UNIVERSITY OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

B.A.Sc. Utilities Engineering

January 26, 2009

THRM110B Engineering Thermodynamics (Lecture Notes 3)

Work and Heat
3.

Work and Heat.....................................................................................................................................1

3.1 Point and Path Functions...............................................................................................................1
3.2 Work..............................................................................................................................................2
3.2.1
Definition of work.................................................................................................................2
3.2.2
Sign Convention and Notation...............................................................................................3
3.2.3
Power.....................................................................................................................................3
3.2.4
Modelling Expansion or Compression Work.........................................................................4
3.2.5
Work of a Quasiequilibrium Process of a Simple Compressible Closed System..................4
3.2.6
Work of a Cyclic Quasiequilibrium Process of a Closed System..........................................5
3.2.7
Polytropic process..................................................................................................................6
3.2.8
Further Examples of Work.....................................................................................................7
3.3 Heat, Q..........................................................................................................................................8
3.3.1
Comparing heat and work......................................................................................................8

3.
3.1

Work and Heat

Point and Path Functions

Properties are point functions; work and heat are path functions.
If x is a function of two independent variables, y and z, expressed by the notation x = f(y, z) then x is
called a point function, because at each point on a plane of yz coordinates there is a discrete value of x.
All thermodynamic properties are point functions. The cyclic integral of a point function, and hence any
dx 0
thermodynamic property is always zero, i.e.

CCTD101B Work and Heat

Some quantities related to a process shown on yz diagrams may not be functions of y and z and hence
may not be point functions; this is true for work and heat. For example, the length of a line connecting
two points 1 and 2 on a yz coordinate plane (see figure above).
If G is a path function, it is a quantity that depends on the path followed in going from state 1 (y1, z1) to
state 2 (y2, z2) and no relation of the form G = f(y, z) exists because specifying a value of y and z does not
determine a value of G. the notation G1 or G2 should not be used since this implies that there is a
particular value of G at state 1 or 2. The value of G is equal to the sum of the G values for any number
G G12
G G2 G1
of segments into which the path may be divided;
. For a path function,
because (1) a path function cannot be evaluated in terms of end states alone, and (2) there are no values
such as G1 and G2 that can be assigned to states 1 and 2.
Under special conditions the cyclic integral of a path function may be zero, but in general
3.2

Work

3.2.1

Definition of work

G 0

The work done by, or on, a system evaluated in terms of macroscopically observable forces and
s2

displacement is

W = F . ds . Work can be broadly categorized into mechanical and thermodynamic

s1

work.
Mechanical work is work that is done by the action of a force exerted on a moving boundary of a
system. A force F acting through a displacement s, with the displacement in the direction of the force is
W Fds
given by
. See diagram below.

Thermodynamic work: Work is an interaction between a system and its surroundings. Work is done by a
system on its surroundings if the sole effect of the interaction could be the raising of a weight. Note that
the raising of a weight is, in effect, force acting through a distance, so the concept of work in
thermodynamics is a natural extension of the concept in mechanics. However, the test of whether a work
interaction has taken place is not that the elevation of a weight has actually taken place, but that the sole
effect could have been an increase in the elevation of a weight.
CCTD101B Work and Heat

Work is a means of transferring energy. Accordingly, the term work does not refer to what is being
transferred between systems or to what is stored within systems. Energy is transferred when work is
done.
3.2.2

Sign Convention and Notation

Engineering thermodynamics is frequently concerned with devices such as internal combustion engines
and turbines whose purpose is to do work. Hence, it is often convenient to consider such work as
positive.
The sign convention for work is that work done by a system is positive; work done on a system is
negative.
W > 0: work done by the system
W < 0: work done on the system
The SI unit for work is the Joule, J.
s2

To evaluate the integral

W = F . ds

it is necessary to know how the forces vary with the

s1

displacement. This brings about an important idea about work. The value of W depends on the details of
the interaction taking place between the system and surroundings during a process and not just the initial
and final states of the system. It follows that work is not a property of the system or the surroundings. In
addition, it means the limits of the integral from state 1 to state 2 and cannot be interpreted as the values
of work at these states. The notion of work at a state has no meaning, so the value of the integral should
never be indicated as W2 W1.
The differential of work W, is said to be inexact because in general, the following integral cannot be
evaluated without specifying the details of the process:
2

W =W
1

On the other hand, the differential of a property is said to be exact because the change in a property
between two particular states depends in no way on the details of the process linking the two states. For
example the change in the volume between two states is given by:
2

dV =V 2V 1
1

where V is the volume at states 1 and 2 respectively.

3.2.3

Power

.
Power is the time rate of doing work, and has units of Watt, W. Power is denoted by W
In mechanical processes, power is the product of the force and the velocity at the point of application of
the force.
.v
W =F
CCTD101B Work and Heat

Both work and power are extensive properties. Work per unit mass is specific work, w.
w = W/m
3.2.4

Modelling Expansion or Compression Work

Work can be done by:

1. a rotating shaft,
2. an electric current, and
3. system boundary movement such as the work done in moving the piston in a cylinder.
Let us evaluate the work done by the closed system shown below consisting of a gas (or liquid)
contained in a piston cylinder assembly as the gas expands. During the process, the gas pressure (p)
exerts a normal force on the piston of area A. The work done by the system as the piston is displaced a
distance dx is
W = pAx
The product

Ax

equals the change in volume dV. Thus the work expression is

W = p dV

For a change in volume from V1 to V2, the work is obtained by:

V2

W = p dV
V1

Although this equation is derived for the case of a gas (or liquid) in a piston cylinder assembly, it is
applicable to systems of any shape provided the pressure is uniform with position over the moving
boundary.
To perform the integral, a relationship between the gas pressure at the moving boundary and the system
volume is required.

3.2.5

Work of a Quasiequilibrium Process of a Simple Compressible Closed System

A simple compressible substance involves no effects of electricity, magnetism, stress or surface tension.
An incompressible fluid is a special limiting case in which the density is constant. A closed system that
CCTD101B Work and Heat

is composed of a simple compressible substance and involves no effects of motion or gravity is called a
simple compressible closed system.
An idealised type of process is called a quasiequilibrium process. A quasiequilibrium process is one in
which all states through which the system passes may be considered equilibrium states. A particularly
important aspect of quasiequilibrium concept is that the values of the intensive properties are uniform
throughout the system or every phase present in the system, at each state visited.
To develop an expression for the work of a quasiequilibrium process of a simple compressible closed
system, consider a gas trapped in a cylinder and expanding against a piston as shown below. The gas
expands from an initial state 1 to 2. The pressure is uniform throughout the system at any stage of the
expansion, but changes as the expansion proceeds. At any stage of the expansion, the total amount of
V2

work done by the gas on the piston as the gas expands form state 1 to state 2 is

W = p dV . This is
V1

also the area under the curve of a pressure-volume (pV) coordinates plot. Therefore the work of a
process described above is represented by an area on a plot of the system pressure vs its volume as
shown in the diagram below.
Had the gas been compressed from 2 to 1 along the same path on the pV diagram, the magnitude of the
work would be the same, but the sign would be negative, indicating that for the compression process, the
energy transfer was from the piston to the gas.
V2

The work per unit mass is given by w= p dv

V1

CCTD101B Work and Heat

3.2.6

Work of a Cyclic Quasiequilibrium Process of a Closed System

A closed system may pass by means of a quasiequilibrium process from a state 1 to state 2 along a path
such as 1-a-2 in the figure below. It may then complete a cycle returning to state 1 through different
states along any path. Let one of the states passed through the return process be state b.
During some of the processes of the cycle the system does work whilst during other processes work is
done on the system. The net work of the system is the sum of the work of all the processes making up
the cycle. For the cycle made up of four processes:
{work of closed system during quasiequilibrium process} =

pdV pdV pdV pdV

pdV

Notice that the net work of a cycle is generally not zero. This is a reminder that work is path function.
The value of the work depends on the nature of the process between the end states.

3.2.7

Polytropic process

The relationship between pressure and volume during an expansion or compression process can be
described analytically by the expression pV n=constant where n is a constant for the process. Such a
process is called a polytropic process.
Example

CCTD101B Work and Heat

CCTD101B Work and Heat

3.2.8

Further Examples of Work

Power transmitted by a Shaft

For A shaft rotating with angular velocity and exerting a torque T on its surroundings, the power is

=T
given by W
Electrical Power
For an electrical current i flowing through a potential difference , the rate of energy transfer by work, or
the power, is

W =i
3.3
Heat, Q
Heat is the form of energy that is transferred across the system boundary at a given temperature to
another system (or the surroundings) at a lower temperature by virtue of the temperature difference
between the two systems.
Heat transfers from the system at the higher temperature to the system at the lower. Heat transfer occurs
solely because of the temperature difference between the two systems.
Heat, like work, is a form of energy transfer to or from a system, with SI units of Joules, J.
The symbol Q denotes the amount of energy transferred across the boundary of a system in a heat
interaction with the systems surroundings. Heat transferred to a system is positive, and the heat
transfer from a system is negative.
Q > 0;
CCTD101B Work and Heat

Heat transfer to the system

8

Q < 0;

Heat transfer from the system

The value of the heat transfer depends on the details of a process and not just the end states. Thus, like
work, heat is not a property, and its differential is written as Q. The amount of energy transferred by
2

heat for a process is given by the integral Q= Q .

1

where the limits mean from state 1 to state 2 and do not refer to the values of heat at those states.
As for work, the notion of heat at a state has no meaning and the integral should never be evaluated as
Q2 Q1.
An adiabatic process is one in which there is no heat transfer, i.e. Q = 0. Heat is also a path function
(inexact differential).
3.3.1

Comparing heat and work

Both heat and work are path functions and inexact differentials.

Heat and work are both transient phenomena. Systems never possess heat or work, but either or
both cross the system boundary when it undergoes a change of state.

Both heat and work are boundary phenomena. Both are observed only at the system boundary
and represent energy crossing it.

Note: +Q represents heat transferred to a system, i.e. energy added. +W is work done by a system, i.e.
energy leaving a system.
oooOooo

CCTD101B Work and Heat