Jennifer M.

Yoo
December 2014
Film & Theater

Living Wood and Still Bodies: Analyzing the Relationship Between Bunraku and Kabuki
When considering the variety of theatre the world has to offer, few have such spectacular
a tradition or are as recognizable as the Kabuki and Bunraku theatres of Japan. While
historically the two art forms were highly competitive with one another, scholars have argued for
one art form being the more or less direct influence of the other for years. Upon studying the
historical factors, visual aesthetics, and movement styles of both forms, however, it becomes
apparent that discussion of this topic cannot be as clear cut and dry as some of these scholars
make it out to be.
Similarities between Bunraku and Kabuki can easily be drawn today, but when both
forms first emerged in the late sixteenth century, they were very different from each other. As
James R. Brandon describes in his research, one was wedded to the word, one to the human
figure (113). The puppet theatre, originally called ningy jruri, began as a narrative art that
was illustrated by simple and rather crude puppet figures. Kabuki on the other hand focused
entirely on the physical presence of the performer in a dance-drama form where actions were
mimed to song lyrics and music (Brandon 114).
Due to several historical developments, however, Bunraku and Kabuki gradually drew
closer together to become the tightly related theatrical art forms recognized today. The first of

these developments arose from the effect of governmental oppression and interference on the
Kabuki theatre. Originally performed by women having
been founded by a woman, the Kabuki was highly sensual
entertainment that capitalized on the physical beauty of
its female performers. This first started to change once
the government barred women from the stage in 1628,
thus requiring male Kabuki actors to concentrate on
cosmetics, costume, and gestures in order to appear as
women. This in turn led to female-role specializing
actors within the troupe, later to be referred to as
onnagata (Ortolani 176).
Despite this change, this new form of Kabuki still

Figure 1: Nakamura Utaemon VI (19172001) performing as an onnagata

focused on sex and physical beauty to attract its audience. To better maintain the illusion of
feminine beauty on the Kabuki stage, the first onnagata performers were little more than
attractive young boys, and continued to have a similar effect on the audience as Kabukis early
women actors. The most celebrated and notorious of these onnagata stars was Sakon
Murayama, who first appeared in Edo, present-day Tokyo, in 1642 (Ortolani 176-177).
Concerned with the immorality and licentiousness of this form of Kabuki, the government
banned all younger male onnagata from performing (Bowers 49). Following the loss of its
beautiful boy actors, middle-aged, older men soon joined and a new form of Kabuki immediately
emerged.

It is this new form, known as yar or Mens Kabuki, that is considered the real basis
for the Kabuki seen today. Without sex, physical beauty, and finally even music and dance
albeit only temporarily banned by the government to sustain it, actors focused on vocals and
drama, elevating Kabuki from a base, sensual form of entertainment to a genuine theatrical art.
Governmental restrictions prompted Kabukis development into a true art form, but the
effect of the audience appears to be the key to Bunraku and Kabukis ultimate interaction.
Beginning around the Genroku period (1688-1704), both art forms rose to such popularity that
multiple theatres were being built in a single major city. In Osaka, for example, the Takemotoza, which played a major role in the rise and advance of the puppet theatre art form, was
constructed in 1685. Shortly after as many as four Kabuki theatres followed its establishment,
one built literally next door to the famous puppet theatre playhouse (Brandon 112). Hundreds of
spectators attended performances every day, so competition among theatres must have been
intense, resulting in both Bunraku and Kabuki having to find ways to make their performances
stand out from those of their rivals however best they could.
After the governmental restrictions on its performance were put in effect, the Kabuki
theatre was forced to consider alternate methods to keep its audience entertained, and it took
many of its ideas from the puppet theatre. This becomes most apparent in the story structure of
Kabuki plays. As mentioned before, the original focus was to capitalize on sex and physical
beauty, so performances mostly comprised of a series of individual skits or scenes that had little
connection with each other. Through Bunraku, Kabuki came to understand the significance of
the story, a narrative plot in a given performance. Starting as early as 1664, Kabuki changed the

dramatic structure of its plays to simulate puppet plays, which were regularly being written using
a multi-act plot structure (Brandon 116).
Eventually, however, government restrictions and
censorship grew so unbearable that the Kabuki struggled
create performances that would not be shut down. This

to

situation was aggravated by the deaths of some of the

troupes greatest actors, namely Ichikawa Danjuro I and
Sakata Tjr in 1704 and 1709 respectively (Ortolani
181-

182). With increasingly restrictive subject matter for

plays

and the loss of its two major draws, Kabuki could hardly
compete on its own with the puppet theatre. From the

year

1717 the Kabuki theatre began to actively borrow

Figure 2: Ichikawa Komazo VII in

Kabuki adaptation of Kokusenya
Kassen

Bunraku plays in their entirety and adapt them for their

stage. The first of these borrowed scripts was Kokusenya Kassen or Battles of the Coxinga,
which was written in 1715 by former Kabuki playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon (Brazell 314315). This process continued until such an extent that currently more than half of the existing
Kabuki repertoire comprises of originally Bunraku plays.
Around the same time as this change was occurring in the Kabuki theatre, Bunraku was
undergoing changes of its own in the form of Kabuki playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon,
perhaps the most famous playwright in all of Japanese history, who arrived in Osaka to join the
Takemoto-za and devote himself to writing for the puppet theatre. Despite a higher value placed

on plot, the playwright in Kabuki was not regarded with much respect. As described by Faubion
Bowers, [w]hile working for Kabuki, Chikamatsu was scarcely more than a tailor of words at
the mercy of difficult customers (60). Throughout the Genroku period, Kabuki actors were
much like the Hollywood divas of today. They had a penchant for changing lines, demanding
new scenes to be written in to the script, and ignoring the stage directions or character
delineations provided by the playwright.
When Chikamatsu moved to Osaka, he found the
opportunity he craved to write the stories he wanted,
stories that would be followed to the letter by the most
obedient of all actors, the puppets. And while he may
have been disgusted by the egotistical Kabuki stars who
changed his scripts whenever it pleased them,
Chikamatsu Monzaemon did carry with him some of
Kabukis theatrical style. This style helped the puppet
theatre evolve into a form that emphasized the
enactment rather than
the narration of scenes.

Figure 3: Portrait of Chikamatsu

Monzaemon, Artist Jukd Yoshikuni
(1823)

Chikamatsus plays are characterized by deep humanism and the understanding of the
human condition of ordinary people. What inspired Chikamatsu Monzaemon the most in the
writing of his Bunraku plays was the original performance style of the Kabuki actor Sakata
Tjr. The progenitor of what would later be known as wagoto, or soft acting style in

Kabuki, Sakata Tjr became known for the gentle humanity characteristic that he lent to his
roles (Bowers 61).
It was this characteristic that served as the basis for
Chikamatsu Monzaemons shinjmono or love-suicide
plays that later became one of the most popular subjects
for Bunraku performances. The first and most famous of
these shinjmono was Sonezaki Shinj, or The Love
Suicides at Sonezaki, written in 1703 (Brandon 116). It
focused on the conflicts between human emotions and the
severe restrictions and obligations of Japanese society of
the time, a theme that would become a major element of
Figure 4: Portrait of Sakata Tjr I,
Artist Natori Shunsen (1925)

Bunraku plays. The great success of this play led to

many more dramas on the tragic love affairs of merchants and courtesans, and it is also said to
have spawned a string of copycat love suicides (Ortolani 222-223). This prompted a whole new
genre of puppet play, known as sewamono or domestic drama. These sewamono in turn brought
new prosperity to the Takemoto-za.
It is of particular interest to note that 1703 was not the first time Chikamatsu Monzaemon
attempted to write a shinjmono. According to James R. Brandon, the love-suicide play had had
twenty years of history on the Kabuki stage before the debut of Chikamatsus puppet play
Sonezaki Shinj. Unlike in the Bunraku theatre, however, shinjmono in Kabuki was met with
limited success (Brandon 116). It was not until after the popularity of Sonezaki Shinj became

widespread that the Kabuki began to pick up shinjmono to perform on their own stages again,
but only stories that were originally written for the Bunraku, namely Shinjten no Amijima,
written by Chikamatsu Monzaemon and premiered on the Kabuki stage in 1721 (Brazell 333).
Perhaps this is because the Kabuki theatre was too close to reality, especially given that the act of
love-suicide was a common occurrence in the eighteenth century. A puppet on the other hand is
a blank slate that the audience can then project both themselves and feelings drawn from their
own experiences onto them. The performance thus becomes more personal and intimate without
crossing the boundary of reality. And puppets serve as the perfect conduits for such expression
that would otherwise be deemed inappropriate, even possibly immoral if performed by human
Figure 5: Sonezaki Shinj performance
at the National Theatre of Japan, Taken
by Shinji Aoki

actors.
Bunrakus influence on the Kabuki theatre is also
evident in
elements of
performance,
namely the
aragoto acting
style and mie
posing technique.
Aragoto or
rough style

refers to the style originated by famous Edo Kabuki star

Ichikawa Danjuro I. It became so popular that aragoto came to be used by any strong even

aggressive male character found in Kabuki plays. Coupled with the onnagata, these wild
warrior roles have come to be iconic to the Kabuki theatre, both visually and stylistically. The
aragoto style is described as theatrical exaggeration characterized by three aspects: bombastic
words often of no meaning, elaborate and farfetched makeup, and expansive gestures or
motions (Bowers 75).
Figure 6: Portrait of Ichikawa Danjuro I
in the Kabuki Play Shibaraku, Artist
Utagawa Toyokuni I (1812)

Many of the early puppet plays presented the

adventures of Kimpira, a legendary hero renowned for his

bold, outlandish exploits. Later this bombastic type of puppet performance combined with
singing came to be known as kimpira jruri, a subcategory within the puppet theatre. It was a
style characterized by violent passion and wild actions (Ortolani 217). According to Faubion
Bowers, the puppets were so violently thrown about the room that replacements were constantly
needed (33). It is commonly held that Ichikawa
Danjuro I was inspired by these kimpira jruri puppet
performances which he had seen as a child to create the
aragoto style that would express an impulse to reject
oppression and be larger than life (Bowers 85).
Aragoto would later become the most identifying
specialty of Ichikawa Danjuro I, one that would be
actively maintained for generations within his lineage
leading up to today.
Mie is one of the most important and unique
techniques of Kabuki. It comprises of a dramatic movement sequence, which ends up in an

expressive pose culminating in a highly stylized facial expression, usually with crossed eyes .
Mie is performed by the male role performing actors, while similar poses, although less stylized
and eyes uncrossed, of the onnagata actors are referred to as kimari (Ortolani 189). These poses
are the highlights of a Kabuki play and punctuate the dramatic tension, which is anticipated by
loud wooden clappers and the traditional shouts from the audience called kakegoe. In the
moments where the
highest, the actor is

Figure 7:Woodblock Print of Ichikawa

Danjuro II performing a mie, Artist Torii
Kiyomasu (1690)

haunting stillness of his wooden counterpart in the Bunraku.

drama in Kabuki is at its

absolutely still, emulating the

While Kabuki actors mimicked the movements of puppets, puppeteers strived for realism.
Chikamatsu Monzaemons contributions to the puppet theatre helped breathe humanity and
sensitivity into the puppets previously unknown. This is especially significant when one
considers that these puppets had not yet developed into the large, three-person operated puppets
recognized as Bunraku today. They were still small, one-man puppets that had heads with
fixed features and could not be moved in a realistic fashion (Brandon 114). It was not until the
few years before Chikamatsus retirement in 1723 that new techniques for puppet manipulation
began developing in order to make them more realistic. Given its intense and ongoing
competition with the Kabuki theatre, it comes as no surprise that even after nearly a century of
tradition, the Bunraku would feel compelled to increase the expressive power of its puppets.
The very stylization of the puppets facial features were made as caricatures of Kabuki actor role
types. This culminated in 1734 when the three-puppeteer manipulation system was implemented
for the first time in the performance of Kuzunoha (Adachi 5).
Given these developments, one might think that
Figure 8: Photo of Three-Man Bunraku
Puppet (1837-1901)

Kabuki had the greater influence on Bunraku for the very

image of its puppets changed as a result of competition
with this popular human theater. This statement,
however, assumes that the most definitive characteristic
of Bunraku was in fact the puppet. Specifically, the
realism of these puppets. While the desired effect may
have been realism, overall it was achieved only within the

framework of essentially unreal conditions of performance. Chikamatsu Monzaemons

sewamono were the closest the puppet theatre plays got towards realistic stories. The language
was fairly close to contemporary speech of the time and the conflicts the characters faced were
reminiscent of events that were happening in the audiences daily lives. Ironically, it was with
the performance of Chikamatsus Sonezaki Shinj in 1703 that master puppeteer Tachimatsu
Hachirobei became the first to work in full view of the audience (Adachi 5). Like the
puppeteers, the tay and the shamisen player were originally hidden from the audience but, in a
new play in 1705, Takemoto Gidayu chanted in full view of the audience and in 1715 both the
tay and shamisen player began performing on a special elevated platform at the right of the
stage, where they appear today. If realism had been the only goal of the Bunraku performances,
it would have been simple to keep the operators and tay concealed, as they were originally.
Even in the case of Chikamatsu's plays, however, the visible presence of operators and tay
combined with the awkwardly jerking but artistic movements of the puppets established
conventions of unreality that the audience readily accepted. Theatre is rarely about reality. It is
more about stylized reality. Providing a platform for infinite possibility and expression, for
surreal beauty even fantasy that is so infrequently encountered in everyday life.
Western theatre productions have claimed inspiration from Bunraku, but this begs the
question of what is the defining characteristic of Bunraku? Directors might cite the wearing of
black clothes, but this hardly seems the most significant trait. Other puppetry theatres have
indicated the multi-person operated puppets that are consistently used for all humanoid
characters in Bunraku as the source. But it is difficult to accept this as the answer when one
considers that nearly all of Chikamatsu Monzaemons plays which made the Bunraku so famous

were written for the single-man puppets of the time. The

puppet theatre had also

been a successful form of entertainment for about a century

prior

to the three-man operating system being

established.
According to Kabuki, however, the most
valuable aspect of the Bunraku appears to

Figure 9: Performance of El Gato con Botas, New Victory

Theatre (New York, 2010)

be the vocal art of the tay. While the aragoto style and mie technique are modeled after
elements of Bunraku, the chanting style of the tay was closely studied and imitated by Kabuki
actors. This is supported by the responses several professional Kabuki actors, onnagata,
aragoto, and wagoto styles alike, provided when interviewed about the value of studying the
Bunraku. Band Mitsugor VIII, for example, answered: The most important lesson I learned
from [Bunraku] came from the delivery of the [tay] chanters. The acting of the puppets has
exercised no influence on me (Leiter 19).
The tay has traditionally had the highest status in a Bunraku troupe. As narrator, he is
responsible for creating the atmosphere of the play, and he must voice all parts, from a rough
bass for men to a high falsetto for women and children (Adachi 64-65). James R. Brandon
describes the difference between Kabuki and Bunraku being the bold physicality and grand
spectacle of Kabuki which even the three-man puppet cannot begin to match. In comparison,
however, the long, beautifully illustrative passages of narration in the Bunraku conjure up vivid
verbal images lacking in Kabuki (125). This re-emphasizes how much value the puppet theatre
placed on the power of the word and further supports the idea that the most important aspect of

Bunraku is the vocal, narrative art. But to divorce the tay from the puppets ignores the value of
the art form as a whole. Out of context, the tay is little more than a highly skilled vocal
performer. One also cannot ignore however the potential egotism that may frame these Kabuki
actors opinions. As actors, to regard the puppets of Bunraku highly would be to diminish their
own value.
While the puppets themselves may not be considered by all to be the heart of Bunraku, it
is undeniable that the life and sheer emotion expressed on stage would not be possible without
them. And that the full effect these objects achieve cannot be replicated by the human actor.
James R. Brandon illustrates this best in his work regarding the interplay between Bunraku and
Kabuki using the Chshingura story as a reference:
Because the puppet is inanimate, as soon as it ceases to move it becomes
Figure 10: Takemoto Moji Tayu in performance (1977)

completely inexpressive; it is then just an assemblage of wood, cloth, paint and

strings. Therefore, the speaking puppet is in virtual nonstop motion. In this
sense, the movement sequence of the puppet is more like real life than the
centered repose of the Kabuki actor on stage. Kabuki repose is not the way
people act in real life but represents a stylization of life. [Bunraku] movement
pattern is continuous, detailed, even fussy while Kabuki movement pattern is
occasional, large in scale, clean and strong. (Brandon 128-129)
Animating the puppet instills
its body with a sense of life and breath
that is both hauntingly natural and

surreal at the same time. Kabuki actors on the other hand have to diminish their own life to
create a similar allure. In addition to this magic of life, Bunraku puppets have been observed
exhibiting more tenderness than their human counterparts, despite being at a supposed
disadvantage due to being an inanimate object. While this may be an overall stylistic choice it is
possible the Kabuki actors are also reluctant to expose themselves to such sheer emotion. This is
apparent when one examines the scenes the Kabuki theatre has elected to omit in their
performances of Bunraku plays. The passages which found little favor in Kabuki adaptations are
all noted for being highly expressive, containing intense emotional outbursts and actions that
are violent, even grotesque (Brandon 135). It would seem that the Kabuki actor prefers to
exude a physical image of contained emotion and expression, which is what one might expect
more from the Bunraku

Figure 11: Photo from National

Bunraku Theatre (Osaka, 2007)

Scholars focus primarily on how the Kabuki

theatre has borrowed and adapted material from Bunraku.
Less often is attention paid to how Bunraku has done the
same with borrowed elements from Kabuki. A strong
example of this is in the form of the wagoto style
introduced to the Bunraku through Chikamatsu
Monzaemon. A lot of the puppets life is thanks to the
influence of Kabukis wagoto style courtesy of Sakata
Tjr. Rather than simply borrow these Kabuki
elements, however, the Bunraku enhanced and fully

puppet.

mastered what they utilized. This is evident in that Bunraku puppet masters became so
proficient at this characteristic of gentle humanity that puppeteers started providing guidance
and training to Kabuki actors on how to reproduce it on their own stage. The most well-known
example of this is the famous puppeteer Tachimatsu Hachirobei, who started teaching Kabuki
actors how to move, particularly when portraying the more gentle, sensitive roles in 1717
(Bowers 93).
Similarly, while Kabuki has been noted for integrating virtually all of Bunrakus puppet
plays into its repertoire and adapting them to better suit its stage, the puppet theatre has also
historically copied original scenes created for the Kabuki and integrated them into their own
performances. The climactic scene of the fourth act in Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura, or Yoshitsune
and the Thousand Cherry Blossom Trees is a strong example of this. Created for the puppet
theatre in 1747, the play was adapted for the Kabuki theatre within a year of its Bunraku
premiere. Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura is regarded as one of the three most famous and popular
Kabuki plays today. And one of its biggest draws involves one of the plays major characters, a
magical fox who uses his magic to help the titular hero Yoshitsune and his lover, Shizuka, in
hopes of retrieving a drum made from the skins of both of his parents. When the fox is finally
granted the drum as reward for services rendered, overjoyed he makes a grand exit that
concludes the fourth act. Originally, this would have been done through a particular dance along
the hanamichi pathway. However, more recently it has become common practice, encouraged
by Ichikawa Ennosuke III, known for his love of stage tricks and affable portrayal of the fox
character, to exit by flying out over the audience on strings, in a technique known as chnori or

riding the sky. The positive reaction from the audience

to this effect encouraged the puppet theatre to implement
a similar technique, raising the master puppeteer while
holding the fox puppet on strings so that he and the
puppet floats over the stage.
Along with incorporating Kabuki techniques and
scenes into their puppet plays, the Bunraku also started
copying performance styles as the Kabuki theatre started
Figure 12: Ichikawa Ennosuke III
performing a chnori as the fox in
Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura

making a comeback starting from the mid-eighteenth

century. From the time Kokusenya Kassen was first

adapted for the Kabuki stage, for example, puppeteers in turn began to copy Ichikawa Danjuro
Is aragoto style of acting. According to scholars like Faubion Bowers, this differed from
Danjuro Is initial borrowing from the puppet theatre,
which was more of inspiration from kimpira jruri. In
contrast, the Bunraku imitated the aragoto style literally.
The puppeteers directly incorporated the
characteristically wild movements into the manipulation
techniques for the puppets (Bowers 121). And yet if one
considers how the Kabuki theatre has imitated the
movements of puppets as well as copied entire Bunraku
play texts, how
Bunrakus copying of

Figure 13: Bunraku performance of

Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura, utilizing
Kabuki chnori technique

the aragoto style exactly

differs seems less clear. What is clear is that the more one examines the connections between
Bunraku and Kabuki, the more muddled things become.
Throughout the eighteenth century, Bunraku developed in both a competitive and
cooperative relationship with Kabuki. At the individual role level, Kabuki actors imitated the
distinctive movements of Bunraku puppets and the chanting style of the tay, while puppeteers
adapted the stylish flourishes of famous Kabuki actors to their own performances. At the play
level, many Bunraku works, especially those of Chikamatsu Monzaemon, were adapted for
Kabuki, while lavish Kabuki-style productions were staged as Bunraku. Bunraku and Kabuki
may have been strongly influenced by each other, making it difficult to definitively state whether
one has defined the other, but it can be stated that Bunraku has utilized the originally Kabuki
elements to simply enhance their existing material, not alter it completely.
The character of Kabuki performances largely changed as a result of interaction with the
Bunraku. Kabuki transformed from being simple skit dance-dramas to multi-act plotlines based
off of puppet play script models, eventually adapting Bunraku plays wholesale and absorbing
them into its own repertoire so well that today the general viewer frequently cannot discern the
difference. Additionally, the most iconic techniques to Kabuki, namely aragoto and mie, were
inspired by the puppets. On the other hand, the biggest innovation in the Bunraku theatre was
the change from a single-man to a three-man operating system for the puppets. While this
opened a plethora of opportunity to develop new techniques for the puppeteers, the audience for
Bunraku performances were more than satisfied with plays with simple puppets for decades, as is
indicated by the success of Chikamatsu Monzaemons puppet plays, which moved his audiences

to tears without fail. Bunraku certainly benefited from the improvements to the puppets, but it is
unclear whether the development of the three-man puppeteer system was directly in response to
competition with Kabuki, or if such innovations would have occurred naturally regardless.

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