Battery (Electricity) - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

1/15/2016
Battery(electricity)Wikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Battery(electricity)
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Anelectricbatteryisadeviceconsistingoftwoormore
electrochemicalcellsthatconvertstoredchemicalenergy
intoelectricalenergy.Eachcellhasapositiveterminal,or
cathode,andanegativeterminal,oranode.Theterminal
markedpositiveisatahigherelectricalpotentialenergythan
istheterminalmarkednegative.Theterminalmarked
negativeisthesourceofelectronsthatwhenconnectedtoan
externalcircuitwillflowanddeliverenergytoanexternal
device.Whenabatteryisconnectedtoanexternalcircuit,
electrolytesareabletomoveasionswithin,allowingthe
chemicalreactionstobecompletedattheseparateterminals
andsodeliverenergytotheexternalcircuit.Itisthe
movementofthoseionswithinthebatterywhichallows
currenttoflowoutofthebatterytoperformwork.[1]
Althoughthetermbatterytechnicallymeansadevicewith
multiplecells,singlecellsarealsopopularlycalledbatteries.
Primary(singleuseor"disposable")batteriesareusedonce
anddiscardedtheelectrodematerialsareirreversibly
changedduringdischarge.Commonexamplesarethe
alkalinebatteryusedforflashlightsandamultitudeof
portabledevices.Secondary(rechargeablebatteries)canbe
dischargedandrechargedmultipletimestheoriginal
compositionoftheelectrodescanberestoredbyreverse
current.Examplesincludetheleadacidbatteriesusedin
vehiclesandlithiumionbatteriesusedforportable
electronics.
Battery
Variouscellsandbatteries(toplefttobottom
right):twoAA,oneD,onehandheldhamradio
battery,two9volt(PP3),twoAAA,oneC,one
camcorderbattery,onecordlessphonebattery
Type
Powersource
Working
principle
Electrochemicalreactions,
Electromotiveforce
First
production
1800s
Electronicsymbol
Batteriescomeinmanyshapesandsizes,fromminiature
cellsusedtopowerhearingaidsandwristwatchestobattery
banksthesizeofroomsthatprovidestandbypowerfor
telephoneexchangesandcomputerdatacenters.
Accordingtoa2005estimate,theworldwidebattery
industrygeneratesUS$48billioninsaleseachyear,[2]with
6%annualgrowth.
Thesymbolforabatteryinacircuitdiagram.It
originatedasaschematicdrawingoftheearliest
typeofbattery,avoltaicpile.
Batterieshavemuchlowerspecificenergy(energyperunit
mass)thancommonfuelssuchasgasoline.Thisissomewhatoffsetbythehigherefficiencyofelectricmotors
inproducingmechanicalwork,comparedtocombustionengines.
Contents
1 History
2 Principleofoperation
3 Categoriesandtypesofbatteries
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_(electricity)
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3.1 Primarybatteries
3.2 Secondarybatteries
3.3 Batterycelltypes
3.4 Batterycellperformance
4 Capacityanddischarge
4.1 Crate
4.2 Fastcharging,largeandlightbatteries
5 Batterylifetime
5.1 Selfdischarge
5.2 Corrosion
5.3 Physicalcomponentchanges
5.4 Charge/dischargespeed
5.5 Overcharging
5.6 Memoryeffect
5.7 Environmentalconditions
5.8 Storage
6 Batterysizes
7 Hazards
7.1 Explosion
7.2 Leakage
7.3 Toxicmaterials
7.4 Ingestion
8 Batterychemistry
8.1 Primarybatteriesandtheircharacteristics
8.2 Secondary(rechargeable)batteriesandtheircharacteristics
9 Homemadecells
10 Seealso
11 References
12 Furtherreading
13 Externallinks
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History
Theusageof"battery"todescribeagroupofelectrical
devicesdatestoBenjaminFranklin,whoin1748described
multipleLeydenjarsbyanalogytoabatteryofcannon[3]
(BenjaminFranklinborrowedtheterm"battery"fromthe
military,whichreferstoweaponsfunctioningtogether[4]).
AlessandroVoltabuiltanddescribedthefirst
electrochemicalbattery,thevoltaicpile,in1800.[5]Thiswas
astackofcopperandzincplates,separatedbybrinesoaked
paperdisks,thatcouldproduceasteadycurrentfora
considerablelengthoftime.Voltadidnotappreciatethatthe
voltagewasduetochemicalreactions.Hethoughtthathis
cellswereaninexhaustiblesourceofenergy,[6]andthatthe
associatedcorrosioneffectsattheelectrodeswereamere
nuisance,ratherthananunavoidableconsequenceoftheir
operation,asMichaelFaradayshowedin1834.[7]
Avoltaicpile, AlessandroVoltademonstrating
thefirst
hispiletoFrenchemperor
battery
NapoleonBonaparte
Althoughearlybatterieswereofgreatvalueforexperimentalpurposes,inpracticetheirvoltagesfluctuatedand
theycouldnotprovidealargecurrentforasustainedperiod.TheDaniellcell,inventedin1836byBritish
chemistJohnFredericDaniell,wasthefirstpracticalsourceofelectricity,becominganindustrystandardand
seeingwidespreadadoptionasapowersourceforelectricaltelegraphnetworks.[8]Itconsistedofacopperpot
filledwithacoppersulfatesolution,inwhichwasimmersedanunglazedearthenwarecontainerfilledwith
sulfuricacidandazincelectrode.[9]
Thesewetcellsusedliquidelectrolytes,whichwerepronetoleakageandspillageifnothandledcorrectly.
Manyusedglassjarstoholdtheircomponents,whichmadethemfragile.Thesecharacteristicsmadewetcells
unsuitableforportableappliances.Neartheendofthenineteenthcentury,theinventionofdrycellbatteries,
whichreplacedtheliquidelectrolytewithapaste,madeportableelectricaldevicespractical.[10]
Principleofoperation
Batteriesconvertchemicalenergydirectlytoelectricalenergy.A
batteryconsistsofsomenumberofvoltaiccells.Eachcellconsistsof
twohalfcellsconnectedinseriesbyaconductiveelectrolytecontaining
anionsandcations.Onehalfcellincludeselectrolyteandthenegative
electrode,theelectrodetowhichanions(negativelychargedions)
migratetheotherhalfcellincludeselectrolyteandthepositive
electrodetowhichcations(positivelychargedions)migrate.Redox
reactionspowerthebattery.Cationsarereduced(electronsareadded)at
thecathodeduringcharging,whileanionsareoxidized(electronsare
removed)attheanodeduringcharging.[11]Duringdischarge,the
processisreversed.Theelectrodesdonottoucheachother,butare
electricallyconnectedbytheelectrolyte.Somecellsusedifferent
electrolytesforeachhalfcell.Aseparatorallowsionstoflowbetween
halfcells,butpreventsmixingoftheelectrolytes.
Avoltaiccellfordemonstration
purposes.Inthisexamplethetwo
halfcellsarelinkedbyasaltbridge
separatorthatpermitsthetransferof
ions.
Eachhalfcellhasanelectromotiveforce(oremf),determinedbyits
abilitytodriveelectriccurrentfromtheinteriortotheexteriorofthecell.Thenetemfofthecellisthe
differencebetweentheemfsofitshalfcells.[12]Thus,iftheelectrodeshaveemfs and ,thenthenetemf
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is
inotherwords,thenetemfisthedifferencebetweenthereductionpotentialsofthehalf
reactions.[13]
Theelectricaldrivingforceor
acrosstheterminalsofacellisknownastheterminalvoltage
[14]
(difference)andismeasuredinvolts. Theterminalvoltageofacellthatisneitherchargingnordischarging
iscalledtheopencircuitvoltageandequalstheemfofthecell.Becauseofinternalresistance,[15]theterminal
voltageofacellthatisdischargingissmallerinmagnitudethantheopencircuitvoltageandtheterminal
voltageofacellthatischargingexceedstheopencircuitvoltage.[16]
Anidealcellhasnegligibleinternalresistance,soitwouldmaintainaconstantterminalvoltageof until
exhausted,thendroppingtozero.Ifsuchacellmaintained1.5voltsandstoredachargeofonecoulombthen
oncompletedischargeitwouldperform1.5joulesofwork.[14]Inactualcells,theinternalresistanceincreases
underdischarge[15]andtheopencircuitvoltagealsodecreasesunderdischarge.Ifthevoltageandresistance
areplottedagainsttime,theresultinggraphstypicallyareacurvetheshapeofthecurvevariesaccordingto
thechemistryandinternalarrangementemployed.
Thevoltagedevelopedacrossacell'sterminalsdependsontheenergyreleaseofthechemicalreactionsofits
electrodesandelectrolyte.Alkalineandzinccarboncellshavedifferentchemistries,butapproximatelythe
sameemfof1.5voltslikewiseNiCdandNiMHcellshavedifferentchemistries,butapproximatelythesame
emfof1.2volts.[17]Thehighelectrochemicalpotentialchangesinthereactionsoflithiumcompoundsgive
lithiumcellsemfsof3voltsormore.[18]
Categoriesandtypesofbatteries
Batteriesareclassifiedintoprimaryandsecondaryforms:
Primarybatteriesirreversiblytransformchemicalenergytoelectricalenergy.Whenthesupplyof
reactantsisexhausted,energycannotbereadilyrestoredtothebattery.[19]
Secondarybatteriescanberechargedthatis,theycanhavetheirchemicalreactionsreversedby
supplyingelectricalenergytothecell,approximatelyrestoringtheiroriginalcomposition.[20]
Sometypesofprimarybatteriesused,forexample,fortelegraphcircuits,wererestoredtooperationby
replacingtheelectrodes.[21]Secondarybatteriesarenotindefinitelyrechargeableduetodissipationofthe
activematerials,lossofelectrolyteandinternalcorrosion.
Primarybatteries
Primarybatteries,orprimarycells,canproducecurrentimmediatelyonassembly.Thesearemostcommonly
usedinportabledevicesthathavelowcurrentdrain,areusedonlyintermittently,orareusedwellawayfrom
analternativepowersource,suchasinalarmandcommunicationcircuitswhereotherelectricpowerisonly
intermittentlyavailable.Disposableprimarycellscannotbereliablyrecharged,sincethechemicalreactionsare
noteasilyreversibleandactivematerialsmaynotreturntotheiroriginalforms.Batterymanufacturers
recommendagainstattemptingtorechargeprimarycells.[22]
Ingeneral,thesehavehigherenergydensitiesthanrechargeablebatteries,[23]butdisposablebatteriesdonot
farewellunderhighdrainapplicationswithloadsunder75ohms(75).
Commontypesofdisposablebatteriesincludezinccarbonbatteriesandalkalinebatteries.
Secondarybatteries
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Secondarybatteries,alsoknownassecondarycells,orrechargeablebatteries,mustbechargedbeforefirst
usetheyareusuallyassembledwithactivematerialsinthedischargedstate.Rechargeablebatteriesare
(re)chargedbyapplyingelectriccurrent,whichreversesthechemicalreactionsthatoccurduringdischarge/use.
Devicestosupplytheappropriatecurrentarecalledchargers.
Theoldestformofrechargeablebatteryistheleadacidbattery.Thistechnologycontainsliquidelectrolytein
anunsealedcontainer,requiringthatthebatterybekeptuprightandtheareabewellventilatedtoensuresafe
dispersalofthehydrogengasitproducesduringovercharging.Theleadacidbatteryisrelativelyheavyforthe
amountofelectricalenergyitcansupply.Itslowmanufacturingcostanditshighsurgecurrentlevelsmakeit
commonwhereitscapacity(overapproximately10Ah)ismoreimportantthanweightandhandlingissues.A
commonapplicationisthemoderncarbattery,whichcan,ingeneral,deliverapeakcurrentof450amperes.
Thesealedvalveregulatedleadacidbattery(VRLAbattery)ispopularintheautomotiveindustryasa
replacementfortheleadacidwetcell.TheVRLAbatteryusesanimmobilizedsulfuricacidelectrolyte,
reducingthechanceofleakageandextendingshelflife.[24]VRLAbatteriesimmobilizetheelectrolyte.The
twotypesare:
Gelbatteries(or"gelcell")useasemisolidelectrolyte.
AbsorbedGlassMat(AGM)batteriesabsorbtheelectrolyteinaspecialfiberglassmatting.
Otherportablerechargeablebatteriesincludeseveralsealed"drycell"types,thatareusefulinapplicationssuch
asmobilephonesandlaptopcomputers.Cellsofthistype(inorderofincreasingpowerdensityandcost)
includenickelcadmium(NiCd),nickelzinc(NiZn),nickelmetalhydride(NiMH),andlithiumion(Liion)
cells.Liionhasbyfarthehighestshareofthedrycellrechargeablemarket.NiMHhasreplacedNiCdinmost
applicationsduetoitshighercapacity,butNiCdremainsinuseinpowertools,twowayradios,andmedical
equipment.
RecentdevelopmentsincludebatterieswithembeddedelectronicssuchasUSBCELL,whichallowscharging
anAAbatterythroughaUSBconnector,[25]nanoballbatteriesthatallowforadischargerateabout100x
greaterthancurrentbatteries,andsmartbatterypackswithstateofcharge
monitorsandbatteryprotectioncircuitsthatpreventdamageonoverdischarge.
Lowselfdischarge(LSD)allowssecondarycellstobechargedpriorto
shipping.
Batterycelltypes
Manytypesofelectrochemicalcellshavebeenproduced,withvarying
chemicalprocessesanddesigns,includinggalvaniccells,electrolyticcells,fuel
cells,flowcellsandvoltaicpiles.[26]
Wetcell
Awetcellbatteryhasaliquidelectrolyte.Othernamesarefloodedcell,since
theliquidcoversallinternalparts,orventedcell,sincegasesproducedduring
operationcanescapetotheair.Wetcellswereaprecursortodrycellsandare
commonlyusedasalearningtoolforelectrochemistry.Theycanbebuiltwith
commonlaboratorysupplies,suchasbeakers,fordemonstrationsofhow
electrochemicalcellswork.Aparticulartypeofwetcellknownasa
concentrationcellisimportantinunderstandingcorrosion.
Wetcellsmaybeprimarycells(nonrechargeable)orsecondarycells
(rechargeable).Originally,allpracticalprimarybatteriessuchastheDaniell
cellwerebuiltasopentopglassjarwetcells.Otherprimarywetcellsarethe
Leclanchecell,Grovecell,Bunsencell,Chromicacidcell,Clarkcell,and
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Westoncell.TheLeclanchecellchemistrywasadaptedtothefirstdrycells.
Wetcellsarestillusedinautomobilebatteriesandinindustryforstandby
powerforswitchgear,telecommunicationorlargeuninterruptiblepower
supplies,butinmanyplacesbatterieswithgelcellshavebeenusedinstead.
Theseapplicationscommonlyuseleadacidornickelcadmiumcells.
Drycell
Adrycellusesapasteelectrolyte,withonlyenoughmoisturetoallowcurrent
toflow.Unlikeawetcell,adrycellcanoperateinanyorientationwithout
spilling,asitcontainsnofreeliquid,makingitsuitableforportableequipment.
Bycomparison,thefirstwetcellsweretypicallyfragileglasscontainerswith
leadrodshangingfromtheopentopandneededcarefulhandlingtoavoid
spillage.Leadacidbatteriesdidnotachievethesafetyandportabilityofthe
drycelluntilthedevelopmentofthegelbattery.
Acommondrycellisthezinccarbonbattery,sometimescalledthedry
Leclanchcell,withanominalvoltageof1.5volts,thesameasthealkaline
battery(sincebothusethesamezincmanganesedioxidecombination).
Fromtoptobottom:alarge
4.5volt(3R12)battery,aD
Cell,aCcell,anAAcell,an
AAAcell,anAAAAcell,an
A23battery,a9voltPP3
battery,andapairofbutton
cells(CR2032andLR44)
Astandarddrycellcomprisesazincanode,usuallyintheformofacylindrical
pot,withacarboncathodeintheformofacentralrod.Theelectrolyteis
ammoniumchlorideintheformofapastenexttothezincanode.The
remainingspacebetweentheelectrolyteandcarboncathodeistakenupbya
secondpasteconsistingofammoniumchlorideandmanganesedioxide,the
latteractingasadepolariser.Insomedesigns,theammoniumchlorideis
replacedbyzincchloride.
Moltensalt
Moltensaltbatteriesareprimaryorsecondarybatteriesthatuseamoltensaltas
electrolyte.Theyoperateathightemperaturesandmustbewellinsulatedto
retainheat.
Reserve
Lineartdrawingofadry
cell:
1.brasscap,2.plasticseal,
3.expansionspace,4.porous
cardboard,5.zinccan,6.
carbonrod,7.chemical
mixture
Areservebatterycanbestoredunassembled(unactivatedandsupplyingno
power)foralongperiod(perhapsyears).Whenthebatteryisneeded,thenitis
assembled(e.g.,byaddingelectrolyte)onceassembled,thebatteryischarged
andreadytowork.Forexample,abatteryforanelectronicartilleryfuzemight
beactivatedbytheimpactoffiringagun:Theaccelerationbreaksacapsuleofelectrolytethatactivatesthe
batteryandpowersthefuze'scircuits.Reservebatteriesareusuallydesignedforashortservicelife(secondsor
minutes)afterlongstorage(years).Awateractivatedbatteryforoceanographicinstrumentsormilitary
applicationsbecomesactivatedonimmersioninwater.
Batterycellperformance
Abattery'scharacteristicsmayvaryoverloadcycle,overchargecycle,andoverlifetimeduetomanyfactors
includinginternalchemistry,currentdrain,andtemperature.
Capacityanddischarge
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Abattery'scapacityistheamountofelectricchargeitcandeliverattheratedvoltage.Themoreelectrode
materialcontainedinthecellthegreateritscapacity.Asmallcellhasless
capacitythanalargercellwiththesamechemistry,althoughtheydevelopthe
sameopencircuitvoltage.[27]Capacityismeasuredinunitssuchasamphour
(Ah).
Theratedcapacityofabatteryisusuallyexpressedastheproductof20hours
multipliedbythecurrentthatanewbatterycanconsistentlysupplyfor20hours
at68F(20C),whileremainingaboveaspecifiedterminalvoltagepercell.
Forexample,abatteryratedat100Ahcandeliver5Aovera20hourperiod
atroomtemperature.
Adevicetocheckbattery
voltage
Thefractionofthestoredchargethatabatterycandeliverdependsonmultiple
factors,includingbatterychemistry,therateatwhichthechargeisdelivered
(current),therequiredterminalvoltage,thestorageperiod,ambienttemperature
andotherfactors.[27]
Thehigherthedischargerate,thelowerthecapacity.[28]Therelationship
betweencurrent,dischargetimeandcapacityforaleadacidbatteryisapproximated(overatypicalrangeof
currentvalues)byPeukert'slaw:
where
isthecapacitywhendischargedatarateof1amp.
isthecurrentdrawnfrombattery(A).
istheamountoftime(inhours)thatabatterycansustain.
isaconstantaround1.3.
Batteriesthatarestoredforalongperiodorthataredischargedatasmallfractionofthecapacitylosecapacity
duetothepresenceofgenerallyirreversiblesidereactionsthatconsumechargecarrierswithoutproducing
current.Thisphenomenonisknownasinternalselfdischarge.Further,whenbatteriesarerecharged,additional
sidereactionscanoccur,reducingcapacityforsubsequentdischarges.Afterenoughrecharges,inessenceall
capacityislostandthebatterystopsproducingpower.
Internalenergylossesandlimitationsontheratethationspassthroughtheelectrolytecausebatteryefficiency
tovary.Aboveaminimumthreshold,dischargingatalowratedeliversmoreofthebattery'scapacitythanata
higherrate.
InstallingbatterieswithvaryingAhratingsdoesnotaffectdeviceoperation(althoughitmayaffectthe
operationinterval)ratedforaspecificvoltageunlessloadlimitsareexceeded.Highdrainloadssuchasdigital
camerascanreducetotalcapacity,ashappenswithalkalinebatteries.Forexample,abatteryratedat2Ahfor
a10or20hourdischargewouldnotsustainacurrentof1Aforafulltwohoursasitsstatedcapacityimplies.
Crate
TheCrateisameasureoftherateatwhichabatteryisbeingdischarged.Itisdefinedasthedischargecurrent
dividedbythetheoreticalcurrentdrawunderwhichthebatterywoulddeliveritsnominalratedcapacityinone
hour.[29]A1Cdischargeratewoulddeliverthebattery'sratedcapacityin1hour.A2Cdischargeratemeansit
willdischargetwiceasfast(30minutes).A1Cdischargerateona1.6Ahbatterymeansadischargecurrentof
1.6A.A2Cratewouldmeanadischargecurrentof3.2A.Standardsforrechargeablebatteriesgenerallyrate
thecapacityovera4hour,8hourorlongerdischargetime.Becauseofinternalresistancelossandthe
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chemicalprocessesinsidethecells,abatteryrarelydeliversnameplateratedcapacityinonlyonehour.Types
intendedforspecialpurposes,suchasinacomputeruninterruptiblepowersupply,mayberatedby
manufacturersfordischargeperiodsmuchlessthanonehour.
Fastcharging,largeandlightbatteries
Asof2012,lithiumironphosphate(LiFePO4)batterytechnologywasthefastestcharging/discharging,fully
dischargingin1020seconds.[30]
[[Asof|2013}},theworld'slargestbatterywasinHebeiProvince,China.Itstored36megawatthoursof
electricityatacostof$500million.[31]Anotherlargebattery,composedofNiCdcells,wasinFairbanks,
Alaska.Itcovered2,000squaremetres(22,000sqft)biggerthanafootballpitchandweighed1,300
tonnes.ItwasmanufacturedbyABBtoprovidebackuppowerintheeventofablackout.Thebatterycan
provide40megawattsofpowerforuptosevenminutes.[32]Sodiumsulfurbatterieshavebeenusedtostore
windpower.[33]A4.4megawatthourbatterysystemthatcandeliver11megawattsfor25minutesstabilizes
theoutputoftheAuwahiwindfarminHawaii.[34]Lithiumsulfurbatterieswereusedonthelongestand
highestsolarpoweredflight.[35]Therechargingspeedoflithiumionbatteriescanbeincreasedby
manufacturingchanges.[36]
Batterylifetime
Batterylife(anditssynonymbatterylifetime)hastwomeaningforrechargeablebatteriesbutonlyonefornon
chargeables.Forrechargeables,itcanmean1)thelengthoftimeadevicecanrunonafullychargedbatteryor
2)thenumberofcharge/dischargecyclespossiblebeforethecellsfailtooperatesatisfactorily.Foranon
rechargeablethesetwolivesareequalsincethecellslastforonlyonecyclebydefinition.(Thetermshelflife
isusedtodescribehowlongabatterywillretainitsperformancebetweenmanufactureanduse.)
Availablecapacityofallbatteriesdropswithdecreasingtemperature.Incontrasttomostoftoday'sbatteries,
theZambonipile,inventedin1812,offersaverylongservicelifewithoutrefurbishmentorrecharge,although
itsuppliescurrentonlyinthenanoamprange.TheOxfordElectricBellhasbeenringingalmostcontinuously
since1840onitsoriginalpairofbatteries,thoughttobeZambonipiles.
Selfdischarge
Disposablebatteriestypicallylose8to20percentoftheiroriginalchargeperyearwhenstoredatroom
temperature(2030C).[37]Thisisknownasthe"selfdischarge"rate,andisduetononcurrentproducing
"side"chemicalreactionsthatoccurwithinthecellevenwhennoloadisapplied.Therateofsidereactionsis
reducedforbatteriesarestoredatlowertemperatures,althoughsomecanbedamagedbyfreezing.
Oldrechargeablebatteriesselfdischargemorerapidlythandisposablealkalinebatteries,especiallynickel
basedbatteriesafreshlychargednickelcadmium(NiCd)batteryloses10%ofitschargeinthefirst24hours,
andthereafterdischargesatarateofabout10%amonth.However,newerlowselfdischargenickelmetal
hydride(NiMH)batteriesandmodernlithiumdesignsdisplayalowerselfdischargerate(butstillhigherthan
forprimarybatteries).
Corrosion
Internalpartsmaycorrodeandfail,ortheactivematerialsmaybeslowlyconvertedtoinactiveforms.
Physicalcomponentchanges
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Theactivematerialonthebatteryplateschangeschemicalcompositiononeachchargeanddischargecycle
activematerialmaybelostduetophysicalchangesofvolume,furtherlimitingthenumberoftimesthebattery
canberecharged.
Mostnickelbasedbatteriesarepartiallydischargedwhenpurchased,
andmustbechargedbeforefirstuse.[38]NewerNiMHbatteriesare
readytobeusedwhenpurchased,andhaveonly15%dischargeina
year.[39]
Somedeteriorationoccursoneachchargedischargecycle.Degradation
usuallyoccursbecauseelectrolytemigratesawayfromtheelectrodesor
becauseactivematerialdetachesfromtheelectrodes.
Rechargeablebatteries
LowcapacityNiMHbatteries(1,7002,000mAh)canbecharged
some1,000times,whereashighcapacityNiMHbatteries(above
2,500mAh)lastabout500cycles.[40]NiCdbatteriestendtoberatedfor1,000cyclesbeforetheirinternal
resistancepermanentlyincreasesbeyondusablevalues.
Charge/dischargespeed
Fastchargingincreasescomponentchanges,shorteningbatterylifespan.[40]
Overcharging
Ifachargercannotdetectwhenthebatteryisfullychargedthenoverchargingislikely,damagingit.[41]
Memoryeffect
NiCdcells,ifusedinaparticularrepetitivemanner,mayshowadecreaseincapacitycalled"memory
effect".[42]Theeffectcanbeavoidedwithsimplepractices.NiMHcells,althoughsimilarinchemistry,suffer
lessfrommemoryeffect.[43]
Environmentalconditions
Automotiveleadacidrechargeablebatteriesmustendurestressdueto
vibration,shock,andtemperaturerange.Becauseofthesestressesand
sulfationoftheirleadplates,fewautomotivebatterieslastbeyondsix
yearsofregularuse.[44]Automotivestarting(SLI:Starting,Lighting,
Ignition)batterieshavemanythinplatestomaximizecurrent.Ingeneral,
thethickertheplatesthelongerthelife.Theyaretypicallydischarged
onlyslightlybeforerecharge.
"Deepcycle"leadacidbatteriessuchasthoseusedinelectricgolf
cartshavemuchthickerplatestoextendlongevity.[45]Themainbenefit
oftheleadacidbatteryisitslowcostitsmaindrawbacksarelargesize
andweightforagivencapacityandvoltage.
Leadacidbatteriesshouldneverbedischargedtobelow20%oftheir
capacity,[46]becauseinternalresistancewillcauseheatanddamage
whentheyarerecharged.Deepcycleleadacidsystemsoftenusea
lowchargewarninglightoralowchargepowercutoffswitchto
preventthetypeofdamagethatwillshortenthebattery'slife.[47]
Ananalogcamcorder[lithiumion]
battery
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Storage
Batterylifecanbeextendedbystoringthebatteriesatalowtemperature,asinarefrigeratororfreezer,which
slowsthesidereactions.Suchstoragecanextendthelifeofalkalinebatteriesbyabout5%rechargeable
batteriescanholdtheirchargemuchlonger,dependingupontype.[48]Toreachtheirmaximumvoltage,
batteriesmustbereturnedtoroomtemperaturedischarginganalkalinebatteryat250mAat0Cisonlyhalf
asefficientasat20C.[23]AlkalinebatterymanufacturerssuchasDuracelldonotrecommendrefrigerating
batteries.[22]
Batterysizes
Primarybatteriesreadilyavailabletoconsumersrangefromtinybuttoncellsusedforelectricwatches,tothe
No.6cellusedforsignalcircuitsorotherlongdurationapplications.Secondarycellsaremadeinverylarge
sizesverylargebatteriescanpowerasubmarineorstabilizeanelectricalgridandhelpleveloutpeakloads.
Hazards
Explosion
Abatteryexplosioniscausedbymisuseormalfunction,suchasattemptingtorechargeaprimary(non
rechargeable)battery,orashortcircuit.Carbatteriesaremostlikelytoexplodewhenashortcircuitgenerates
verylargecurrents.Carbatteriesproducehydrogen,whichisveryexplosive,whentheyareovercharged
(becauseofelectrolysisofthewaterintheelectrolyte).Theamountofoverchargingisusuallyverysmalland
generateslittlehydrogen,whichdissipatesquickly.However,when"jumping"acarbattery,thehighcurrent
cancausetherapidreleaseoflargevolumesofhydrogen,whichcanbeignitedexplosivelybyanearbyspark,
forexample,whendisconnectingajumpercable.
Whenabatteryisrechargedatanexcessiverate,anexplosivegasmixtureofhydrogenandoxygenmaybe
producedfasterthanitcanescapefromwithinthebattery,leadingtopressurebuildupandeventualburstingof
thebatterycase.Inextremecases,batteryacidmaysprayviolentlyfromthecasingandcauseinjury.
Overchargingthatis,attemptingtochargeabatterybeyonditselectricalcapacitycanalsoleadtoabattery
explosion,inadditiontoleakageorirreversibledamage.Itmayalsocausedamagetothechargerordevicein
whichtheoverchargedbatteryislaterused.Inaddition,disposingofabatteryviaincinerationmaycausean
explosionassteambuildsupwithinthesealedcase.
Leakage
Manybatterychemicalsarecorrosive,poisonousorboth.Ifleakage
occurs,eitherspontaneouslyorthroughaccident,thechemicalsreleased
maybedangerous.
Forexample,disposablebatteriesoftenuseazinc"can"bothasa
reactantandasthecontainertoholdtheotherreagents.Ifthiskindof
batteryisoverdischarged,thereagentscanemergethroughthe
cardboardandplasticthatformtheremainderofthecontainer.The
activechemicalleakagecanthendamagetheequipmentthatthe
batteriespower.Forthisreason,manyelectronicdevicemanufacturers
recommendremovingthebatteriesfromdevicesthatwillnotbeused
forextendedperiodsoftime.
Leakdamagedalkalinebattery
Toxicmaterials
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1/15/2016
Manytypesofbatteriesemploytoxicmaterialssuchaslead,mercury,andcadmiumasanelectrodeor
electrolyte.Wheneachbatteryreachesendoflifeitmustbedisposedoftopreventenvironmentaldamage.[49]
Batteriesareoneformofelectronicwaste(ewaste).
Ewasterecyclingservicesrecovertoxicsubstances,whichcanthenbeusedfornewbatteries.[50]
OfthenearlythreebillionbatteriespurchasedannuallyintheUnitedStates,about179,000tonsendupin
landfillsacrossthecountry.[51]
IntheUnitedStates,theMercuryContainingandRechargeableBatteryManagementActof1996bannedthe
saleofmercurycontainingbatteries,enacteduniformlabelingrequirementsforrechargeablebatteriesand
requiredthatrechargeablebatteriesbeeasilyremovable.[52]CaliforniaandNewYorkCityprohibitthedisposal
ofrechargeablebatteriesinsolidwaste,andalongwithMainerequirerecyclingofcellphones.[53]The
rechargeablebatteryindustryoperatesnationwiderecyclingprogramsintheUnitedStatesandCanada,with
dropoffpointsatlocalretailers.[53]
TheBatteryDirectiveoftheEuropeanUnionhassimilarrequirements,inadditiontorequiringincreased
recyclingofbatteriesandpromotingresearchonimprovedbatteryrecyclingmethods.[54]Inaccordancewith
thisdirectiveallbatteriestobesoldwithintheEUmustbemarkedwiththe"collectionsymbol"(acrossedout
wheeledbin).Thismustcoveratleast3%ofthesurfaceofprismaticbatteriesand1.5%ofthesurfaceof
cylindricalbatteries.Allpackagingmustbemarkedlikewise.[55]
Ingestion
Batteriesmaybeharmfulorfatalifswallowed.[56]
Smallbuttoncellscanbeswallowed,inparticularbyyoungchildren.Whileinthedigestivetract,thebattery's
electricaldischargemayleadtotissuedamage[57]suchdamageisoccasionallyseriousandcanleadtodeath.
Ingesteddiskbatteriesdonotusuallycauseproblemsunlesstheybecomelodgedinthegastrointestinaltract.
Themostcommonplacefordiskbatteriestobecomelodgedistheesophagus,resultinginclinicalsequelae.
Batteriesthatsuccessfullytraversetheesophagusareunlikelytolodgeelsewhere.Thelikelihoodthatadisk
batterywilllodgeintheesophagusisafunctionofthepatient'sageandbatterysize.Diskbatteriesof16mm
havebecomelodgedintheesophagiof2childrenyoungerthan1year.Olderchildrendonothaveproblems
withbatteriessmallerthan2123mm.Liquefactionnecrosismayoccurbecausesodiumhydroxideisgenerated
bythecurrentproducedbythebattery(usuallyattheanode).Perforationhasoccurredasrapidlyas6hours
afteringestion.[58]
Batterychemistry
Primarybatteriesandtheircharacteristics
Chemistry
Anode
()
Cathode
(+)
Max.
voltage,
theoretical
(V)
Zinccarbon
Zn
MnO2
1.6
Zincchloride
1.5
Nominal
voltage,
practical
(V)
Specific
energy
(MJ/kg)
Elaboration
Shelflife
at25C,
80%
capacity
(months)
1.2
0.13
Inexpensive.
18
Alsoknownas
"heavyduty",
inexpensive.
11/17
1/15/2016
Alkaline
(zinc
manganese
dioxide)
Zn
MnO2
Nickel
oxyhydroxide
(zinc
manganese
dioxide/nickel
oxyhydroxide)
Lithium
(lithium
copperoxide)
LiCuO
Lithium
(lithiumiron
disulfide)
LiFeS2
Li
FeS2
Lithium
(lithium
manganese
dioxide)
LiMnO2
1.5
1.15
0.40.59
Moderate
energydensity.
Goodforhigh 30
andlowdrain
uses.
1.7
Moderate
energydensity.
Goodforhigh
drainuses.
1.7
Nolonger
manufactured.
Replacedby
silveroxide
(IECtype
"SR")
batteries.
1.8
1.07
Expensive.
Usedin'plus'
or'extra'
batteries.
0.831.01
Expensive.
Usedonlyin
highdrain
devicesorfor
longshelflife
duetoverylow
rateofself
discharge.
'Lithium'alone
usuallyrefers
tothistypeof
chemistry.
1.5
3.0
337[59]
Lithium
(lithium
carbon
fluoride)
Li(CF)n
Li
(CF)n
3.6
3.0
120
Lithium
(lithium
chromium
oxide)
LiCrO2
Li
CrO2
3.8
3.0
108
Mercuryoxide Zn
HgO
1.34
1.2
Zincair
O2
1.6
1.1
Zn
Highdrainand
constant
voltage.
Bannedin
36
mostcountries
becauseof
health
concerns.
1.59[60]
Usedmostlyin
hearingaids.
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Zambonipile
Zn
AgorAu
0.8
Verylonglife
Verylow
>2,000
(nanoamp,nA)
current
Very
expensive.
Usedonly
commercially
in'button'
cells.
Silveroxide
(silverzinc)
Zn
Ag2O
1.85
1.5
Magnesium
Mg
MnO2
2.0
1.5
0.47
30
40
Secondary(rechargeable)batteriesandtheircharacteristics
Chemistry
NiCd
Leadacid
NiMH
NiZn
AgZn
Cell
voltage
1.2
2.1
1.2
1.6
1.86
1.5
Specific
energy
(MJ/kg)
Comments
0.14
Inexpensive.
High/lowdrain,moderateenergydensity.
Canwithstandveryhighdischargerateswithvirtuallynolossof
capacity.
Moderaterateofselfdischarge.
EnvironmentalhazardduetoCadmiumusenowvirtuallyprohibited
inEurope.
0.14
Moderatelyexpensive.
Moderateenergydensity.
Moderaterateofselfdischarge.
Higherdischargeratesresultinconsiderablelossofcapacity.
EnvironmentalhazardduetoLead.
CommonuseAutomobilebatteries
0.36
Inexpensive.
Performsbetterthanalkalinebatteriesinhigherdraindevices.
Traditionalchemistryhashighenergydensity,butalsoahighrateof
selfdischarge.
Newerchemistryhaslowselfdischargerate,butalsoa~25%lower
energydensity.
Usedinsomecars.
0.36
Moderatelyinexpensive.
Highdraindevicesuitable.
Lowselfdischargerate.
Voltageclosertoalkalineprimarycellsthanothersecondarycells.
Notoxiccomponents.
Newlyintroducedtothemarket(2009).Hasnotyetestablishedatrack
record.
Limitedsizeavailability.
0.46
SmallervolumethanequivalentLiion.
Extremelyexpensiveduetosilver.
Veryhighenergydensity.
Veryhighdraincapable.
Formanyyearsconsideredobsoleteduetohighsilverprices.
Cellsuffersfromoxidationifunused.
Reactionsarenotfullyunderstood.
Terminalvoltageverystablebutsuddenlydropsto1.5voltsat70
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80%charge(believedtobe
duetopresenceofbothargentousandargenticoxideinpositiveplate
oneisconsumedfirst).
Hasbeenusedinlieuofprimarybattery(moonbuggy).
IsbeingdevelopedonceagainasareplacementforLiion.
Lithiumion
3.6
0.46
Veryexpensive.
Veryhighenergydensity.
Notusuallyavailablein"common"batterysizes.
Verycommoninlaptopcomputers,moderatetohighenddigital
cameras,camcorders,andcellphones.
Verylowrateofselfdischarge.
Tendstorequireeitheruserawarenessoradedicatedmanagement
systemtoslowdownthegraduallossofcapacity.
Terminalvoltageunstable(variesfrom4.2to3.0voltsduring
discharge).
Volatile:Chanceofexplosionifshortcircuited,allowedtooverheat,
ornotmanufacturedwithrigorousqualitystandards.
Homemadecells
Almostanyliquidormoistobjectthathasenoughionstobeelectricallyconductivecanserveastheelectrolyte
foracell.Asanoveltyorsciencedemonstration,itispossibletoinserttwoelectrodesmadeofdifferentmetals
intoalemon,[61]potato,[62]etc.andgeneratesmallamountsofelectricity."Twopotatoclocks"arealsowidely
availableinhobbyandtoystorestheyconsistofapairofcells,eachconsistingofapotato(lemon,etcetera)
withtwoelectrodesinsertedintoit,wiredinseriestoformabatterywithenoughvoltagetopoweradigital
clock.[63]Homemadecellsofthiskindareofnopracticaluse.
Avoltaicpilecanbemadefromtwocoins(suchasanickelandapenny)andapieceofpapertoweldippedin
saltwater.Suchapilegeneratesaverylowvoltagebut,whenmanyarestackedinseries,theycanreplace
normalbatteriesforashorttime.[64]
Sonyhasdevelopedabiologicalbatterythatgenerateselectricityfromsugarinawaythatissimilartothe
processesobservedinlivingorganisms.Thebatterygenerateselectricitythroughtheuseofenzymesthatbreak
downcarbohydrates.[65]
Leadacidcellscaneasilybemanufacturedathome,butatediouscharge/dischargecycleisneededto'form'the
plates.Thisisaprocessinwhichleadsulfateformsontheplates,andduringchargeisconvertedtolead
dioxide(positiveplate)andpurelead(negativeplate).Repeatingthisprocessresultsinamicroscopically
roughsurface,increasingthesurfacearea,increasingthecurrentthecellcandeliver.[66]
Daniellcellsareeasytomakeathome.Aluminiumairbatteriescanbeproducedwithhighpurityaluminium.
Aluminiumfoilbatterieswillproducesomeelectricity,butarenotefficient,inpartbecauseasignificant
amountof(combustible)hydrogengasisproduced.
Seealso
Batteryelectricvehicle
Battery(vacuumtube)
Batteryholder
Batteryisolator
Batterymanagementsystem
Batterynomenclature
Batterypack
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