DESALINATION

Desalination 164 (2004) 203-211

ELSEVIER

~ww, d~evter:eam/t~ale/~t~l

Sand filtration of wastewater for tertiary treatment

and water reuse
M.F. Hamoda*, I. A1-Ghusain, N.Z. AL-Mutairi
Department of Civil Engineering, Kuwait University, PO Box 5969, Safat 13060, Kuwait
Tel. +965 481-7240 Fax +965 481-7524; email: hamoda@civil.kuniv.edu.kw
Received 19 December 2002; accepted 11 November 2003

Abstract
The performance of rapid sand filters was evaluated in three tertiary wastewater treatment plants in the State of
Kuwait. These plants are located at Ardiya, Rikka and Jahra, and receive municipal wastewater flows of 220,000,
95,000 and 42,000 m3 d- ~, respectively. The Ardiya plant uses a two-stage activated sludge process for the secondary
treatment ofwastewater whereas both the Rikka and Jahra plants use the extended aeration process. Daily records were
obtained from each plant over a period of 1 year, and the efficiency of the tertiary sand filters was determined based
on reductions in SS, VSS, BOD, and COD. Analysis of these records showed that the secondary-treated effluent quality
is highly variable. Seasonal variations were observed due to nitrification and denitriflcation that enhance the production
of nitrogen gas and carry over of sludge solids in the effluent during summer, causing more frequent backwashing of
the filters. The data were also statistically analyzed using the ANOVA program. The results obtained indicated
significant improvements, at 95% and 99% significance levels, in solids (SS, VSS) and organics (BOD, COD) removal
by sand filtration. They also showed that, in addition to improving effluent quality, the tertiary filtration played an
important role in the stability of effluent quality so as to dampen variations in the quality of secondary-treated effluent.
The tertiary effluent consistently satisfied the water quality requirements for irrigation.
Keywords: Effluent variability; Plant performance; Sand filtration; Wastewater treatment; Water reuse

1. Introduction
Water resources management is a predominant
problem for future development in the Arabian
Gulf region. While water demand will continue to
increase, the limited amount o f natural fresh

*Corresponding author.

water available will always impose great challenges to water resources management in the
region. Such a conflict could be resolved by different means among which reuse o f treated wastewater effluents has emerged as a renewable
resource that increases in amount with the
increase in water use. Therefore, wastewater
treatment plants in the region have implemented

0011-9164/04/$- See front matter 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved
PII: $ 0 0 1 1 - 9 1 6 4 ( 0 4 ) 0 0 1 8 9 - 4

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M.F. Hamoda et al. / Desalination 164 (2004) 203-211

tertiary filtration of secondary-treated effluents to

improve water quality for possible reuse in
irrigation.
The importance of wastewater treatment and
reuse in the field of water resources management
is now commonly acknowledged. In planning and
implementing wastewater treatment and reuse,
water reuse applications usually govern the
wastewater treatment needed and the degree of
reliability required for the treatment processes
and operations [1,2]. Perhaps, agricultural and
landscape irrigation is the largest current use of
reclaimed wastewater [3]. Irrigation uses can
offer significant opportunity for water reuse
since, in many arid and semi-arid regions, 7090% of applied water is used in irrigation. In the
Arabian Gulf region, much of the attention
focused on reclaimed water over the last decade
has been for use in the urban environment, such
as for landscape irrigation, and for its potential
for groundwater recharge [4].
Because of the stringent water quality requirements imposed upon water reuse applications, the
importance of granular-medium filtration as a
tertiary treatment step has been demonstrated.
The filtration removes substantial numbers of
particles in wastewater and thus promotes effective disinfection as well as esthetic acceptance of
reclaimed water for beneficial uses. Although
granular media filtration has been practiced in the
water treatment field for a long time [5], design
criteria for wastewater filters cannot be derived
directly from experience in potable water systems. Waterworks filters are generally operated at
constant rates under relatively steady suspendedsolids loading. Unless equalization is provided, a
wastewater plant must handle a varying rate of
flow with peak hydraulic and solids loadings
occurring simultaneously. Particulate matter
found in typical wastewaters is less predictable
and much more "sticky" than water-plant solids,
thus making filter backwashing more difficult.
Also, the nature of suspended matter is not
consistent and varies with the preceding treatment

processes. Microbial flocs are the dominant

suspended solids (SS) following secondary biological treatment. Experience indicates that filtration following secondary biological treatment can
reduce SS to a level of5-10 mg/1, so the expected
performance of a well-designed and properly
operated system is an effluent with total S S (TSS)
and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) concentrations of less than 10 rag/1. However, chemical
treatment prior to filtration may be required to
consistently produce an effluent of less than
5 mg/1 of TSS and 5 mg/t of BOD [6].
In view of the importance of granular media
filtration for effluent quality improvement in
wastewater treatment plants, this study was conducted in order to evaluate the actual performance
of tertiary filtration of municipal wastewater. For
this purpose, three wastewater treatment plants in
Kuwait were selected.

2. Background
The Kuwait sewerage system consists of a
sanitary sewer network, lifting pumps stations,
main screw pumps stations and three major
municipal treatment plants - - Ardiya, Rikka and
Jahra. A brief summary of the important features
of each treatment plant is presented in Table 1.
The largest municipal wastewater treatment
plant in Kuwait is the Ardiya plant constructed in
1965. The design capacity of the plant is
190,000 m3.d-1 serving the area of Kuwait City.
The Ardiya plant is divided into two parts. Part
one is called old plant and part two is the
extension plant. In both parts of the plant, the
wastewater is preliminary treated by screening
and grit removal, secondary treated by activated
sludge aeration and settling in clarifiers, and
tertiary treated by sand filtration and chlorination.
It is to be mentioned that the biological treatment
used in the old plant is single-stage aeration and
settling whereas in the extension plant wastewater
passes into two stages of aeration and settling.
The plant achieves an overall average of 97.3%

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M.F. Hamoda et al. / Desalination 164 (2004) 203-211

Table 1
Operating data of municipal wastewater treatment plants in Kuwaita
Parameter

Location
Design flow, m3d <
Actual flow, m 3 d ~
Secondary treatment
processes
Tertiary treatment
processes

Plants
Ardiya

Rikka

Jahra

Capital City
190,000
220,000
Two-stage activated
sludge
Granular media
filtration and chlorination

Ahmadi
120,000
95,000
Extended aeration

Jahra
70,000
42,000
Extended aeration

Granular media
filtrationand chlorination

Granular media
filtration and chlorination

aBased on plant records of 1997.

reduction in BOD and a 94.6% reduction in TSS.
About 30% of the tertiary treated effluent of the
plant is used for irrigation.
The Rikka wastewater treatment plant serves
the southern area o f Kuwait City (Ahmadi zone).
It was constructed in 1982 and designed to treat
85,000 m3.d -l. A new extension plant was constructed to increase its capacity to 120,000 m3.d-1.
The average daily flow is about 95,000 m3.d-1
whereas the peak is about 106,000 m3/d-1. The
scheme of the Rikka plant is similar to that of the
Ardiya plant except in the secondary biological
stage where the extended aeration process is
employed. The plant achieves removal efficiencies of about 98%, 99% and 99.9% for TSS,
BOD and Coliform bacteria, respectively. About
40% of the tertiary treated effluent of the plant is
used for irrigation.
The Jahra wastewater treatment plant was
designed to receive 70,000 m3.d -1 of sewage
serving the western part of Kuwait with plans to
increase the plant capacity to 120,000 m 3.d- 1. The
average flow is 42,000 m3.d ~ and the peak flow
is approximately 60,000 m3.d-1. The wastewater
treatment scheme at Jahra is similar to the Ardiya
plant except that the extended aeration process is
employed in the secondary biological stage. The
average reductions in wastewater parameters

TSS, BOD, and ammonia-nitrogen achieved by

the Jahra plant are 97.6%, 98.3%, and 74.7%,
respectively. Approximately 40-50% of the tertiary treated effluent of the plant is pumped for
reuse in irrigation.
The type of filters used in the tertiary treatment stage at the three plants is the gravity, rapid
sand filter, which is composed of 60 cm sand
layer overlaying a 40 cm gravel layer acting as
support media. The filters are designed and
operated to provide an average filtration rate of
5 m 3 m2.h -1. Backwashing of the filters is accomplished for 15 min daily using compressed air and
pressurized water. No chemical addition (e.g.,
alum, polymer, etc.) is used prior to filtration at
any of the three plants. Chlorine is added before
and after sand filters. Prechlorination is used to
kill algae responsible for filter clogging whereas
postchlorination is used to achieve effective disinfection of the final effluent.

3. Methodology
Statistical analyses were performed on the
secondary (after clarification) and tertiary (after
filtration) effluents using plant data on the effluents in each of the three wastewater treatment
plants in Kuwait for the year 1997 (January 1 to

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M.F. Hamoda et al. / Desalination 164 (2004) 203-211

December 31). The parameters considered were

TSS, volatile suspended solids (VSS), chemical
oxygen demand (COD) and BOD. More than 300
data points were obtained for each parameter in
each treatment plant. The characteristics of the
secondary and tertiary effluents were compared
using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) as a
statistical technique to demonstrate the effect of
tertiary filtration on water quality. The test was
performed at confidence intervals of 95% and
99%. A computer program (Microcal origin) was
used for this purpose.
The daily data from each treatment plant were
entered separately for each month using a spreadsheet program (Microsoft Excel) to study the
monthly and yearly variations for each of the four
parameters. Additional work was done on the
secondary and tertiary effluents data of the
Ardiya treatment plant since the data were obtained from three streams (old section and two
extensions) at the end of the secondary treatment
stage. These streams join in one point before the
tertiary treatment stage. Thus, a mass balance was
made on each parameter at the collection point of
the three streams to determine the equivalent
concentration (weighted average) of the outlet
concentration in the secondary stage. This was
not required in the case of the Rikka and Jahra
treatment plants where a single stream for
secondary treated effluent exists. The data were
also analyzed to compare the winter and summer
performance of each plant. The average liquid
temperature during winter months (December,
January and February) is 22C whereas for the
summer months (July, August and September) is
35C. The average ambient air temperatures are
18C and 50C, respectively.

4. Results and discussion

The data collected from each treatment plant

were statistically analyzed and the results were
used to determine (1) the efficiency of tertiary

filtration, (2) the variations in plant performance,

and (3) the quality of the tertiary-treated effluent.
4.1. Efficiency o f tertiary filtration

Table 2 summarizes the results obtained from

statistical analysis of secondary and tertiary
effluents for the four tested parameters: TSS,
VSS, COD and BOD. The mean, minimum and
maximum values as well as the standard deviation
and coefficient of variation are presented. Data on
VSS concentration were missing from the records
of the Jahra plant.
The reliability of tertiary filtration can be
assessed in terms of its ability to produce
consistently acceptable reclaimed wastewater.
Table 2 shows that the secondary effluent characteristics varied within a wider range and exhibited
relatively higher variability than the tertiary
effluent for the parameters tested. Variability in
secondary-treated effluent quality may be taken
as an indication of an inherent in-plant treatment
problem or a problem caused by diurnal or seasonal variations in influent wastewater flow and
characteristics as well as process control practices. Perhaps the most apparent problem arises
from nitrifictation-denitrification, especially
during the summer months. This was the case in
the Ardiya plant where dissolved oxygen concentration in aeration tanks is low and denitrification results in the production of nitrogen gas.
In the secondary clarifiers the gas bubbles attach
to the sludge causing rising sludge particles
which are carried out in the secondary effluent.
As the effluent reaches the tertiary filters, it
causes filter clogging, which ultimately shortens
the filter runs and requires more frequent backwashing of the filters.
A distribution of percent reduction of the
tested parameters is displayed in Fig. 1, which
indicates that the Jahra treatment plant has the
highest removal efficiency. According to this
graph, the highest removal in tertiary treatment
for TSS is 70%, for VSS is 56%, for COD is 38%

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M.F. Hamoda et al. / Desalination 164 (2004)203-211

Table 2
Analyses of secondary and tertiary-treated effluents in three plants" in Kuwait
Plant

Parameter Wastewatertype
Secondary effluent

Ardiya

Rikka

Jahra

TSS
VSS
COD
BOD
TSS
VSS
COD
BOD
TSS
VSS
COD
BOD

Max.,
rag/1

Min.,
mg/1

mg/1

13.9
10.5
62.5
10.0
8.5
6.8
32.6
9.5
11.5
6.9
51.9
9.1

48.4
37.7
117.4
46.3
20
18.6
260
19.8
8
15
86
38

4.8
3.5
9.0
1.1
1.8
1
10
2.1
0
0
6.8
2

5,9
4.6
10.8
4.4
3.9
3.3
15.3
3.4
5.0
2.4
10.1
2.6

80

Ardiya plant

70

6O

z
w

50

o
~_

4O

I.I.

"~
..J

30

<>
o

20

[] Rikka plant

IM

0
TSS

VSS

42.6
43.4
17.3
43.1
45.5
49.2
46.8
35.7
45.5
34.6
39.4
28.1

Tertiary effluent
Mean, M a x . , M i n . , Stdv b,
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1 rag/1

C.V.c

9.2
6.8
49.4
4.3
3.9
2.9
25.8
3.7
5.2
NDa
32.6
2.7

32.3
38.1
12.6
37.7
32.9
39.2
28.0
29.6
24.9
ND
26.4
27.0

21
16
74
21
9.8
8.9
49
9.7
11
ND
56
5.1

3
2
5
1
1
0.8
10
1
0.9
ND
4
1

4.8
3.9
10.2
2.9
2.1
1.8
7.2
1.8
1.3
ND
9.3
0.7

bStandard deviation.
dNot determined.

"Based on 1997 records.

Coefficientof variation.

>o

Stdv b, C.V.c

Mean,
mg/1

COD

BOD

Fig. 1. Removal efficiency of test parameters by tertiary

filtration.
and for BOD is 54%. The average removal efficiencies ofTSS, VSS, COD and BOD obtained in
the plants considered in this study lie within the
values reported in the literature for granular
media filtration [6,7]. The relatively low effi-

ciencies obtained at the Ardiya plant compared to

the other two plants (Rikka and Jahra) were
presumably due to hydraulic overloading as the
actual flow received at the plant far exceeds its
design capacity. It is also evident that the twostage activated process used at the Ardiya plant
was less efficient compared to the extended aeration process used at the other two plants (Rikka
and Jahra).
The reduction of BOD and COD by sand
filtration may be helped by the VSS removed by
filtration. It is unlikely that the organics were
removed by biological activities in the filter since
the influent to the filter was prechlorinated. This,
in turn, will limit microbial growth in the filter.
Moreover, the filter medium is backwashed daily;
thus, microbial attachments (biofilms) are washed
out and would not accumulate in the filter. On the
other hand, organics could have been chemically

208

M.F. Hamoda et al. / Desalination 164 (2004) 203-211

oxidized by chlorination which would result in

partial reduction in the COD value.

4.2. Variations in plant performance

The daily data collected from each plant were
compiled separately for each month of the year
using a spread sheet program (Microsoft Excel) to
examine the monthly variations of each of the
four tested parameters (TSS, VSS, COD and
BOD). Moreover, the ANOVA test provided a
statistical answer to whether the results obtained
(average of each parameter before and after filtration) are indeed significantly different, i.e., is
there effective reduction in the value of each
tested parameter due to tertiary filtration. The test
was performed at confidence levels of 95% and
99%. The results of the ANOVA test are pre-

sented in Table 3. These results clearly indicate

significant improvement in effluent quality due to
tertiary filtration based on statistical analysis of
TSS, VSS, COD and BOD data collected from
each plant.
The monthly variations in plant performance
based on percentage removal in TSS and BOD at
the Jahra plant are shown in Fig. 2 as an example.
Similar patterns were obtained at the three plants
studied and the four parameters tested indicating
seasonal variations in plant performance. Such
variations were also demonstrated by statistical
analysis using the ANOVA test as presented in
Table 4 for the winter (December, January,
February) and the summer (June, July, August)
months. In the summer, the higher water temperature (lower viscosity) results in increased
35-

-u-Tertiary effluent

30
70

25

6o
o

50

-,-

80D

10

TSS

10.
n, 0

5
0

10

MONTH

15

20

25

30

35

40

Fig. 2. M o n t h l y variations in the efficiency o f

tertiary filtration at the Jahra plant.

TSS
VSS
COD
BOD

Ardiya plant

50

Fig. 3. Weekly variations in BOD of secondary and

tertiary-treated effluents at the Rikka plant.

Table 3
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) on secondary and tertiary-treated effluents at three plants in Kuwait"
Parameter

45

DURATION IN WEEKS

Rikka Plant

Jahra Plant

95% b

99% b

95%

99%

95%

99%

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes
Yes
No
Yes

No
No
No
Yes

Yes
ND c
No
Yes

Yes
ND
No
Yes

aResults of ANOVA test using 1997 plant records.

bSignificance level (Yes = significant; No = insignifcant at the specified level).
Not determined.

209

M.F. Hamoda et al. / Desalination 164 (2004) 203-211

filtration rates while the higher TSS concentration

in the influent results in increased removal rates.
Both factors would ultimately contribute to maxim u m efficiencies in the summer months. However, in spite of such variations in removal
efficiencies, the plants consistently maintained
good quality effluent after tertiary filtration
(Table 2).
Weekly variations in both the secondary and
tertiary-treated effluents are displayed in Fig. 3
for BOD at the Rikka plant. This figure clearly
demonstrates that, in spite of significant variations in the quality of the secondary-treated
effluent, the quality of the tertiary-treated effluent
remained essentially unchanged. Similar observations were made for other parameters tested (TS S,
VSS and COD) at the three plants studied. This
indicates that tertiary filtration contributes to the
production of highly stable effluent by dampening daily variations in influent quality and in
plant performance.
4.3. Treated effluent quality

The main characteristics of the tertiary-treated

effluent from the studied plants are presented in

Table 5 along with the guidelines for water reuse

in landscape irrigation. It is evident that the
tertiary-treated effluent satisfies the requirements
for landscape irrigation concerning the specified
parameters shown in Table 5 [8-10].
The recent trend toward the use of tertiarytreated wastewater for landscape irrigation in an
urban environment has resulted in greater exposure of the public to reclaimed wastewater. Thus
the major concerns for such water reuse application are health risks caused by pathogens,
organics and heavy metals, and by aesthetics
related to public acceptance. To satisfy these
concerns, tertiary filtration is practiced in order to
(1) remove residual SS found in secondary effluents that may interfere with subsequent disinfection and may lower the efficiency of the
irrigation system used, (2) reduce the concentration of organic matter that can react with
chlorine, and (3) improve the aesthetic quality of
the reclaimed wastewater by reducing its SS/
turbidity. As the filtered effluent (Table 5) is low
in SS, thus reduce shielding of pathogens during
disinfection and as sufficient chlorine dose
(10 ppm) and contact time (1 h) are provided for
reclaimed wastewater at the three plants studied,

Table 4
Seasonal variations in the maximum and minimum removal efficiencies of tertiary filtration at the three plants in Kuwait
Parameter

TSS
VSS
COD
BOD

Ardiya plant

Rikka plant

Jahra plant

Maximuma

Minimums

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum Minimum

Summer
(August)
Summer
(August)
Summer
(July)
Summer
(June)

Winter
(February)
Winter
(February)
Winter
(February)
Winter
(January)

Summer
(July)
Summer
(July)
Summer
(June)
Fall
(October)

Winter
(February)
Winter
December
Winter
(January)
Winter
(February)

Fall
(October)

"Based on statistical analysis of monthly records.

bNot determined.

ND b

Winter
(December)
ND

Summer
(June)
Summer
(July)

Winter
(January)
Winter
(December)

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M.F. Hamoda et al. / Desalination 164 (2004) 203-211

Table 5
Characteristics of tertiary effluent in three municipal wastewater treatment plants in Kuwait~
Parameterb

TSS
BOD
COD
NO3-N
P-PO 4

Conductivity,mhos/cm
pH
TDS
Sulfates
Chlorides
Calcium
Sodium
Potassium
Copper
Zinc
Lead
Cadmium
Nickel
Total coliforms,
MPN/100 ml
"Average values.

Raw
wastewater

300
400
740
ND(3)
15
1650
6-7.5
1280
300
320
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND

Tertiary-treated effluent

Guidelines for
landscape irrigation

Ardiya

Rikka

Jahra

9.2
4.3
49.4
8.4
8.0
1918
7.1
1227
223
297
79.0
248
15.9
0.0048
0.0563
0.0031
0.0003
0.0051
2

3.9
3.7
25.8
9.1
6.8
1965
6.8
1228
185
260
76.0
283
17.7
0.0027
0.0462
0.0017
0.0003
0.0028
0

5.2
2.7
32.6
15.3
9.9
1440
7.0
1266
275
231
99.5
338
23.4
0.0025
0.0763
0.0036
0.0005
0.0041
0

ball in mg 1-] except as otherwise indicated.

efficient inactivation and removal o f bacterial and

viral pathogens is achieved. It would be safe,
therefore, to use the tertiary-treated effluent in
landscape irrigation.

4.4. Economic and environmental benefits o f

effluent reuse

Wastewater treatment has a major impact on

the social and economic well-being of the people
in Kuwait. The tertiary treated effluent produced
at municipal wastewater treatment plants is suitable for reuse in irrigation since the existing
granular media filtration system is capable of

10
10
75
20
30
750-2000
6.5-8.5
1500
100-380
140-350
45
7O
26
0.2
2.0
0.5
0.01
0.2
2.2

CNotdetermined.

removing residual S S. Currently about 40% of the

treated effluent is used in landscape irrigation in
Kuwait with plans to reuse almost all of the
treated effluent in the near future. This has a great
potential in the development of the limited fresh
water resources in the country. Moreover, disposal of excess treated effluent in the Gulf water
has no adverse impact on the marine environment. The economic impact of water reuse on
water resource conservation in Kuwait is obvious.
On the other hand, based on current cost figures
from wastewater treatment plants in Kuwait, the
cost of producing treated effluent using filtration
and chlorination for tertiary treatment is about

M.F. Hamoda et al. / Desalination 164 (2004) 203-211

US $0.50/m 3 ($0.20 wastewater collection plus

$0.30 treatment for reuse). This represents about
one-third of the cost of producing 1 m 3 of desalinated water using the MSF process as an alternative source for irrigation water in Kuwait. This
demonstrates the economic viability of the
effluent reuse option. Although some public
health concerns may be associated with effluent
reuse, there have been no recorded cases of
diseases transmitted through reuse of tertiarytreated effluents. In fact, current water reuse
practices in Kuwait call for applications of treated
effluents in "restricted" irrigation.

5. Conclusions
1. Tertiary filtration plays an essential role in
improving effluent quality for potential reuse in
irrigation. Statistical analyses have shown significant improvements in effluent quality parameters (TSS, VSS, COD and BOD) due to sand
filtration of secondary-treated effluent.
2. The tertiary-treated effluent consistently
satisfied water quality requirements for reuse in
landscape irrigation in spite of seasonal variations
in plant performance.
3. Tertiary filtration results in the stability of
the plant effluent quality as it dampens variations
in the quality of the secondary-treated effluent.
4. Hydraulic overloading ofwastewater treatment plants adversely affects the performance of
tertiary filtration.
5. Reuse of tertiary-treated effluent is an economically viable and environmentally sound
option for fresh water resource development in
the State of Kuwait.

Acknowledgements
This study was financially supported by the
Research Administration of Kuwait University

211

(Project EV 113). The authors are grateful to the

management and staff of the Sanitary Engineering Division, Ministry o f Public Works, Kuwait,
for providing data, and to Mrs. Diya M. AIJassem for her assistance in the data analysis.

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