Field Notes and Observations on the Highland Theraphosid Spider

Field Notes and Observations on the Highland Theraphosid Spider

Poecilotheria subfusca Pocock (Araneae: Mygalomorphae) From Sri Lanka, with
Particular Reference to Habitat Destruction, Deforestation and Low Temperatures
Encountered

Andrew M. Smith, Paul Carpenter and Jon Paul Lamoureux

Key Words: Theraphosidae, Poecilotheria subfusca, Pocock, Sri Lanka, Nuwara Eliya,
highlands, montane forest, deforestation, habitat destruction, coffee, tea, high altitude,
temperature, illegal firewood collecting.

Abstract

The following field notes and observations are based on a three day study of the
secondary scrub forest and the remnant montane forests, on the high hillsides above
the Hill Station town of Nuwara Eliya (6168'/1880m) in the Central Province of Sri
Lanka, in September 2000. The study is intended to draw attention to the perilous
state of the habitat of the theraphosid spider Poecilotheria subfusca Pocock and the
need for a more detailed survey.

The authors observed that following 150 years of intensive agricultural activity,
much of it instigated by the British during the Colonial era, the hillside slopes, rising up
to and above the town of Nuwara Eliya (6168'/1880m) are densely carpeted with tea
plantations, which cease at about 6300' (1920m) and are replaced by secondary scrub
forest and small patches of remnant montane forest. The survival of this high altitude
cloak of secondary scrub forest and remnant montane forest, can thank its continued
existence on the failure of the coffee plantations in 1875, with the introduction, from
Indonesia, of the coffee blight – Hemileia vastatrix – commonly referred to as coffee
rust.

On closer investigation, the authors were concerned to note the perilous condition of the
forest, which was encountered above the tea line. Primarily due to illegal firewood collection
by small gangs of labourers from the nearby town. Dead trees are immediately felled and
cleared and live trees of reasonable girth are purposely ringed and mortally maimed, thus
rendering them only fit for firewood. Inevitably this illegal activity has denied the arboreal
theraphosid spider Poecilotheria subfusca a plentiful supply of suitable retreats in dead trees
– which are believed to be their preferred habitat. Instead it has forced them to utilise natural
breaches in a wide range of young, narrow girthed trees, which the authors believe, fail to
offer the copious retreats found in beetle-infested old wood, necessary for the survival of
spiderlings and juveniles. It was noted by the authors that the Poecilotheria colony
observed, was found to be fragmented and widely dispersed and that the large dead trees
observed by Kirk (1993) on these hillsides in August 1991, were long gone and had not

been replaced by natural progression.

The authors would also like to draw the reader’s attention to the low temperatures
experienced by the team during the period, late September – first noted by Kirk in

file:///C|/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mark/My%20Doc...y%20Web%20Sites/btsmembers/vol17no3/field_notes.htm (1 of 10) [22/10/2008 21:53:56]

Field Notes and Observations on the Highland Theraphosid Spider

1991 (Kirk 1993), when at 16:00 hours it was possible to see one’s breath and the
temperature recorded at 6800' (2072m) was 54°F. Meteorological records indicate
that even during the hottest period of the year, February to March temperatures rarely
exceed 71°F, which is the average temperature of London in July and August. In
September the minimum average temperature at dawn in Nuwara Eliya (6168'/1880m)
at 06:00 hours is 53°F – and at midday 67°F. The lowest recorded dawn temperature
in the region is 41°F. A crude method of judging the temperatures in the surrounding
hills is to take off one degree Fahrenheit for every 300'. Thus at 7000' (2133m), where
we located P. subfusca, one would expect to experience a minimum average of 41°
Fahrenheit.

The senior author believes it is likely, that a lack of awareness amongst

arachnoculturists concerning the natural habitat of Poecilotheria subfusca, and
particularly the low temperatures encountered by collectors, is one explanation why
the captive breeding of this spider has only met with limited success.

History
In 1895, Reginald Pocock of the British Museum of Natural History embarked upon an
examination of the Poecilotheria specimens in the museum collection (Pocock 1895). The
genus name Poecilotheria, had been proposed, ten years earlier by Eugene Simon in 1885,
to replace a genus called Scurria – which had been first described in 1850, but unfortunately
had been found by Simon to be previously occupied by a mollusc.

Pocock (1895) on examining the large collection of dried and spirited specimens from Sri
Lanka quickly realised that he had a problem – two species – one of which, was P. fasciata,
a historic species first described by Latreille in 1804. The original description was based on
a drawing from Seba’s 1734 Thesaurus – titled Aranea maxima ceilonica and Pocock
quickly realised that the drawing was of historical interest, but of limited scientific value. After
carefully examining the abdomen in the drawing he concluded that the species was similar
to material in the collection, which had on the underside of the femoral segments a distinct
pattern, “that was beautifully banded black and yellow.” The second set of material from Sri
Lanka was “uniform chocolate brown”. It was to be this material, collected by a Mr E. E.
Green from Pundaloya in the hills, ten miles to the north west of Nuwara Eliya, which
Pocock designated as the type material of Poecilotheria subfusca.

Introduction : Historical and economic reasons for the deforestation of the Nuwara Eliya
Highland region
The island of Sri Lanka is situated between 6 and 10 degrees north, immediately south of
India. Formerly known by its colonial name Ceylon, the island consists of a mountainous
interior and extensive surrounding plains – most of which are at sea level. The climate is
dominated by the Asiatic monsoon, a wind system that reverses direction at certain times of
the year. From April to November the winds blow steadily from the southeast and are moist
and rain bearing – reversing during the period from December to March/April when the
winds blow from the northeast, and although initially rain bearing, become increasingly dry
and hot during the latter part of this period.

In Sri Lanka, the South Western coastal plains and the central mountain region – the Central

file:///C|/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mark/My%20Doc...y%20Web%20Sites/btsmembers/vol17no3/field_notes.htm (2 of 10) [22/10/2008 21:53:56]

Field Notes and Observations on the Highland Theraphosid Spider

Highlands – are the wettest regions and the rainfall is greatest during the two periods April/
June and October/November. The Sri Lankan species of Poecilotheria in this Wet Zone may
be deemed to be P. smithi, in the hills west of Kandy, P. subfusca with a patchy distribution
throughout much of the central mountain region and P ornata in the hills and plains to the
south and south west of Nuwara Eliya. A fourth species, P. pederseni, can be found in the
drier, south coastal plain region. The Dry Zone in the north and north-eastern part of the
island is considerably drier - the main wet season being between October and January, and
the region would appear to be dominated throughout by the Dry Zone species P. fasciata.

The former British colonial hill station Nuwara Eliya is deemed by cartographers to be in
Zone 3 – above 4500' (1372m), on the 3rd Peneplain – 2700'-7000' (820-2134m) above sea
level. The town itself rests at 6168' (1880m), which is some 1130' (344m) above the capital
city of Colombo, 80 miles to the west on the coastal plains. The hills which dominate much
of the north-eastern and north-western side if the town, rise to 7000' (2134m) – and are
dominated in turn by a second range, Pdurutalagala, which reaches 8281' (2524m). The
town, under Colonial rule served two purposes – one as a commercial and recreational
centre for the coffee/tea and cinchona plantation white managerial staff (Planters), and as a
retreat for the families of the Colonial Administration during the long hot summers on the
south-western and northern plains.

In the 1820s the hillside ranges were thickly covered with deciduous forest on their lower
slopes and montane forest at 6500' (1981m). Much of the latter, during the morning, being
capped by cloud cover. Only within the nearby vicinity of the original Sinhalese settlement,
were there local indigenous agricultural terraces. This was to all change with the coming of
the British and coffee (Hobhouse 1985; Carefoot & Sprott 1969).

In 1835, 400 acres of Crown Land, in the central highland region had been sold to coffee
planters. In 1841, this figure had risen to 8000 acres. By 1871, 400,000 acres of hillside
deciduous and montane forest had been cleared in the Kandy and Nuwara Eliya region, and
in that year Ceylon exported 100 million pounds of coffee – an important cash crop for the
empire during a period of world recession.

Coffee bushes are best grown on steep, but accessible hillsides, up to 7000' (2134m) – the
higher regions producing the better quality beans. Consequently, if the bank and railway
driven, highland hillside coffee clearance programme had continued beyond the late 1870s,
it is highly likely that Poecilotheria species indigenous to the area would have been
eradicated, or forced into small remnant forest areas, which would not have supported long
term viable populations. It was then that the fates and nature came to their assistance.

Hemileia vastatrix – the coffee rust fungus, first struck in 1875, just as the costly Colombo/
Kandy railway spur was completed. In 1871, Ceylon exported 100 million pounds of coffee
annually – but by 1886 coffee production was down to 18 million pounds and by 1889, 5
million. By 1892, coffee production had ceased, which of course spelt financial disaster for
the British colony of Ceylon – not only for the planters. In 1886 the Oriental bank closed its
doors and thousands lost their deposits, but also the local Government, which had spent
millions developing the hinterland infrastructure. The Colonial Office/British Government

file:///C|/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mark/My%20Doc...y%20Web%20Sites/btsmembers/vol17no3/field_notes.htm (3 of 10) [22/10/2008 21:53:56]

Field Notes and Observations on the Highland Theraphosid Spider

acted quickly to save the Colony from bankruptcy – first arranging for the Bank of Rothschild
to secure loans and credit and then arranging technical assistance from the Botanical
Gardens Kew. By 1887, 400 of the original 1700 Planters had left, but those who remained
gambled everything and planted tea. In 1875, when the fungus first struck, there had been
only one thousand acres of tea in Sri Lanka – but that was about to change and in the
process of replanting, the highland species of the genus Poecilotheria were probably saved
from extinction.

Replanting, the Central Highlands of Sri Lanka with tea was an astonishing feat of
horticulture. Young plants were dispatched from Assam and nurtured in Kew’s satellite
gardens in Sri Lanka before being shipped by rail, upcountry into the hills. From 2500 to
4500 tea bushes were needed to plant an acre and in five years 300 thousand acres were
replanted. Thus 135 million tea plants had been grown, carried to a field and heeled in by
1882. It was an astonishing gamble, and one not over on planting, as it took an additional
five to six years before the bushes became productive.

The coming of tea and the destruction of the coffee crop by rust, ironically saved much of
the higher montane forest and created large tracts of highland scrub forest, a factor, which it
could be argued, ensured the survival Poecilotheria subfusca. The reasons behind, what
would initially appear to be a bizarre argument is that coffee trees are planted on both lower
and higher slopes – the best beans coming from trees planted between 6000 and 7000 feet
(1828-2134m). Tea on the other hand is best planted on the lower and middle slopes,
primarily due to the ongoing labour intensive picking process. The tea plantations usually
cease at 6300' (1920m), which of course meant that the higher slopes, 6500'+ (1981m+)
were abandoned from 1880 to the high altitude native plants and trees.

Plate 1: – Tea plantation at Nuwara Eliya - photo by Carpenter/Lamoureux.

file:///C|/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mark/My%20Doc...y%20Web%20Sites/btsmembers/vol17no3/field_notes.htm (4 of 10) [22/10/2008 21:53:56]

Field Notes and Observations on the Highland Theraphosid Spider

Nuwara Eliya (Plate 1) – Problems associated with present day illegal logging and
firewood collection

Throughout much of the last century the scrub and remnant montane forest remained as
largely undisturbed “jungle” above the plantations and although illegal collection of firewood
has always taken place, it was essentially an area reserved for small scale hunting by the
local economic elite. Unfortunately, accessibility, poverty and increasing population pressure
have meant that within the last thirty years, the forests have come under mounting social
economic pressure. When one first enters the area, the hillsides above the town, initially
appear to be carpeted by a solid cloak of dark green forest, which by 15:00 hours is masked
above 7000' (2134m) by thick cloud cover and often or not driving rain. Even in the dry
season, between February and May, 3-6 inches of rain fall each month. Once one has
embarked upon a hillside climb and cleared the terraces of tea bushes, it becomes quickly
apparent that much of the montane forest above the tea line is severely degraded. Well trod,
muddy foot tracks wind up the hillside, bracketed by large tracts of wild bamboo and
rhododendrons (escapees from long gone imperial gardens), as alien amongst the
indigenous trees, as the scarlet berries of the coffee plants - scrubby survivors of the rust.
The forest is a motley botanical collage of pristine remnant montane forest, tertiary
secondary scrub and alien domestic horticulture and yet, despite 150 years of
unprecedented deforestation, it has survived and by doing so has ensured the survival of the
Sri Lankan highland Poecilotheria species, P. subfusca (Plate 2) and P. smithi.

Plate 2: – Poecilotheria subfusca Pocock, 1895 - photo by Carpenter/Lamoureux.

The latest threat to the degraded forest is commercial illegal firewood collection. Illegal
firewood collecting has been going on since time immemorial, but within the last two
decades, timber is being commercially gathered by small gangs of moonlighters, who sell it

file:///C|/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mark/My%20Doc...y%20Web%20Sites/btsmembers/vol17no3/field_notes.htm (5 of 10) [22/10/2008 21:53:57]

Field Notes and Observations on the Highland Theraphosid Spider

to firewood merchants in the town centre. The timber is supposedly collected in commercial
coniferous forests, but the piles of broken branches indicate that it is locally and illegally
gathered. As late as 1991, photographs taken on the Kirk fieldtrip, indicate that the hills
above Nuwara Eliya were carpeted with both taller and broader trees. Kirk also noted that P.
subfusca was found in the hollow limbs of dead trees in what appeared to be family groups –
made up of a mixture of both adults and juveniles. In September 2000 Smith, Carpenter and
Lamoureux were unable to find a single dead tree in the region that Kirk indicated, and
noted with concern an absence of any large

living trees and a preponderance of young trees and saplings. On interviewing our guides
we discovered that illegal logging was common and that it was not an unusual practice to
ring a tree. This would entail stripping a substantial ring of bark from around the trunk of the
tree and when the tree had died, claiming it as firewood. Trees would also be vandalised or
simply be illegally felled and left to rot, before being claimed as wind falls. The end result
was that in September 2000, all of the Poecilotheria subfusca spiders, which we observed,
were found in trees with a girth of no more than 30-36 inches – the spiders utilising natural
breaches in the trunks as shelters.

Nuwara Eliya – notes on the low regional temperatures encountered

Nuwara Eliya is situated at 6168' (1880m) above sea level, in a surrounding arc of hills,
which initially rise to 7000' (2134m), and eventually 8281' (2524m) when one crests the
Pdurutalagala mountain range to the north of the town. The former British hill station itself,
has a minimum average annual temperature range, which month by month approximately
matches Birmingham. Start climbing and the temperature drops by 1° Fahrenheit for every
300' (90m) scaled. Thus at 7000' (2134m), in the montane tree line above the tea
plantations, one would expect in January to experience an average minimum temperature,
at 08:00 hours of 45°F (7°C) - February 41°F (5°C); March 43°F (6°C); April 46°F (8°C); May
50°F (10°C); June 52°F (11°C); July 52°F (11°C); August 51°F (10.5°C); September 50°F
(10°C); October 49°F (9.5°C); November 48°F (9°C); December 46°F (8°C). Some of the
lowest recorded temperatures during the last 100 years would reduce these figures by one
third. By 13:00 hours the temperature will have risen by approximately 20°F (~10°C) – which
would bring you into the top end of the 60s and early 70s °F (~20°C). For those of you who
are keeping the highland Poecilotheria species such as subfusca, smithi and possibly the
Indian species rufilata at 80°F (27°C) – think again.

Discussion
The intention behind the publication of these field notes and observations, was one of
drawing to the attention of arachnoculturists, the need to determine and understand the
physical requirements of a particular theraphosid spider – taking note of its habitat and
climate requirements in order to successfully rear and breed the material. With monsoon
theraphosid spiders for instance, it is highly likely that in order to induce successful and an
ongoing programme of mating, egg sac construction and maturation of young it is
necessary, at a given time of the year and for a given period of time, to lower tank
temperatures and increase humidity levels. It may then be necessary to raise temperatures
and reduce the humidity, during the egg sac and spiderlings phase. It should also be noted
that a drop in temperature at night and a steady increase from 07:00 hours, is again possibly

file:///C|/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mark/My%20Doc...y%20Web%20Sites/btsmembers/vol17no3/field_notes.htm (6 of 10) [22/10/2008 21:53:57]

Field Notes and Observations on the Highland Theraphosid Spider

desirable. The senior author would also argue that an understanding of the need for sound
ventilation is crucial when experimenting with artificial temperature and humidity levels.

At present, the captive breeding of P. subfusca (note – the production of egg sacs from
gravid females collected in the wild is not included in this category) has only met with
intermittent success in European breeding circles, as has in many cases the successful
maintenance of this spider in captivity. I would suggest that a study of the basic bionomic
needs of this spider could be a requisite for good husbandry. Which brings us to the need for
additional research and the publication of field notes by collectors. At this given time we are
still unsure in what specific periods of time – local time, moulting, mating, egg sac
construction and hatching take place, for most tropical monsoon tarantula spiders - and
consequently an understanding of the possible governing role of temperature and
precipitation in triggering a given behavioural response, in say breeding.

We need more information and more research projects, exploring and examining given
aspects of theraphosid behaviour. Which brings us to some of the exciting projects coming
out of Hiram College in the USA. The junior author, I note is Dr Sam Marshall –
consequently, I may be safe in presuming that it is this academic who is behind the
fascinating student projects, presented at the American Arachnological Society Meeting in
New Hampshire in July 2001 – abstracts of which were published in the AAS newsletter
(March 2002, No. 64). I will endeavour to summarise them in a forthcoming BTS journal.

More Photographs

file:///C|/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mark/My%20Doc...y%20Web%20Sites/btsmembers/vol17no3/field_notes.htm (7 of 10) [22/10/2008 21:53:57]

Field Notes and Observations on the Highland Theraphosid Spider

file:///C|/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mark/My%20Doc...y%20Web%20Sites/btsmembers/vol17no3/field_notes.htm (8 of 10) [22/10/2008 21:53:57]

Field Notes and Observations on the Highland Theraphosid Spider

References & Further Reading

Carefoot, G. L. & Sprott, 1969: Famine on the wind. Angus & Robinson, London.

file:///C|/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mark/My%20Doc...y%20Web%20Sites/btsmembers/vol17no3/field_notes.htm (9 of 10) [22/10/2008 21:53:57]

Field Notes and Observations on the Highland Theraphosid Spider

Hobhouse, H. 1985: Seeds of change. Sidgwick & Jackson, London.

Kirk, P. 1993: Shri Lanka revisited. Journal of the British Tarantula Society, 8 (4): 19-
25.

Kirk, P. J. 1996: A new species of Poecilotheria (Araneae: Theraphosidae) from Sri

Lanka. Journal of the British Tarantula Society, 12 (1): 20-30.

Kirk, P. J. 2001: A new species of Poecilotheria (Araneae: Theraphosidae) from Sri

Lanka. Journal of the British Tarantula Society, 16 (3): 77-88.

Pocock, R. I. 1895: On new and natural grouping of some of the Oriental genera of
Mygalomorphae, with descriptions of new genera and species. Annals and
Magazine of Natural History, ser. 6, 15: 165-185.

Pocock, R. I. 1899: The genus Poecilotheria: its habits, history, and species. Annals
and Magazine of Natural History, ser. 7, 3: 82-96.

Smith, A. M., Carpenter, P. & Lamoureux, J. P. 2001: Study notes on an interesting

example of habitat adaptation in the Sri Lankan theraphosid spider Poecilotheria
fasciata. Journal of the British Tarantula Society, 16 (2): 46-59.

file:///C|/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mark/My%20Doc...y%20Web%20Sites/btsmembers/vol17no3/field_notes.htm (10 of 10) [22/10/2008 21:53:57]