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Complex Functions
In this Lecture we shall discuss the basic properties of functions of one complex
variable.
2.1
e =
X
zn
n=0
n!
=1+
z
z2 z3
+
+
+ ,
1! 2!
3!
(1)
or equally well, by Eulers Formula, as ez = ex (cos y+i sin y). We shall see later
that the series above converges absolutely for all z C, therefore f (z) = ez
can be defined for every z C (i.e., we can choose S = C).
Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions For complex z, we define
cos z =
eiz + eiz
,
2
sin z =
eiz eiz
,
2i
(2)
which agrees with the definition for z real in Eulers Formula. By analogy with
the real case, we define
cosh z =
ez + ez
,
2
1
sinh z =
ez ez
.
2
(3)
(4)
Now, given any complex number may be expressed in the form x + iy, we may
write a complex function f as
f (z) = <(f (z)) + i=(f (z)) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y).
(5)
2.2
v = 2cy,
from which we may eliminate the variable y to obtain the equation for a curve in
v2
the u v plane (equaivalently, the w-plane). Doing this gives us u = c2 2 ,
4c
which is a leftward-opening parabola with vertex (c2 , 0), intersecting the v axis
at (0, 2c2 ).
Example 4. Using the results of the previous examples, determine which regions,
if any, of the z-plane are mapped to the upper half of the w plane under the
mapping w = z 2 .
First, we identify the upper half of the w-plane to be {w C : =(w) 0}.
An element z = rei maps to w = r2 e2i in the upper half plane if and only if the
argument of w lies between 0 and . That is,
0 + 2k 2 + 2k
k k +
2
(k Z)
(k Z),
which means that z must lie in the first or third quadrant in order to map to the
upper half plane (plug in k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . to see this).
3
Alternatively, we could use the (x, y) and (u, v) coordinates to solve this
problem as follows: w lies in the upper half plane if and only if v = 2xy 0. But
this is true only when x and y are either both 0 or both 0, that is, when z
lies in the first or third quadrant.
Proposition 1. The following kinds of transformations all send straight lines to
straight lines and circles to circles:
1. Translations w = z + c, for complex constant c
2. Rotations w = ei z for a real constant
3. Dilations w = rz for a real, nonzero constant r
4. Linear or Affine Maps w = z + c for complex constants , c with 6= 0.
5. Complex Conjugation w = z
Proof. Translations, rotations and dilations all obviously satisfy that they map
lines to lines and circles to circles (convince yourself geometrically!). To prove
linear mappings also satisfy this property, we rewrite = rei and observe that
z +c can be written as a composition of a dilation followed by a rotation followed
by a translation, reading left to right:
z 7 rz 7 rei z 7 rei z + c.
(6)
z
1
z
7 2 = .
2
|z|
|z|
z
(7)
The first mapping is inversion about the unit circle and the second is complex conjugation; it is an instructive exercise to draw a picture of each of these mappings and
determine where various regions of the plane are mapped (e.g., in the first quadrant,
the interior of unit circle maps to the exterior of unit circle in the fourth quadrant).
1
Consequently we can write down how z 7 w = maps the punctured plane C\{0}
z
to itself (or C {} to itself).
4
1
maps
z
1. circles not through 0 to circles not through 0,
Proposition 2. z 7 w =
(a, b, c, d R).
(8)
(9)
But comparing this equation directly with (8), we see it must be a circle in the
w-plane (equivalently, the (u, v)-plane) if and only if d 6= 0 and it is a line if and
only if d = 0. Furthermore, it passes through the origin if and only if a = 0,
which proves the Proposition.
Example 5. Determine how the (horizontal) line y = k is transformed under
1
u
v
z 7 . In this case, we may substitute x = 2
,y = 2
into the equa2
z
u +v
u + v2
tion y = k to find
k(u2 + v 2 ) + v = 0.
(10)
1
This is simply a circle in the w-plane centered at 0, 1
of radius 2k
.
2k
5
2.3
M
obius Transformations
az + b
cz + d
(11)
az + b
, the solving for , gives us
cz + d
+ (cz + d) = az + b
a
ad
and = b .
c
c
dw b
.
cw + a
(13)
a + b
,
c + d
b
1= ,
d
6
i =
a+b
.
c+d
(14)
From the second equation we have d = b so we may eliminate the other variables
in the remaining equations to find a = ib and c = ib. Hence the Mobius
transformation is given by
z 7
ibz + b
z+i
=
.
ibz + b
z + i
(15)
Note that under this transformation, the real axis is mapped to the unit circle
(R+ 7 lower semicircle and R 7 upper semicircle), and the upper-half of the
z-plane is mapped the exterior of this circle (first quadrant 7 lower exterior and
second quadrant 7 upper exterior).
It is a harder exercise to show that given any three distinct points z1 , z2 , z3 in
the z-plane, and any three points w1 , w2 , w3 in the w-plane, there exists a Mobius
transformation sending zj 7 wj for each j = 1, 2, 3. This transformation is unique if
we specify an orientation for the curve containing the three given points (or for the
curve containing the prescribed points, but not both).