be seen. When eo |examining these figures, bear in mind that clea fot at a substantial a gustan‘ angle to the lane of the she through the crystal would probably not be seen if the {tice were part of a real thin section es 6.10-6.12 contain informa tion about pleochroism and interference figures, which tre discussed in the following sections, TreTRAGONAL MINERALS. qetragonal minerals are typically prismatic and either elongate or stubby parallel to the c axis. The faces are commonly combinations of prisms parallel to the ¢ axis, pinacoids perpendicular to c, and pyramids, al- though other forms are possible, The usual cleavages ae prismatic and pinacoidal. To illustrate the extinc- tion possible with common tetragonal crystals, five sections through a typical elongate prismatic crystal displaying both prismatic and pinacoidal cleavage (Figure 6.10a) are described as follows. Figure 6.10b. The crystal is cut perpen- dicular to the optic axis, so.the light traveling through the crystal follows the optic axis. The section through ihe indicatrix is the circular section, so all the light passes with index 1,. The two directions of the pris- matic cleavage are visible at right angles to each other. The pinacoidal cleavage is parallel to the plane of the section, so it is not seen, If the polarizers are crossed, the section should be uniformly dark on rotation, so no extinction angle can be measured Figure 6.10c. The crystal is cut parallel to the optic axis. Light travels through the crystal per~ pendicular to the optic axis. The pinacoidal cleavage shows as cracks across the width of the crystal and the prismatic cleavages show as parallel cracks along the length, The section through the indicatsix is a princi- pal section with the € axis parallel to the length of the crystal and the w axis perpendicular to the length. The ‘extinction must be parallel because the vibration di- rections for w and e are parallel to the width and length and across the width of the crystal. If the mineral ts Optically positive (My < nq), itis length slow, and if it 's optically negative (My > 7) itis length fast. —_— Extinction @ 61 KESTHED Figure 6.104, ¢, f. The exystal is eut on an angle. As described earlier, the birefringence is in- termediate, All three cleavages may be visible, The section through the indicatrix shows thatthe index for the extraordinary ray is intermediate, Depending on hhow the cut through the crystal is made, the extine- tion to the prismatic cleavage may be parallel (Figure 6.10d), symmetrical (Figure 6.10e), or anything in be- tween (Figure 6.10/). The € vibration direction lies within the acute angle made between the two prismatic cleavages. The w ray vibrates parallel to the trace of the pinacoidal cleavage, so extinction is always paral- lel to that cleavage. HEXAGONAL MINERALS The forms commonly found in hexagonal minerals are prisms, pinacoids, pyramids, and rhombohedrons, although a number of other forms are possible. The common cleavages are prismatic, pinacoidal, and thombohedral Rhombohedral Cleavage With rhombohedral cleavage, there are three cleavage planes that intersect at angles other than 90° (Figure 6.11a). ‘The mineral is cut perpendicular to the ‘optic axis (Figure 6.116). This cut through the crystal produces either a three- or six-sided outline with cleay- age parallel to the edges. Because the optic axis is ver- tical, the crystal displays uniform dark color on rota- tion between crossed polarizers. [LETSEA Tre mineral is cut parallel to the optic axis (Figure 6.11c). All three cleavage directions may be visible, although the angles between them depend ‘on exactly where the crystal is cut. If it is cut per- ppendicular to one of the planes of symmetry, as shown in Figure 6.1 c, then the extinction is symmetrical to two cleavage traces and parallel to the third. Ifthe eut is in any other orientation parallel to the ¢ axis, then the extinction will typically not be symmetrical or par- allel to any of the cleavages. Sees62 Uniaxial Optics Figure 6.10 Extinction ina typical tetragonal mineral, (a) Crystal showing trace of pinacoidal (001) (dashed) and prismatic {100} (solid) cleavage, (b) Section cut perpendicular to optic axis (¢ axis). The indicatrix section is circular, so the sri behaves like an isotropic material. In plane light this grain will display the « color. The interference figure will be an optic axis figure. (c) Section eut parallel to the ¢ axis, The indiatrix section i a principal section, so birefringence is maximum aand extinction is parallel. In plane light the grain will display the w color (lower polarizer E-W); if rotated 90°, it would lsplay the ¢ color. The interference figure will be a flash figure, (d) Miter cut through the mineral. Birefringence is it parallel tothe tice of the pincoidal cleavage an asymmetric with respect tothe prismatic cleavage. The grains shown in (d),(e) and (J) will all show the w color in abe Ent I rated 90°, all will display a color intermediate between « and ¢, All three grains wil also yield off-center le nce figures,igure 6:11 Extinction with shombohedral (101) cleavage, (a) Rhomboheral mineral etfrecions. () Section cut perpendicular ic axis, Te indicat section i64 % Uniaxial Optics (100) * — (001) Figure 6.12 Extinction in hexagonal crystals (@) Prismatic (100) cleavage is shown with solid lines and pinacoidalclesv- age (001) is shown with dashed lines. () Section cut perpendicular to the optic axis. The indicatrix section is circular. 0 the grain should remain dark on rotation between crossed polarizers. In plane light this grain will display the w color The interference figure will be an optic axis figure. (c) Section cut parallel tothe optic axis. The section whose axes are parallel to the length and width of the grain. Extinction is parallel and. In plane light this grain will display the w color as shown (lower polarizer icatrix section is principal irefringence is a maximum, -W), and the € color if rotated 90°, The inter ference figure will be a flash figure, (d) Cut in a random direction, Bireftingence is intermediate and extinction is parallel to the trace of the pinacoidal cleavage, Extinction to the traces of the prismatic cleavages will generally not be parallel or symmetric unless the crystal is cut at right angles to a symmetry plane. In plane light this grain will display the w color as shown, and a color intermediate between io Random cut through the crystal (Figure 6.12d), It may be possible to see all of the cleavage directions. The vibration direction of the ordinary ray is always parallel to the trace of the pinacoidal cleay- age. The extraordinary ray vibration direction usually is not parallel or symmetrical to the other cleavages unless the section happens to be cut perpendicular to fone of the symmetry planes. ‘The reader is cautioned that the examples described +here are representative of the habit and cleavage found Wd € if rotated 90°. The interference figure will be an off-center figure with many tetragonal and hexagonal minerals, but by ‘no means include all possibilities. However, by study ing these examples, and sketching in the same mam ner used here, it should be possible to get a good idea of the vibration directions and cleavages for any sec- tion through a crystal. Pleochroism Pleochroism, or change of color on rotation in plane Tight, occurs when the extraordinary and ordinary rays are absorbed differently on passing through a mineralaerals are usually pleochroic. To describe the ple: differently. 1, Cross the polarizers (insert the upper polarizer) and search the sample for a grain that shows the Jowest-order interference color, The optic axis is ertical, $0 all the light passes as ordinary ray These are grains such as those shown in Figures 6.10b, 6.116, and 6,12. Uncross the polarizers (remove the upper polarizer) and note the color of the grain. This color is the color of the ordinary ray. Because there is no ex- traordinary ray present, the grain should remain the same color on rotation of the stage. 4. Cross the polarizers and search the sample for a train that shows the highestorder interference color. The optic axis is horizontal, and both ordi- nary and extraordinary rays are present. These are rains such as those shown in Figures 6.10c, 6.11¢, and 6.12c. 4, Uncross the polarizers. This grain should show the ‘maximum change of color as the stage is rotated. The extraordinary ray color differs from the ordi- nary ray color, and it is seen when the grain is in ‘one of its extinction positions (check by crossing, the polarizers). In Figures 6.10c, 6.11c, and 6.12c, the grains are oriented to display the color of the © ray in plane light (lower polarizer B-W). If ro~ tuted 90° to place the € vibration direction E-W, the grains would display the color of the € ray Grains cut in a random direction such as those shown in Figures 6.10d-f, 6.11d, and 6.12d display the color of the w ray in plane light when the © vie ‘ration is parallel to the lower polarizer as shown. If ‘ated 90° to place the e’ vibration direction parallel 'o the lower polarizer, they will display colors inter- Mediate between w and €. Interference Figure @ 65 Interference Figure ‘The interference figure provides the basis for deter- mining whether an anisotropic mineral is uniaxial or biaxial and also for determining the optic sign. The following procedure is used to obtain an interference figure, 1. Focus on a mineral grain with the high-power objective 2, Flip in the auxiliary condenser, refocus if needed, and open the aperture diaphragm. 3. Cross the polarizers (insert the upper polarizer) 4, Insert the Bertrand lens or remove the ocular and. look down the microscope tube. The image seen with the ocular removed is smaller but somewhat crisper. Instead of an image of the grain, the inter- ference figure consisting of a pattern of interfer~ cence colors and dark bands appears near the top surface of the objective lens. The nature ofthe pat- tem depends on the orieptation ofthe mineral grain Opric Axis INTERFERENCE FIGURE If the optic axis of the mineral grain is perpendicular to the stage, the interference figure looks like the im~ age in Figure 6.13. It consists of a black cross super- ‘imposed on circular bands of interference colors. The ‘ross is formed of black bars called isogyres. The point in the center where the isogyres cross is called the melatope, and it marks the emergence of the op- tic axis. The interference colors increase in order out ward from the melatope. Those nearest the melatope are low first order. Each band of color is called an isochrome. Ifthe optic axis of the mineral is vertical, the interference figure does not move or change as the ‘soghrome Melatope Figure 613 Uniaxial optic axis interference Figure,66 © Uniaxial Optics stage is rotated, The grains shown in Figures 6.10b, 6.11b, and 6.12b are oriented (o produce optic axis. terference figures, Formation of Isochromes ‘The formation of isochromes is illustrated in Figure 6.14. The auxiliary condenser ofthe substage provides strongly convergent light that passes through the min- eral and is collected by the objective lens. Light fol- lowing path 1 (parallel to the optic axis) is not split {nto two rays and exits the mineral with zero retarda tion to form the melatope. Light following path 2 ex- Periences moderate retardation because the value of nis close to n,. Light following path 3 (at a greater ingle to the optic axis) encounters higher birefrin- ‘and must traverse a longer path through the g (a) 1 Objective Tens: i) ti Ausilary condensi lens a mineral, so its retardation is proportionately greate, Because the optic axis is vertical and the optical prop. erties are symmetric about the optic axis, rings of equal retardation are produced about the melatope The number of isochromes visible within the field of view depends on the birefringence and thickness of the sample, Samples that are thick or that have high birefringence show more isochromes than thin or low birefringence samples because retardation is a function of both thickness and birefringence. The number of iso, chromes in the microscope image also depends on the numerical aperture ofthe objective lens. Lenses of high rumerical aperture can accept a larger cone of light, more of the higher-order isochromes are visible ‘The paths of light rays as they pass through the min. eral plate are somewhat simplified here, In fact, each Figure 6.14 Formation of isochromes, (a) Light follow ing path 1 experiences zero retardation because it fol lows the optic axis (OA). Paths 2 and 3 produce pro. gressively higher retardation because both birefringence and distance through the sample increase as the inelina tion of the light path to the optic axis increases. (b) Op. tical properties are symmetric about the optic axis, so rings of equal retardation are produced around. the ‘melatope (M). Rings of interference colors are produced when the light passes through the upper polarizers the or- der of color increases outward from the melatope. ais68 % Uniaxial Optics es can be used to determine which slow. The procedure is as follows of the accessory pl is fast and which (Figure 6.16) 1, Obtain an optic axis interference figure, observe the terference colors, and note the retardation asso- ciated with those colors, 2, Insert the accessory plate into the slot above the ‘objective lens. 3. Observe the interference colors. In two quadrants, the retardations add; in the other two quadrants, the ‘etardations cancel. Refer to Chapter 5 to refresh your memory on use of the accessory plate and the interference color chart (Plate 1), Figure 6.16 Determining optic sign. A indicates that retar- dations add and C indicts that retardation cael when ‘accessory plate is inserted. (a) Optically posit erase (a) Optically positive. (6) Op- 44. Imerpretation, Consider the southeast quadrant, this quadrant, the ordinary ray vibrates NE-SW parallel tothe isochromes and the extraordinary ry vrbrates NW-SE. The slow ray vibration direction Of the accessory plate is oriented NE~SW, parallel fo the ordinary ray vibration direction. If the reta. ations add in the southeast quadrant, the ordinary ray must be the slow ray and the mineral is opi cally negative, If the retardations cancel in the SSutheast quadrant, the ordinary ray must be the fas, ray and the mineral is optically postive, Because the vibration directions of « and are the same in the northwest quadrant, its colors will change the same as the southeast quadrant. Inthe northeast and southwest quadrants, the extraordinary ray vibration direction is parallel to the slow ray vibration ofthe accessory plate; so if the retardations added inthe northeast and southwest quadrants, they will cancel in the northwest and southeast quadrants and vice versa. Either the gypsum or mica plate may be used to de- termine the optic sign. Assume that the interference figure displays a first-order gray isochrome indicating ‘a retardation of 200 nm. If the gypsum plate is serted, the interference color will change to secon¢- ‘order green (200 nm + 550 nm = 750 nm) if the retar- dations add, or change to first-order yellow (550 am ~ 200 nm = 350 nm) if the retardations cancel. With the ‘mica plate, addition or subtraction of 147 nm of re- tardation will change first-order gray to first-order yel low or low first-order gray, respectively. ‘If the interference figure has numerous isochromes, it may be desirable to use the quartz wedge to deter- mine the optic sign. As the wedge is inserted thin end. first, the isochromes move (Figure 6.17). In the quad- rants where the retardations cancel, the isochromes move outward as lower-order colors from near the melatope displace higher-order colors. In the quad rants where the retardations add, the isochromes move in toward the melatope as higher-order colors displace lower-order colors. With the accessory plate inserted, the isogyres adopt the interference color corresponding to the retardation of the accessory plate. Because the isogyres are areas of extinction, only one ray vibrating parallel 10 the lower polarizer direction is present. This ray is split ‘on entering the accessory plate and develops the re tardation of the accessory plate.| coe just as it wa cae a 611d, Flash Ficurs70 © Uniaxial Optics (a) of the n {quence 110 IV. The isogytes remain roughly par isochromes are concave outward. The color in the cen- ter of the figure is the color normally displayed by the mineral between crossed polarizers. In the quadrants that contain the optic axis, the colors decrease away from the center because the birefringence for inclined rays is less than For rays passing at right angles to the optic axis. The decreased birefringence more than ‘compensates for the slightly longer path length for the inclined rays (Figure 6.20). In the remaining quad- rants, the interference colors increase away from the center of the figure, ‘The number of isochromes depends on the ness and birefringence of the mineral. Thick or high- birefringence minerals display more isochromes than thin or low birefringence minerals, If the central part of the figure is first-order white, the quadrants con- taining the optic axis will be first-order gray and the ‘other quadrants will be pale first-order yellow. ‘The grains shown in Figures 6.10c, 6.1 1c, and 6,12c are oriented to produce flash figures. ‘The optic sign can be determined from a flash fig- ure as follows. m1 igure 6.19 Off-center optic axis figure: melstope oft the fleld of view. (a) The isogyre gets wider away from the position atope (M). (b) Clockwise rotation of the stage causes the isogyres to sweep across the field of view in the e- lel to the cross hairs nd move in the direction indicated by the arrows 1. Rotate the stage until the isogyre fills the field of view. The optic axis is now either parallel to the IN-S or to the E-W cross hair. 2. Slowly rotate the stage and note the quadrants from which the isogyres leave the field of view. The op tic axis will be entering the quadrants from which the isogyres exited. If the isogyres left the field from the NW and SE ‘quadrants, continue rotating the stage to make a = tal of 45°. This places the optic axis NW-SE. I the isogyres left the field from the NE and SW ‘quadrants, reverse the direction of rotation so th they leave from the NW and SE quadrant, then ‘continue rotating in the new direction to make a tal of 45°. Near the center of the field of view. the extraordinary ray will vibrate NW-SE parallel © the optic axis, and the ordinary ray will vibrate NE-SW. Insert the accessory plate (slow NE-SW) and n0l@ the change in interference color. S. Interpretation. With the optic axis oriented NW SE, a shown in view IIl of Figure 6.20a, in the co 3, 4.Interference Figure @ 7 Figure 620 Uni ash igure. a) The mine eae derived in the72 % Uniaxial Optics Ject grainy in this orientation when measuring 7 in grain mount Selecting Grains to Give Interference Figures Optic Axis FIGURE ‘The optic axis figure, whether centered or slightly off center, is normally used to determine whether a min- ral is uniaxial, and if so, its optic sign. The melatope should be in the field of view to be certain that the min- eral is uniaxial. The optic axis of suitably oriented grains must be nearly vertical, so these grains display 2er0 or low birefringence, They are recognized as follows. Gs Arrange the microscope for orthoscopicillumina- tion (auxiliary condenser removed), use the low- or mmedium-power objective, and cross the polarizers. (Q)Scan the slide for a grain of the mineral with the Jowest interference color, of ideally, for one which remiins dark on rotation. Grains shown in Figures 6.10b, 6.116, and 6.12b are appropriately oriented. 3>Obiain an interference Hgure (high-power objec- tive, auxiliary condenser inserted, and Bertrand Jens inserted) If the grain is properly oriented, the ielatope will be in the field of view. If not, look for another grain, FLASH FIGURE A grain that produces a flash figure has its optic axis parallel to the microscope stage. It experiences max- imum birefringence and displays the highest-order in- terference color of all grains ofthe mineral in the sam- ple. The grains shown in Figure 6.10c, 6.L1c, and 6.12c are oriented to yield flash figures. Determining Indices of Refraction Grain Mount The procedures used to measure indices of refraction in grain mounts are essentially the same as those de- scribed for isotropic minerals. The indices of oil and mineral are compared using relief, Becke line, and oblique illumination methods. However, two different indices of refraction must be measured, n and ne, so it is necessary to select grains that are oriented so that the light passes as only one or the other of the two rays. Determining ns Finding the index of the ordinary ray is easier because one of the rays passing through every grain isan or dinary ray with index my. There are two ways of se. lecting and orienting grains so that all ofthe ight pas ing through them is ordinary ray 1. Cross the polarizers and search for a grain whose optic axis is vertical. As has been described ear. lier, this grain has the lowest-order interference colo, and remains uniformly dark with stage rotation. All of the light passing through the mineral is ordinary ray with index n,. To confirm that the optic axis is actu. ally vertical, obtain an interference figure (high-power ‘objective, auxiliary condenser, and Bertrand lens) De. termine the optic sign if that has not already been done If the optic axis is vertical, the melatope will be in the center of the field of view. Uncross the polarizers, re tum to the orthoscopic arrangement, and compare the index 7, to the index of the oil. Repeat with new grain mounts, using the bracketing technique described in Chapter 3, until a match between oil and 7, is ob- tained, The disadvantage of this method is that itre- ‘quires that grains be fortuitously oriented so that the ‘optic axis is vertical. Grains in this orientation are sometimes difficult to find. 2. Every grain in the sample has one ray with in dex mig. The trick is to rotate the stage so that all the light coming through is ordinary ray. The index ean then be compared with the oil. Three methods can be used alone of in conjunction with each other to place the w vibration direction parallel to the lower pol izer vibration direction. 4, Identify which of the two rays is the @ ray with one of the accessory plates. If the min- eral is positive, «is the fast ray. If itis neg: ative, « is the slow ray. Identify the slow ray and fast ray vibration directions using the #: cessory plate as described in Chapter 5 and place the ray corresponding to the ordinary Tay parallel to the lower polarizer vibration direction. >. Scan the mount for a grain with low inte ference colors so that the optic axis is ree sonably close to vertical. Obtain an interfer ence figure. In most cases, it will be # off-center optic axis figure, Rotate the sla Until an isogyre is superimposed on the eShair that is perpendicular to the lower polare izer (Figure 6.21). Return to orthoscople te Jumination (remove Bertrand lens and auxil, iary condenser) and remove the upper polarizer, The ordinary ray vibration diree, tion is now oriented parallel to the lower po. farizer. AS seen in the discussion of the ay terference figure, the vibration directions of the light in the center of the field of view are the same as the vibration directions found in the mineral in orthoscopie illumination, ¢, Ifthe mineral is pleochroic, the w ray vibra- tion direction can be identified by observing the color. In plane light, rotate the stage until the mineral has the color of the « ray deter- mined as described in an earlier section, The Indices of Refraction @ 73 ‘© ray can be placed exactly parallel to the lower polarizer by crossing the polarizers and otatng slightly to get complete extinetion. Determining n, Accurate measurement of me requires grains oriented 0 that the optic axis is horizontal, If grains are in any ‘ther orientation, only a value of ne’, intermediate be- ‘ween ne and n, can be measured. The technique is { select grains with the opti axis horizontal and then ‘otate the stage so the eray vibration direction is par- allel to the lower polarizer. The procedure to do this oe 4. Scan the grain mount for grains that show the highest interference colors with polarizers cro: ‘These are grains with the optic axis close to! tal. To confirm that the axis is horiz74 ® Uniaxial Optics if the mineral is optically positive, n, has the high index. If even a few grains show indices higher than the oil, then itis clear that n, is higher than the oil and there is little to be gained by searching out grains with the optic axis horizontal. To enable a large number of grains to be quickly scanned, the oblique illumination ‘method usually is more convenient than the Becke line ‘method. ‘Time can be saved by determining the birefringence (ng = ne) of the mineral, as described earlier, and com- puting an approximate value for n, based on knowl- ‘edge of rand the optic sign. Oils can then be selected accordingly. A further expedient is to make compar- isons for both n,, and ni from the same grain mounts, particularly if the birefringence is relatively low. ‘Some minerals with good cleavages lie flat on their cleavage surfaces so that very few grains are oriented With the optic axis horizontal. This makes it difficult (0 obtain reliable values for n. Several methods can be used to get around this problem. The first isto pre- pare the grain mounts with more grains to increase the ‘odds of having some correctly oriented. The second is to prepare slides to hold the grains in random orien- tation, Finely ground glass may be added to the mount to prop up some of the recalcitrant grains, or gelatin- covered slides may be used. The third method is to calculate the value of nc from values of n,’ (Bloss, 1961 after Tobi, 1956; Loupekine, 1947). The calcu- lation method is the least desirable but may be useful in identifying carbonates. THIN SECTION It is not practical to accurately measure indices of re- fraction in thin section, However, estimates can be made by using the Becke line to compare the indices of an unknown mineral with the index of the cement or other known minerals in the thin section and by ex- amining the relief. It is generally more successful to compare the indices of the unknown mineral with the ‘cement, rather than with another anisotropic mineral ‘whose indices vary depending on orientation, To make the comparison, grains need to be oriented so that only the ordinary ray or only the extraordinary ray is pre- sent. Grains in suitable orientations can be selected us- ing the same techniques employed for grain mounts, SPINDLE STAGE The spindle stage (Appendix A) allows a single grain of the unknown mineral to be rotated about a hori zontal axis. This makes it possible to place the optic axis of a uniaxial mineral horizontal so that accurate values of m, and me can be measured according to the following procedure. 1. With orthoscopic illumination, rotate the spindle until the grain shows maximum birefringence anj the highest interference color. The optic axis shoul now be horizontal. Change to conoscopic illumination (hil jective, auxiliary condenser, Bertrand lens, crossed polarizers) and obtain an interference figure. When properly oriented, a symmetrical flash figure is ob- served. Rotate the microscope stage to place the op- tic axis at right angles to the lower polarizer, using the technique described in an earlier section on mes suring indices in grain mount (Figure 6.20), Retum to orthoscopic illumination. The grain should be in an extinction position. If itis not, ro tate the few degrees needed to make it extinct, U ‘cross the polarizers and compare the index n, to the index of the immersion oil using the Becke line method, 4. Rotate the stage 90° so that the optic axis is paral lel the lower polarizer and all the light passesas | ‘ray. Compare the index ng to the index of the im mersion oil. 5, Remove the index oil from the spindle stage wsing a piece of blotting paper and repeat these proce- dures using new index oils until matches are ob- tained for n, and ng. Use the bracketing techniques described in Chapter 3. 2 This procedure presumes that it is already knows that the mineral is uniaxial. If this is not known, ob- tain an interference figure to determine whether the ‘mineral is uniaxial or biaxial, Frequently the grain wil be mounted on the spindle in an orientation that Wil allow a usable interference figure to be obtained. tit doubt, proceed as though the mineral is biaxial (Cha ter 7). If two of the three indices of refraction me sured using the biaxial technique are the same, the mineral is uniaxial and the two indices that are same are equal ton. An alternate procedure is amine the unknown mineral in a conventional gt! ‘mount or a thin section to determine whether itis axial or biaxial, then use the spindle stage (© a rately measure the indices of refraction, Bloss (158 describes a more precise method of determining iilCHAPTER 7 Biaxial Optics Itis useful at this point to compare crystallographic and optical properties in isotropic, uniaxial, and bi- axial minerals, Isotropic minerals, which belong in the isometric crystal system, are all highly symmetric and display the same chemical bonding and crystal struc- ture in all directions. The unit cell has the same di ‘mension along all three crystallographic axes, and only ‘one index of refraction is necessary to describe the op- tical properties for monochromatic light. Uniaxial minerals, which belong in the tetragonal and hexagonal crystal systems, are less symmetric and display the same chemical bonding and crystal struc- ture in all directions at right angles to the ¢ erystallo- ‘graphic axis but different structure and bonding in other directions. To describe their crystallographic proper- ties, itis necessary to specify two unit cell dimensions: fone along the ¢ axis, the other at right angles. To de- scribe the optical properties, it is similarly necessary to specify two indices of refraction, me and na, Biaxial minerals include the orthorhombic, mono- clinic, and triclinic erystal systems, They are less sym- ‘metric than uniaxial minerals and vary in crystal struc {ure and chemical bonding in all directions, To describe their crystallographic properties, itis necessary to spec- ify the lengths of the unit cell along all three crystal- lographie axes. Similarly, it is necessary to specify three different indices of refraction. Various conven. tions have been used to identify the three principal in- dices. One of the more popular is a, f, and +. While there is precedent for using this nomenclature, itis ig- hnored here so that all indices of refraction are identi. fied with the symbol » and so that the symbols for the indices are not confused with the angles between the 76 crystal axes, which are usually identified as a, 8, and ‘The convention in this book is to identify the three ices mq, py aNd Ny, WHETE Na 90° OPTICALLY NEGATIVE: 2V. > 90°, 2V, < 90° This nomenclature is particularly useful in describing optical data for minerals that change from optically positive to negative as the chemical composition changes, The uniaxial indicatrixes may be considered special ceases of the biaxial indicatrix. If n = ng, the Z axis is the optic axis, the X-Y plane is the circular section, and the optic sign is uniaxial positive (cf. Figure 6.4a), If ng = ny, the X axis is the optic axis, the Y-Z plane is the circular section, and the optic sign is uniaxial negative (cf. Figure 6.46). MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS ‘The equation for the indicatrix is conveniently ex- pressed as 12 where x, », and z are the coordinates for some point on the indicatrix surface. The length of any radius (n') index of refraction for light vibrating parately, and whose wave normal is perpendicular quation is the the radius radius. It is given by the comp 78 where p and ¢ are the angles shown in Figure 7.2 This is based on the equation of a triaxial ellipsoid ey, pressed in polar coordinates. Note that if m= np, o- hip = My the indicatrix is uniaxial and Equation 7.2 an be rewritten to give Equation 6.1, if allowance jy made for the different manner in which the angles ae defined in the two equations. ‘The relationship between the optic angle and the principal indices of refraction is given by the equation (Wright, 1951) cos? V 4 where V. is half the angle 2V.. ‘A simple nomogram, based on Equation 7.4, de vised by Mertie (1942) (Figure 7.3) also can be used ‘to determine 2V from the principal indices. Indices of refraction are plotted along the vertical axis and 2V is plotted along the horizontal axis. The value for n, is plotted on the left side of the diagram and n, is pot ted on the right side, A line is drawn between these Zz Figure 7.2 Angles used to describe the orientation of 818 dom radius (n') of the indicatrix.Use of the Indicatrix @ 79 avy iso , 000 0 © wo My % 9100 a 2, 1.950 1.900 1.850 1.800 1.750 1.700 1.650 Index of refraction 1600 A I L I I 1450 ¥ ran aaa in t © <—— Ma -2V (degrees) Figure 7.3 The Mertie diagram IF three of the values a nc ‘example shown here, g = 1.500, ng = 1.550, and my ‘ally positive. : ‘wo points, The value of np projected to where it in- and fast waves, and the ray path tees the linea point AThe value of 2V is ead cedueisused from the bottom of the diagram directly below A. To. C 5 rrough tt avoid marking the chart, a straightedge can be insiead of drawing lines. For convenience, values of 2V, and 2V. also are shown. Note that th the variables in I80 © Biaxial Optics Figure 7.4 Dete +s of refraction and vibration directions given the wave normal direction. (a) Indicatix wi ‘wave normal (WN) and elliptical section perpendicular to the wave normal. The axes of the elliptical section (1, and ny indicate the vibration directions and indices of refraction of the slow and fast rays. (b) Ray directions associated with th: ‘wave normal, Tangents to the indicatrix are constructed through the wave normal and parallel to the axes of the elliptic section, The points of tangency a and b indicate where the slow and fast rays emerge from the indicatrix cause both tangent lines are parallel to the vibra- tion directions they are also perpendicular to the normal. Note that both rays behave as ex- traordinary rays The Biot-Fresnel rule also may be used to deter- mine the vibration directions associated with a wave normal (Figure 7,5). Two planes are constructed through the indicatrix: One plane contains the wave normal and one of the optic axes, the other contains the wave normal and the second optic axis. The vi- bration directions for light waves traveling along the wave normal bisect the angles between the two planes. While it is possible to calculate values of na’ and nny! for a random wave normal direction through the indieatrix, that undertaking will not be pursued here. ‘The graphical procedures that illustrate the principles involved serve current purposes quite adequately. We will examine the behavior of light passing through a mineral plate in four cases: normal incidence parallel to one of the principal axes of the indieatrix, py ae sag Boral inidenee pall! to an optic ais nonal it~ Garay) aaa wists te ened NIE! cidence in a random direction, and inclined incidence. the angles between planes constructed from the optic 2 With normal incidence, the wave normals are not re (OA) to the wave normal. ae ae iFure 7.6 Normal incidence parallel to the Y indieatix AAR The two rays vibrate parallel to the X and Z indicatix fies and have indices na and ny, fated, so the wave normals for slow and fast rays are yunallel in the mineral, With inclined incidence, the ‘ave normals forthe two rays are refracted but by dif- ferent amounts, because the slow and fast rays have diferent indices of refraction. Use of the Indicatrix @ 81 NORMAL INCIDENCE PARALLEL TO AN INDICATRIX Axis Figure 7.6 illustrates the case where the incident light Passes parallel to the Y indicatrix axis, The indicatrix 's situated so that itis cut in half by the bottom sur- face of the mineral. Because this elliptical section through the indicatrx is perpendicular to the wave nor: ‘mal, its axes, which are n, and ng along the Z and X axes, respectively, give the indices of refraction and vibration directions for the two rays. Ifthe construc- tion is done to find the ray paths, it will be found that they coincide with the wave normals, NorMAt INCIDENCE PARALLEL TO AN Optic Axis Figure 7.7 illustrates the case where the mineral has been cut so that one of the optic axes is perpendicu- lar tothe top and bottom surfaces of the mineral. The section through the indicatrix is one of the circular sections, indicating that light waves propagate along the optic axis with equal velocity regardless of vibra- tion direction and have index rs, which is the radius ‘of the circular section, A unique feature about a biaxial optic axis is that (b)82% Biaxial Optics unless the light vibrates parallel to the optic nor (Y-axis), the ray and wave normal do not coincide. I beam of unpolarized light enters the mineral, it forms into a hollow cone of light in the mineral and a cyli der of light after exiting the top of the minral plate. The explanation of this phenomenon, called conical refraetion, can be found by determining the ray path associated with each different vibration di- fection of the incident light, As described earlier, this is done by constructing a tangent to the indicarix that goes through the wave norma Vibration direction of the light, The ray paths for three different vibration directions are shown in Figure 7.7a, In each case, the wave normal is parallel to the optic axis, but the associated rays are deflected—except for ray 1, which vibrates parallel to the optic normal. The pattern of vibration directions as seen from above is shown in Figure 7.7b. The example shown in Figure 7.7 is greaily exaggerated for illustration purposes. With the thicknesses and birefringence usually en- countered, the radius of the cone is actually quite small. For practical purposes, the light can be consid- cred to behave the same as light following the optic axis of uniaxial minerals which cannot display coni- cal refraction, NORMAL INCIDENCE IN ‘8 RANDOM DIRECTION Normal incidence into a crystal plate cut in a random direction is shown in Figure 7.8. Because the light is normally incident to the bottom surface of the crystal plate, the wave normals are not refracted. The section through the indicatrix is an ellipse with axes equal to tng’ and ny!, where Ma

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