Hydraulicfracturing

Thefirsthydraulicfracturingtreatmentwaspumpedin1947onagaswelloperatedbyPanAmericanPetroleumCorp.intheHugotonfield.[1]KelpperWellNo.1,locatedinGrant
County,Kansas,wasalowproductivitywell,eventhoughithadbeenacidized.Thewellwaschosenforthefirsthydraulicfracturestimulationtreatmentsothathydraulicfracturing
couldbecompareddirectlywithacidizing.Sincethatfirsttreatmentin1947,hydraulicfracturinghasbecomeacommontreatmentforstimulatingtheproductivityofoilandgas
wells.

Contents
1Overview
2Objectives
3Candidateselection
4Developingdatasets
5Fracturetreatmentoptimization
6Fieldconsiderations
7Additionalterms
8References
9NoteworthypapersinOnePetro
10Noteworthybooks
11Onlinemultimedia
12Externallinks
13Seealso
14Pagechampions
15Category

Overview
Hydraulicfracturingistheprocessofpumpingfluidintoawellboreataninjectionratethatistoohighfortheformationtoacceptwithoutbreaking.Duringinjectiontheresistanceto
flowintheformationincreases,thepressureinthewellboreincreasestoavaluecalledthebreakdownpressure,thatisthesumoftheinsitucompressivestressandthestrength
(/Compressive_strength_of_rocks)oftheformation.Oncetheformationbreaksdown,afractureisformed,andtheinjectedfluidflowsthroughit.Fromalimitedgroupofactive
perforations,ideallyasingle,verticalfractureiscreatedthatpropagatesintwo"wings"being180apartandidenticalinshapeandsize.Innaturallyfracturedorcleatedformations,it
ispossiblethatmultiplefracturesarecreatedand/orthetwowingsevolveinatreelikepatternwithincreasingnumberofbranchesawayfromtheinjectionpoint.
Fluidnotcontaininganysolid(calledthepad)isinjectedfirst,untilthefractureiswideenoughtoacceptaproppingagent(/Propping_agents_and_fracture_conductivity).The
purposeoftheproppingagentistokeepapartthefracturesurfacesoncethepumpingoperationceases,thepressureinthefracturedecreasesbelowthecompressiveinsitustress
tryingtoclosethefracture.Indeepreservoirs,manmadeceramicbeadsareusedtoholdopenorpropthefracture.Inshallowreservoirs,sandisnormallyusedasthepropping
agent.

Objectives
Ingeneral,hydraulicfracturetreatmentsareusedtoincreasetheproductivityindexofaproducingwellortheinjectivityindexofaninjectionwell.Theproductivityindexdefinesthe
rateatwhichoilorgascanbeproducedatagivenpressuredifferentialbetweenthereservoirandthewellbore,whiletheinjectivityindexreferstotherateatwhichfluidcanbe
injectedintoawellatagivenpressuredifferential.
Therearemanyapplicationsforhydraulicfracturing.Hydraulicfracturingcan:
Increasetheflowrateofoiland/orgasfromlowpermeabilityreservoirs
Increasetheflowrateofoiland/orgasfromwellsthathavebeendamaged
Connectthenaturalfracturesand/orcleatsinaformationtothewellbore
Decreasethepressuredroparoundthewelltominimizesandproduction
Enhancegravelpackingsandplacement
Decreasethepressuredroparoundthewelltominimizeproblemswithasphaltineand/orparaffindeposition
Increasetheareaofdrainageortheamountofformationincontactwiththewellbore
Connectthefullverticalextentofareservoirtoaslantedorhorizontalwell.
Therecouldbeotheruses,butmostofthetreatmentsarepumpedforthesereasons.
Alowpermeabilityreservoirisonethathasahighresistancetofluidflow.Inmanyformations,chemicaland/orphysicalprocessesalterthereservoirrockovergeologictime.
Sometimes,thesediageneticprocessesrestricttheopeningsintherockandreducetheabilityoffluidstoflowthroughtherock.Lowpermeabilityrocksarenormallyexcellent
candidatesforstimulationbyhydraulicfracturing.
Regardlessofthepermeability,areservoirrockcanbedamagedwhenawellisdrilledthroughthereservoirandwhencasing(/Casing_and_tubing)issetandcemented
(/Cementing_operations)inplace.Damageoccurs,becausedrillingand/orcompletionfluidsleakintothereservoirandaltertheporesandporethroats.Whentheporesareplugged,
thepermeabilityisreduced,andthefluidflowinthisdamagedportionofthereservoirmaybesubstantiallyreduced.Damagecanbeespeciallysevereinnaturallyfractured
reservoirs.Tostimulatedamagedreservoirs,ashort,conductivehydraulicfractureisoftenthedesiredsolution.
Inmanycases,especiallyforlowpermeabilityformations,damagedreservoirs,orhorizontalwellsinalayeredreservoir,thewellwouldbeuneconomicalunlessasuccessful
hydraulicfracturetreatmentisdesignedandpumped.Theengineerinchargeoftheeconomicsuccessofsuchawellmustdesigntheoptimalfracturetreatmentandthengotothe
fieldtobecertaintheoptimaltreatmentispumpedsuccessfully.

Candidateselection
Thesuccessorfailureofahydraulicfracturetreatmentoftendependsonthequalityofthecandidatewellselectedforthetreatment.Choosinganexcellentcandidateforstimulation
oftenensuressuccess,whilechoosingapoorcandidatenormallyresultsineconomicfailure.Toselectthebestcandidateforstimulation,thedesignengineermustconsidermany
variables.Themostcriticalparametersforhydraulicfracturingare:

Formationpermeability
Theinsitustressdistribution
Reservoirfluidviscosity
Skinfactor
Reservoirpressure
Reservoirdepth
Theconditionofthewellbore
Theskinfactorreferstowhetherthereservoirisalreadystimulatedorisdamaged.Iftheskinfactorispositive,thereservoirisdamaged,andthewellcouldbeanexcellentcandidate
forstimulation.
Thebestcandidatewellsforhydraulicfracturingtreatmentshaveasubstantialvolumeofoilandgasinplaceandneedtoincreasetheproductivityindex.Thecharacteristicsofsuch
reservoirsinclude:
Athickpayzone
Mediumtohighpressure
Insitustressbarrierstominimizeverticalheightgrowth
Eitheralowpermeabilityzoneorazonethathasbeendamaged(highskinfactor)
Reservoirsthatarepoorcandidatesforhydraulicfracturingarethosewithlittleoilorgasinplacebecauseof:
Thinreservoirs
Lowreservoirpressure
Smallarealextent
Reservoirswithextremelylowpermeabilitymaynotproduceenoughhydrocarbonstopayallthedrillingandcompletioncosts,evenifsuccessfullystimulatedthus,suchreservoirs
wouldnotbegoodcandidatesforstimulation.

Developingdatasets
Formostpetroleumengineers,developingacompleteandaccuratedatasetisoftenthemosttimeconsumingpartoffracturetreatmentdesign(/Fracture_treatment_design).Thedata
requiredtorunboththefracturedesignmodelandthereservoirsimulationmodelcanbedividedintotwogroups:
Datathatcanbecontrolledbytheengineer
Datathatmustbemeasuredorestimated,butcannotbecontrolled.
Theprimarydatathatcanbecontrolledbytheengineerare:
Thewellcompletiondetails
Treatmentvolume
Padvolume
Injectionrate
Fracturefluid(/Fracturing_fluids_and_additives)viscosity
Fracturefluiddensity
Fluidlossadditives
Proppingagenttype
Proppingagentvolume
Thedatathatmustbemeasuredorestimatedare:
Formationdepth
Formationpermeability
Insitustressesinthepayzone
Insitustressesinthesurroundinglayers
Formationmodulus
Reservoirpressure
Formationporosity
Formationcompressibility
Reservoirthickness
Therearethreethicknessesthatareimportanttothedesignengineer:
Thegrossthicknessofthereservoir
Thenetthicknessoftheoilorgasproducinginterval
Thepermeablethicknessthatwillacceptfluidlossduringthehydraulicfracturetreatment.
Themostcriticaldataforthedesignofafracturetreatment(roughlyinorderofimportance)arethe:
Insitustressprofile
Formationpermeability
Fluidlosscharacteristics
Totalfluidvolumepumped
Proppingagenttypeandamount
Padvolume
Fracturefluidviscosity
Injectionrate
Formationmodulus
Inhydraulicfracturetreatmentdesign,thetwomostimportantparametersare:
Theinsitustressprofileandthepermeabilityprofileofthezonetobestimulated
Thelayersofrockaboveandbelowthetargetzonethatwillaffectfractureheightgrowth.

Innewfieldsorreservoirs,mostoperatingcompaniesarenormallywillingtorunlogs,cutcores,andrunwellteststodetermineimportantfactorssuchastheinsitustressandthe
permeabilityofthereservoirlayers.Withsuchdata,alongwithfracturetreatmentandproductionrecords,accuratedatasetsforagivenreservoirnormallycanbecompiled.These
datasetscanbeusedonsubsequentwellstooptimizethefracturetreatmentdesigns.Itisnormallynotpracticaltocutcoresandrunwelltestsoneverywell.Thedataobtainedfrom
coresandwelltestsfromafewwellsmustbecorrelatedtologparameters,sothelogsonsubsequentwellscanbeusedtocompileaccuratedatasets.
Todesignafracturetreatment,mostusepseudothreedimensional(P3D)models.TouseaP3Dmodel,thedatamustbeenteredbyreservoirlayer.Fig.1illustratestheimportant
dataprofilesrequiredbyaP3Dmodel.FortheexampleinFig.1,thefracturetreatmentwouldbestartedinthesandstonereservoir.Thefracturewouldtypicallygrowupanddown
untilabarrierisreachedtopreventverticalfracturegrowth.Inmanycases,thickmarineshaleisabarriertoverticalfracturegrowth.Insomecases,coalseamspreventfractures
fromgrowingvertically.Manycoalseamsarehighlycleated,whichmeansthattheycontainanabundanceofsmallnaturalfractures.Whenthefracturefluidentersahighlycleated
coalseam,therewillbeveryhighfluidleakoffintothecoalcleats.Inthick,highlycleatedcoalseams,thefractureislikelytobecontainedwithinthecoalseam.

(/File%3AVol4prt_Page_326_Image_0001.png)
Fig.1TypicalinputdataforaP3Dmodel.

Thedatausedtodesignafracturetreatmentcanbeobtainedfromseveralsources,suchas:
Drillingrecords
Completionrecords
Wellfiles
Openholegeophysicallogs
Coresandcoreanalyses
Welltests
Productiondata
Geologicrecords
Otherpublicrecords,suchaspublications
Inaddition,servicecompaniesprovidedataontheirfluids,additives,andproppingagents.Table1illustratestypicaldataneededtodesignafracturetreatmentandpossiblesources
forthedata.

(/File%3AVol4prt_Page_327_Image_0001.png)
Table1DataSources

Fracturetreatmentoptimization
Thegoalofeveryfracturetreatmentdesignshouldbetoattaintheoptimumfracturetreatmentforeachandeverywell.In1978,Holditchetal.[2]discussedtheoptimizationofboth
theproppedfracturelengthandthedrainagearea(wellspacing)forlowpermeabilitygasreservoirs.Fig.2illustratesthemethodusedtooptimizethesizeofafracturetreatment.[3]
[4]

(/File%3AVol4prt_Page_328_Image_0001.png)

Fig.2Fracturetreatmentoptimizationprocess.
[1]

[1]

Fig.2showsthefollowing:
Astheproppedlengthofafractureincreases,thecumulativeproductionwillincrease,andtherevenuefromhydrocarbonsaleswillincrease
Asthefracturelengthincreases,theincrementalbenefit(amountofrevenuegeneratedperfootofadditionalproppedfracturelength)decreases
Asthetreatmentvolumeincreases,theproppedfracturelengthincreases
Asthefracturelengthincreases,theincrementalcostofeachfootoffracture(cost/ftofadditionalproppedfracturelength)increases
Whentheincrementalcostofthetreatmentiscomparedwiththeincrementalbenefitofincreasingthetreatmentvolume,anoptimumproppedfracturelengthcanbefoundfor
everysituation
Additionaleconomiccalculationscanbemadetodeterminetheoptimumfracturetreatmentdesign.However,inallcases,thedesignmustconsider:
Theeffectofthefractureonflowratesandrecovery.
Thecostofthetreatment.
Theinvestmentguidelinesofthecompanythatownsandoperatesthewell.

Fieldconsiderations
Aftertheoptimumfracturetreatmenthasbeendesigned,itmustbepumpedintothewellsuccessfully.Asuccessfulfieldoperationrequiresplanning,coordination,andcooperation
ofallparties.Treatmentsupervisionandtheuseofqualitycontrolmeasureswillimprovethesuccessfulapplicationofhydraulicfracturing.Safetyisalwaystheprimaryconcernin
thefield,anditbeginswithathoroughunderstandingbyallpartiesoftheirduties.Asafetymeetingisalwaysheldtoreview:
Thetreatmentprocedure.
Establishachainofcommand.
Ensureeveryoneknowshis/herjobresponsibilitiesfortheday.
Establishaplanforemergencies.
Thesafetymeetingshouldalsodiscuss:
Thewellcompletiondetailsandthemaximumallowableinjectionrateandpressures.
Themaximumpressurestobeheldasbackupintheannulus.
Allcasing(/Casing_and_tubing),tubing,wellheads(/Wellhead_systems),valves,andweaklinks,suchaslinertops,shouldbetestedthoroughlybeforestartingthefracturing
treatment.Mechanicalfailuresduringatreatmentcanbecostlyanddangerous.Allmechanicalproblemsshouldbediscoveredduringtestingandrepairedbeforepumpingthefracture
treatment.
Beforepumpingthetreatment,theengineerinchargeshouldconductadetailedinventoryofalltheequipmentandmaterialsonlocation.Theinventoryshouldbecomparedwiththe
designandtheprognosis.Afterthetreatmenthasconcluded,anotherinventoryofallthematerialsleftonlocationshouldbeconducted.Inmostcases,thedifferenceinthetwo
inventoriescanbeusedtoverifywhatwasmixedandpumpedintothewellboreandthehydrocarbonbearingformation.
Inadditiontoaninventory,samplesofthebasefracturingfluid(usuallywater)shouldbetakenandanalyzed.Typically,awateranalysisisdoneonthebasefluidtodeterminethe
mineralsandtypeofbacteriapresent.Thedatafromthewateranalysiscanbeusedtoselecttheadditivesneededtomixtheviscousfracturefluidrequiredtocreateawidefracture
andtotransporttheproppingagentintothefracture.Inaddition,samplesoftheadditivesusedduringatreatmentandthefracturefluidafteralladditiveshavebeenaddedshouldbe
takenandsavedincasefutureanalysesarerequired.

Additionalterms
fracking
frac
frack
frac'ing
fracing
fracturing

References
1.1.01.11.2Gidley,J.L.,Holditch,S.A.,Nierode,D.E.etal.1989.AnOverviewofHydraulicFracturing.InRecentAdvancesinHydraulicFracturing,12.Chap.1,138.
Richardson,Texas:MonographSeries,SPE.
2.Holditch,S.A.,Jennings,J.W.,Neuse,S.H.etal.1978.TheOptimationofWellSpacingandFractureLengthinLowPermeabilityGasReservoirs.PresentedattheSPE
AnnualTechnicalConferenceandExhibition,Houston,Texas,13October.SPE7496MS.http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/7496MS(http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/7496MS).
3.Veatch,R.W.J.1983.OverviewofCurrentHydraulicFracturingDesignandTreatmentTechnologyPart1.JPetTechnol35(4):677687.SPE10039PA.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/10039PA(http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/10039PA).

4.Britt,L.K.1985.OptimizedOilwellFracturingofModeratePermeabilityReservoirs.PresentedattheSPEAnnualTechnicalConferenceandExhibition,LasVegas,Nevada,
USA,2226September.SPE14371MS.http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/14371MS(http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/14371MS).

NoteworthypapersinOnePetro
King,G.2012.HydraulicFracturing101:WhatEveryRepresentative,Environmentalist,Regulator,Reporter,Investor,UniversityResearcher,NeighborandEngineerShouldKnow
AboutEstimatingFracRiskandImprovingFracPerformanceinUnconventionalGasandOilWells.PresentedattheSPEHydraulicFracturingTechnologyConference,The
Woodlands,Texas,68February.SPE152596MS.http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/152596MS(http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/152596MS)
Fisher,M.K.,&Warpinski,N.R.2011.HydraulicFractureHeightGrowth:RealData.SocietyofPetroleumEngineers.http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/145949MS
(http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/145949MS)
Potocki,D.2012.UnderstandingInducedFractureComplexityinDifferentGeologicalSettingsUsingDFITNetFracturePressure.SPE162814.

Noteworthybooks
Gidley,J.L.,Holditch,S.A.,Nierode,D.E.etal.1989.RecentAdvancesinHydraulicFracturing,No.12.Richardson,Texas:MonographSeries,SPE.SPEBookstore
(http://store.spe.org/RecentAdvancesInHydraulicFracturingP66.aspx)
Jones,J.R.andBritt,L.K.2009.Designandappraisalofhydraulicfractures.Richardson,TX:Aninterdisciplinaryapproachtotopicsinpetroleumengineeringandgeosciences,
SocietyofPetroleumEngineers.2010287084
JackJones,LarryK.Britt.SPEbookstore(http://store.spe.org/DesignandAppraisalofHydraulicFracturesP17.aspx)

Onlinemultimedia
Barree,RobertD.2013.OverviewofCurrentDFITAnalysisMethodology.http://eo2.commpartners.com/users/spe/session.php?id=10329
(http://eo2.commpartners.com/users/spe/session.php?id=10329)
Britt,LarryK.2013.ApplicationofLowViscosityFluidsToHydraulic.http://eo2.commpartners.com/users/spe/session.php?id=11731
(http://eo2.commpartners.com/users/spe/session.php?id=11731)
Friehauf,Kyle.2013.HydraulicFractureIdentificationandProductionLogAnalysisinUnconventionalsUsingDTS.http://eo2.commpartners.com/users/spe/session.php?id=11685
(http://eo2.commpartners.com/users/spe/session.php?id=11685)
King,GeorgeE.2012.EstimatingFracRiskandImprovingFracPerformanceinUnconventionalGasandOilWells.http://eo2.commpartners.com/users/spe/session.php?id=8069
(http://eo2.commpartners.com/users/spe/session.php?id=8069)
King,GeorgeE.2013.WellIntegrity:HydraulicFracturingandWellConstructionWhatAretheFactualRisks?http://eo2.commpartners.com/users/spe/session.php?id=11601
(http://eo2.commpartners.com/users/spe/session.php?id=11601)
Lee,W.John.2014.WorkflowforApplyingSimpleModelstoForecastProductionfromHydraulicallyFracturedShaleWells.http://eo2.commpartners.com/users/spe/session.php?
id=12223(http://eo2.commpartners.com/users/spe/session.php?id=12223)
Parker,Michael,andEricJ.Esswein.2013.HydraulicFracturing:EnvironmentalandOccupationalHealthChallenges.http://eo2.commpartners.com/users/spe/session.php?id=10892
(http://eo2.commpartners.com/users/spe/session.php?id=10892)
AlMuntasheri,Dr.GhaithanA.2015."FluidsforFracturingPetroleumReservoirs."WebEvents.SocietyofPetroleumEngineers,https://webevents.spe.org/products/fluidsfor
fracturingpetroleumreservoirs(https://webevents.spe.org/products/fluidsforfracturingpetroleumreservoirs).

Externallinks
Energy4meHydraulicFracturing(http://www.energy4me.org/hydraulicfracturing/)
DataConfirmSafetyOfWellFracturing(http://www.halliburton.com/public/pe/contents/Papers_and_Articles/web/A_through_P/AOGR%20Article
%20Data%20Prove%20Safety%20of%20Frac.pdf)

Seealso
Fracturetreatmentdesign(/Fracture_treatment_design)
Fracturingfluidsandadditives(/Fracturing_fluids_and_additives)
Fracturediagnostictechniques(/Fracture_diagnostic_techniques)
Fracturemechanics(/Fracture_mechanics)
Proppingagentsandfractureconductivity(/Propping_agents_and_fracture_conductivity)
Fracturepropagationmodels(/Fracture_propagation_models)
Postfracturewellbehavior(/Postfracture_well_behavior)
Fracturinghighpermeabilityformations(/Fracturing_highpermeability_formations)
Fluidflowinhydraulicallyfracturedwells(/Fluid_flow_in_hydraulically_fractured_wells)
PEH:Hydraulic_Fracturing(/PEH%3AHydraulic_Fracturing)

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