crarrens The Basics of
Engineering Mechanics
INTRODUCTION
Engineering mechanios is an important analytical tool that allows an engineer to optimize a
design, creating one that itis strong and rigid enough to do the job, but not overly heavy and expen-
sive. A thorough study of mechanics requires some knowledge of calculus and vector mechenios
that many students do not ordinarily complete until the end of their sophomore year. Such a course
is an essential component of many engineering disciplines, including mechanical, aerospace and,
civil engineering, The purpose of this chapter is to provide introductory engineering students with
‘some important, basic analysis tools that can be applied to many design projects.
Virtually any physical device in the "real world” is acted on by forces, which can include gravite-
tional, pressure, magnetic, electrostatic, centitugal and impact forces. Engineering mechanics stud-
ies the effects that forces have on materials, allowing engineers to theorize how a design will react
botor
to build and test multiple versions of a product. Using mechanics, better products can be designed
and bult faster and more cost effectively
This chapter has four major topics: In Statics, the frst step in analyzing many physical struc-
tures, assumptions are made that all bodies are completely rigid and that they are strong enough to
Withstand the forces applied, Mechanics of materials considers how forces act upon actual bodies in
bending, twisting or breaking them (of course, the goal of the designer is to create designs that do
‘notbend too much or break). Engineers use various design criteria to create physical products,
including design for strength, factor of safety and design for stifiness. Finally, units that are com-
‘monly used in mechanics are presented.
is bul. Engineers may then optimize designs on paper (or with a computer), without having
Introductory Engineering Design 151 ‘Chapter 14: The Basics of Engineering Mechanics
STATICS
Scalars and Vectors
‘One characteristic of enginoers is that they quantify the world around them. Scalars are quant
ties that can be expressed solely in terms of magnitude, such as:
+ Area + Energy
© Length + Power
+ Mass + Volume
‘Moment of inertia + Work
However, for some quantities, tis necessary to know both a magnitude anda direction to
desoribe them completely. These quantities are known as vectors. Examples of vector quantities
include:
© Force ‘+ Displacement
+ Moment + Velocity
Momentum + Acceleration
While scalar quantities can be combined arithmeticaly, vectors requite geometric andlor tigo-
nometric manipulation. Vectors are usually depicted as arrows in a three-dimensional space. As
shown in Figure 14.1, the magnitude of a vector is proportional to its length, and the direction of the
arrow gves its orientation.
y
200 Ib.
@= 30°
x
Figure 14.1. Representation of a 200-b force at an angle of 30 ° with the x-axis.
\Vectors can be added or subtracted geometrically andlor trigonometrically. For example, con
sider two force vectors A and B that are added together to give the vector sum C= A+B
(Figure 14.2)". Geometrically, vector B is moved so that its tal coincides with the tip of vector A,
hile retaining its magnitude and direction. A line from the tal of vecior A to the tp of vector B gives
the vector sum C, also known as the resurtant.
1. Quantities printed in bold are vector quantiles, while scalar quantities are printed in normal font,
152
Introductory Engineering Design Chapter 14: The Basics of Engineering Mechanics
te 4
Figure 14.2. The geometric interpretation of he vector sum © = A+B.
By moving vector A instead of vector B, it becomes evident that one important property of vec
tor addition is that the order is immaterial; .@., C =(A +B) =(B +A).
eH
Figure 14.3. The geometric interpretation of the vector sum © = B+ A.
Mathematically, the simplest way to manipulate vectors is to utilize a Cartesian” coordinate sys-
tem, which consists of three mutually orthogonal axes, usually designated x, y and 2. A vector can
then be resolved into three components that tle along those three axes:
FaFyitFyi+Fek
\where Fy, Fy and F are the Cartesian components (scalar quantilies) ofthe force vector F. They are
computed by:
F,= Fost)
Fy =F cos(0y)
F, =F cos(o,)
where 8, = angle that F makes with the x-axis, ete.
\Note that the magnitude (F), of the force vector F, can be expressed in terms ofits Cartesian
‘components by:
Re + R24 RA
2. Named after René Descartes (1596-1650), a French mathematician regarded as the father of modern
phiosophy." who established the philosophical movement calad “rationalism.” Hi theories swopt
aside the metaphysics of previous philosophers, as he belleved the mind possessed a “clear and dis-
Linc” idea of sel. As no said "think, therotore | am” and "itis not enough to have a good mind. Tho
‘main ting iso use it wel”
Introductory Engineering Design ‘Chapter 14; The Basics of Engineering Mechanics
The unit vectors I, and k each have a magnitude equal to one, with directions aligned with the
xy and 2-axes, respectively (Figure 14.4)
<=
Figure 14.4, Force vector F ond its Cartesian components
‘Adcing vectors then becomes a matter of simply adding up all the x, y and z components arithmeti-
cally.
Example 14.1
Consider the vector sum € = A + B shown earlier. ifwe know that vectors. A and
BB have magnitudes and directions as shown in Figure 14.5, we can resoive them
Ino their Cartesian coordinates:
‘Az (20) c0s (30°) + (20) c0s(60°Y = 17.92% + 10.00}
B= (15) cos(50°Hl + (15) cos(40"j = 10.644 + 11.49}
“The resultant sum © can be computed by summing up the x and y components
of Rand B:
G4 = 17.92 + 10.64 = 2696
©, = 10.004 11.49 =21.49
\Veotor € can be combined back into a single vector:
exe? +o,"
126.08)? + (21.49)°)" = 94.48
c= tan" (CyYC,) = tan (21.49/26.96) = 98.56"
y
154 Introductory Engineering Design ‘The Basics of Engineering Mechanics
Forces
‘As mentioned above, forces are vector quantities; ie., itis necessary to know both their magni-
tude and direction. Some forces develop under static conditions, such as gravitational, magnetic,
pressure and electrostatic. Other forces, such as centrifugal and impact forces, develop because of
dynamic condition.
(One important property of force vectors is that they can be moved anywhere along their line of
action. For example, the rigid body shown in Figure 14.6 isin equilibrium regardless of whether the
force, Fy, is pushing (a) or shifted along the line of action so that itis pulling (b).
Figure 14.6. A rigid body remains in equilibrium as force FIs shifted along ts line of action trom point A
topoint B
Forces may be extemal forces that are applied to a structure, or internal forces that develop
inside the structure. Extemal forces include active forces applied to a structure as well as the reac-
ion forces that develop at the supports. In Figure 14.7, a simply supported beam is loaded with a
concentrated load (a). In (0), the beam is loaded by a uniformly distributed load spread over the top
of the beam, or the weight of the beam itself loads the beam. In (c), the supports have been replaced
by the reaction forces, Ry and R, which must be present at the supports to maintain equilibrium;
is known as a free-body alagram, which is an important too! for visualizing the complete loading
state of a structure
a_i SE SE
a) Concentrated load ») Distributed load ©) Free-body diagram
Figure 14.7. External forces applied to a simply supported beam.
Introductory Engineering Design 156 ‘Chapter 14: The Basics of Engineering Mechanics
w
Consider @ ercular pipe supported ina right angled rack as shown below. In the
froe-body diagram on the right, the rack is removed and replaced by the reaction
forces R. each of which acts at 45°to the horizontal. (It can also be shown that the
reaction forces must pass through the center ofthe circle, which provides a conve-
rent way to tind the center of citular objects.)
Internal forces dovelop within a structure due tothe action ofthe external applied and reaction
forces. Although these internal forces are invsibie, they can be visualized by making imaginary cuts
through a member and solving the equations of equilibrium. For example (Figure 14.8), consider a
‘weight being supported by a rope (a). In the free-body diagram (b), the weight is replaced by a force
vector, W, acting downward, and the reaction force, Ry acting upward. By making an imaginary cut
through the rope, the internal force, Pix, can be found, and can be seen to be equal in magnitude to
W but opposite in direction,
Ay
Pee
wW
w w
a) Structure byFree-body ciagram intemal force
Figure 14.8. lntemal forces are computed by making an imaginary cut in a member.
156 Introductory Engineering Design ‘The Basics of Engineering Mechanics
Moments
‘A moments the resuit ofa force acting offset from a point. As shown in Figure 14.9, the force F
tends to make the body rotate clockwise about point ©. The magnitude of the moment created by
this situation can calculated by
M,=Fd
where d = the perpendicular distance to the line of action of F.
Mie Fxd
Figure 14.9. The moment produced by a force depends on the position of point ©.
The units of moment are given as N-m in the Si system or lo-fi the US system. Incidentally, a
‘moment that tends to bend a bar in its plane of symmetry s referred to as a bending moment, and
Cone that tends to twist the bar about its long axis is usually termed as torsion (Figure 14.10).
‘
eae ae
y
Bending Torsion
Figure 14.10. Bending moment and torsion.
Equilibrium
The basic principle used in statics to solve for all of the forces and moments acting on a rigid
body is based on Newton's® First Law, which states that i the sum of all forces acting on a body is
ze10 (i6., ¥ F =0), the body will either remain at rest or continue moving with constant velocity. This
condition is referred to as equiliorium.
External Forces
Unless itis accelerating or has fractured, a structure with applied external forces is in a state of
‘equilibrium, which means that it must satisfy the equations of equilirium:
3. Sirleaac Nowton (1642-1727) developed the branch of mathematics known as calculus when he was
only 24. He later turned his attention to planetary motion, formulating hs famous three laws of motion,
Engineering mechanics is commonly referred to as Newlonian Mechanics.
Introductory Engineering Design 187 Chapter 14: The Basics of Engineering Mechanics
2F=0
mM =0
‘These equations are given in vector format, but itis usually more convenient to solve statics
problems by representing the forces and moments in Cartesian components:
(Equation 14.1)
ZM,=0, and EM, =0 (Equation 14.2)
Itis useful to classify the force system that is acting on a structure, then choose the appropriate
sets of the above equilibrium equations to solve for any unknown forces, As shown in Table 14.1, cit-
{eront classifications of force systems require different subsets of Equations 14.1 and 14.2.
Table 14.1, Classifications of force systems and appropriate equilibrium equations.
Force System Classification Equations of Equilibrium
coplanar and concurent wy-0 Bry=0
| Coplanar and nor-coreurent Th=0 | IMy=0
‘Nowcoplanar and concurrent BF.-0 BFy=0
Fy IM.=0
'Non-coplanar and non-concurrent
2F,=0
“The following example ilustrates a simple six-step procedure for solving for the unknown forces
in a coplanar, concurrent force system.
Example 14.3
Consider a 1,000-b weight suspended from two cables as shown
‘Step 1. Prepare a complete tree-body diagram of the system as shown above,
158
Introductory Engineering Design : Chapter 14: The Basics of Engineering Mechanics
Example 14.3 (Continued)
Te
Ty
1,000 Ib
‘Stop 2.Claesify the force system. In this problem, the force system is coplanar
‘and concurrent
‘Step 3 Write the applicable equations of equilibrium. In this case, only two ofthe
‘hx equations of equilibrium are applicable.
2, =0 ar, =0
Step 4. Substitute the unknowns from the tree-body dagram into the appicable
equations of equim,
2F,=0 2,20
Tpsin(60%}- 1000-0 Ty Tpc0s (60) =0
Step 5, Solve the equations.
T= 1000! sin (60") = 1155Ib T:
jon and interpret the resuits, The simplest way to verily
Stop 6, Check the sok
the solution Is to resolve Ty into its - and y-components and notice that
the forces sum to zero in both directions. Tz should be greater than W—
ae
Example 14.4
Cons a sin suporte bear wth consented aa shown bow
:
pa
A
L a
&
Pa
Introductory Engineering Design ‘Chapter 14: The Basics of Engineering Mechanics
Example 14.4 (Continued)
Stop 1. Prepare a complete free-body ckagram
‘Stop 2. Classily the force system, which in this case is coplanar and non-concur-
rent
‘Stap 3. Wie the appicable equations of equllbrium (see Table 14.1).
2F,20 2 =0 2M =0
‘The moment equation can be taken about any arbitrary point. In this
case, point A is selected because it eliminates the moment due to Fy,
which simpities the resulting equations
Step 4. Substitute the unknowns rom the tree-body diagram into the equations
‘of equilium,
BFy= Ri + Pp F=0 @
My = Ral F23)L=0
‘Step 5. Solve the equations. Because only one unknown is involved, its sim-
plest to solve Equation (b) frst:
Aq = 28 F
‘which is substituted into Equation (a) to give:
Pla 1B
‘Step 6. Check the solution and interpret the results. Suppose that L = 15 ftand F
= 9000 tb. Substituting these values into the solutions above yields:
R= 229 F = 6000 Ib
Ry = 8 F = 3000 b
CClealy, Ra + =F. In adsiton, i should seem intuilively logical that
Frais greater than Fi because the force Is located at 2/3 L.
Internal Forces and Moments
In order to be able to accurately analyze many structural elements (e.g., beams that are in a
state of bending), itis necessary to be able to calculate intemal forces and moments. As shown in
the following example, this is performed by constructing a series of imaginary slices through the ele-
‘ment, and then applying the appropriate equations of equilrium.
Example 14.5
Calculate the internal forces and moments in the beam analyzed in Example
14.4, The complete free-body diagram, showing all the applied and reaction forces,
Is shown betow.
F
> tl [b>
B
B
on Ra
Introductory Engineering Design Chapter 14: The Basics of Engineering Mechanics
Example 14.5 (Continued)
‘An imaginary cutis made at A-A, located a dstance x trom the left support, but
‘ot past the applied oad F. The ight‘nand portion of the beam Is removed. anda
fee-body diagram of the left-hand remainder ie drawn:
1 ts
R
Since there are no external forces in the x-direction, the only forces will bo in the
Y-dlection. In order to satisfy equitrium, there must be another vertical force to bak
‘ance the reaction force Ry, The force V (relerred to as a shear force) ie drawn on
the right end ofthe sectioned portion of the beam. Because V and the vertical reac-
tion force, R= 3000 Ib, are offset by the distance x, they both create a moment,
Therefore, there must also be an internal moment, M, to counteract the applied
moment. By applying the equilbrium equation
BFy=0=R\-V
1. = 8000 Ib
‘tis evident that v
In other words, there is a constant vertical shear free, V, which i equal in mag-
nitude, but opposite in arection to R, anywhere along the lt-nand portion of the
beam. 8y applying the other equilrum equation:
Mya =0= ALM
Itcan be seen that the internal bending moment increases linearly with x:
Marxo x
-6,000 Ib
Moment
30,000 Ib-tt
= x
Figure 14.11.Shear and bending moment diagrams for a simply supported beam.
—$— — —
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
{n analyzing problems from a statics viewpoint, structures are considered to be ideal rigid bod-
{9s that netther deform nor fail. Statics is a useful tool that allows all the external and internal forces
tobe calculated. In realty, oF course, structures doform and fall, depending on the material they are
‘made from and the foads applied. n order to analyze how materials actually behave under load, itis
162 Introductory Engineering Design Chapter 14: The Basics of Engineering Mechanics
Necessary to introduce the concepts of stress and strain. In order to analyze structures from this
point of view, it is necessary to fist use statics to solve for all the external and internal forces that act
on a body.
Stress
Intornal forces that develop within a structural member when i is subjected to external loads
generate stresses in the material. Although the state of stress in most real structures is complex and
beyond the scope ofthis text, somo simple concepts are usetul tools for analyzing many engineering
designs.
Tension
The simplest state of stress arises in uniaxial tension (e.g., a rope). In this case, a normal
stress* is uniformly distributed across the circular cross section of the rope (Figure 14.12). Normal
stress is caleulated by:
o=PIA (Equation 14.3)
where P = internal force at any point [fb] or [N.]
‘A= cross-sectional area [in] or (mm?)
The units of stress are usualy pounds per square inch (psi), or Newtons per square millimeter, more
‘commonly called megapascal (MPa)®.
TS @ IeNTIFY MemBeR
F SECTION CUT
—_G@25> +G=no—-
r e F
(b) FREE BODY DIAGRAM
EQUILIBRIUM RELATION
rep
1
a
Table 10.2 Rectangular moment of inertia () for some simple shapes
Introductory Engineering Design 165 (Chapter 14: The Basics of Engineering Mechanics
Example 14.7
CCaleulate the maximum bending stress for @ wooden “2 by 4” eight fest long sup~
porting @ 100+Ib boy, If itis: a) lying flat, or b) stancing on edge.
Itis necessary to fst compute the maximum bending moment. The free-body
diagram shown below leads to the moment diagram, which reveals the maximum
moment to be 200 Ib-t
4100
1 Free-body
Diagram
Lp }
50 50
Shear
+50
Shear
= x Diagram
50
Moment 200 tbe
Moment
(—________________+—_» x Diagram
2) A2x 4 actually measures 1.5in. by 3.51n. Theretore, the moment of inertia,
Is given by (see Table 142)
42 bh? = 4/12 (2.5)(1.5)°= 984 int
‘The maximum normal sties is calculated by Equation 14.4:
Met = # (200 tb-R}(12 in).75 inV{.984) = £1830 pst
‘The value for oraz Can bo compared to the strength of wood to see i it wil
break. Douglas fr, a common type of wood, can withstand a stress of approximately
{6500 psi before It breaks. This allows us to calculate the factor of safety (described
In more detail later)
Factor of Salety (FS) = Strengt/Stress, or
FS = 6500/1830 = 4.8
Since FS > 1, we can predict that this board will not fall,
6. When lumber was first used for construction, it was rough-sawn Into various rectangular shapes,
Including one that measured 2 in. by 4 in. Later, lumber was given a smooth finish cut, reducing ite
‘overall eize to 1.5 in. by 3.5 in. but the original name of "2 by 4" or “2 x "is stil used
Introductory Engineering Design Chapter 14: The Basics of Engineering Mechanics
Example 14.7 (Continued)
'b) When the board is standing on edge, itis necessary to use dliferent values to
calculate | and c
= 112 bh = 112 (1.59.8) 9 = 5.98 int
which gives rise to a bending stress of
max = ¢Mec/l = + (200 to-)(12 in.) 1.78 in.J(5.96)
784 psi
[Notice that the bending stress when the board ie standing on edge Is less than
half what itis when lying flat. Since most ofthe loads in buildings are due to gravity,
boards that suppor loors (‘sis or roots ("afters") are always mounted on edge.
Torsion
‘Torsion describes the situation when a long, slender component is twisted about its tong ax’s.
‘As shown in Figure 14.15, a circular shaft in torsion develops a shear stress (6) that varies linearly
from zero at the center to a maximum at the outer diameter of the shat.
Torque (T)
‘max
Figure 14.15,Dietrbution of shear stress in @ shalt in torsion,
‘The maximum shear stress can be calculated by:
Bmax = #TC (Equation 14.5a)
ae T = applied torque
J polar moment of inertia
half the diameter of the shat
‘Since most shafts are circular, we know that the polar moment of inertia is given by:
T= ou'/32
‘Substituting into Equation 14.5a, we can obtain the following equation for maximum shear stress:
nay = 10 (Equation 14.56)
a
‘When computing factor of safety, one needs to compare the maximum shear stress with the
allowable shear strength for the material. Finding this material propery is beyond the scope of this,
text, but for now, use half the published value for ultimate tensile strength.
Introductory Engineering Design 167 ‘Chapter 14: The Basics of Engineering Mechanics
Ifbodies were perfectly rigid, they would not deflect when loads were applied to them. However,
‘most engineering materia's are elastic, which means that they deform linearly under load according
to Hooke's Law”:
a=Ee (Equation 14.6)
‘¢ = normal stress [psi] or [Mpa]
where E = material property known as the modulus of elasticity
{psi} or (Mpa
= strain in the material fin.in.] or {mrwvimm]
Tension or Compression
By substituting the definitions of stress and strain into Equation 14.6, the deformation for a body
in pure tension or compression (assuming it does not buckle laterally) is given by:
= PUAE (Equation 14.7)
= applied load fe or N}
where eon
L = length of wie in ori)
‘A= cross-sectional area of wie (ior fm?)
Torsion
‘Acommon engineering component is a citcular shaft used to transmit torque, For example, the
engine in an automabile delivers torque to the driving wheels through a drive shatt. A shalt in torsion
(Figure 14.16) twists through an angle that can be calculated by:
0=TLUG (Equation 14.8a)
(0 = angie of twist [rad
T= applied torque {ib-in.] or [N-m}
where
Jor (mm
@ = shear modulus of matorial (see Table 14.3)
Since most shafts are in fact circular, we can rewrite Equation 14.8a to be:
9 = ML (Equation 14.8)
dG
7. Robert Hooke (1635-1703), one of the greatest experimental scientists of the 17" century, was a gen-
teralist of astonishing scientific scope who made lasting contributions to our understanding in optics,
mechanics, geography, architecture, materials science, clock-making, paleontology and microbiology.
He is less known for his realization—-250 years before Darwin—that fossils document the changes to
‘organisms on the planet.
168 Introductory Engineering Design rhe Basics of Engineering Mechanics.
Figure 14.16.Shaft in torsion.
Bending
Beams in bending are more commen in most engineering designs then pure
je, +
ynsion of com-
pression. Bonding dotlection is a complex phenomenon that is beyond the scope ofthis text. How.
ever, the equations in Appendix 14.8 can be used to calculate many commonly encountered loading
conditions
Table 14.2. Properties of some common materials
Modulus of | Modulus of | Yield Ultimate
Material Elasticity Rigidity (G) | Strength (S,) | Strength (S,,)
(E) GPa (Mpsi) | GPa (Mpsi) MPa (Kpsi) MPa (Kpsi)
1018 Steal zor000) | reams) | 2206020 341 495)
soastaiiess Steet | woes | aruos | 267400 601 (673)
zoeuTaAuminum | 710(03) | 262(e) | 206us0) | assyeca) |
Copper s90072) | 447.05) | ovave (rose) | 201-001 (0248)
Wood (Douglas Fir) 11.0 (1.6) 4.1 (0.6) 24.8 (3.6) 45 (6.5)
Plexiglass (Rorylc) | 26-35 (97-5) : WA 62.96 (0125)
ABS Plastic (GP) 24(30 - WA 41165)
PVC Plasto 24-95(5-5) : na | 35.56 (60)
71500 Polyester* £9 (19) : Na 1928)
‘8, This material fs used in the Genisys rapid prototyping machine.
woll as the stress,
Example 14.8
Calculate the amount of boncing forthe 2x 4 boards trom Example 14.7. From
‘Append 13.A(c) the detection fora simply supported beam Is glen by:
y= PHBE!
a) Therefore, for the board iying fat, the deflection
y= (100 Ib) (96 in.}9(48)(1,6 x 108 psil(.984 in.*) = .208 in,
'b) When the board isan edge, the deflection is found to be:
(100 ib}{96 in.}8(48)(1.6 x 10° psi}(5.36 in.*) = .054 in,
[Notice that the detlection is also considerably less when the board is on edge, as
calculated to be:
Introductory Engineering Design
169 ‘Chapter 14: The Basics of Engineering Mechanics
170
————
DESIGN CRITERIA
Design for Strength
‘As chown eatlir, forces acting on a body induce internal stresses. Ifthe stresses become too
large, the material can no longer resist them, and it will either permanently deform, or even fracture.
Consider a straight length of wire with a tensile force, P, applied toit and then increased. Some
materials, like ceramics and many plastics, are classified as britl, which means that they have rela-
tively litle deformation and fail abruptly. A good example of brittle failure is a plece of chalk, which
‘does not show any apparent signs of bending, and then suddenly snaps. A stress-strain plot, shown
in Figure 14.17, shows that a britlo material will fracture when the stress exceeds the ultimate ten-
sil strongth of the material, Sy.
Strain (eat
Figure 14.17.Stress-strain graph for a britle materia
Since tensile stress for pure tension was previously defined to be:
PIA
We can predict that thie material wil fall when the stress exceeds the strength, or when:
P>ASy
‘Strengths for various commonly used materials are given in Table 14.3
‘though bending is characterized by a variation in stress across the section of a pad, the same
cfterion can be used to predict failure:
“fbor’ of the part, exceeds the materials utimate tensile strength.
ther materials, ike most metals, exhibit ductile behavior. When the stress becomes sulficiontly
high, the materiat begins to yield, as shown in Figure 14.18. Ifthe load is relaxed after the material
yields, it will be permanently deformed. For example, a paper clip can be bent with enough force,
andi wil stay bent when the force is removed. The material property that quantifies a material's
ability to withstand yielding Is termed yield strength, Sy (see Table 14.3)
when the maximum stress, which occurs at the outside
Introductory Engineering Design ee
‘Chapter 14: The Basics of Engineering Mech;
a
stress
Strain (ue
Figure 14.18.Siress-strain plot for a ductile material.
Even ifa part has been bent but has not actually fractured, it can no longer do the job for which
it was designed. Therefore, yield strength is usually used as the design erterion for strength of duc-
tile materials. Britle materials, which do not exhibit yielding, are designed using ulimate strength as
the design criterion.
Factor of Safety
‘The equations presented earller are idealized models that describe material behavior. The
‘material properties (e.g., yield strength) listed in Table 14.3 are typical values for a given material
However, there is aways some uncertainty about the actual strength of a material. Similarly, there is
always some uncertainty about the actual loads that a part will encounter, For example, assume an
engineer has designed a chair to support someone's weight of exactly 250 Ib. But if a 250-b person
sits down abruptly, and the impact causes the chair to collapse, is it the user's fault, or the engi-
neer’s? Or, perhaps the engineer specified a material with a yield strength of 60,000 psi, but one
particular batch of steel only had a strength of 57,000 psi. That chair will not support even a static
load of 250 ib
‘Therefore, all designs should include an appropriate factor of satety, which can be calculated
by:
Fi
Material Strength/Applied Stress
Note that FS~ 1. An appropriate standard or code may specify the actual factor of safety.
For example, the State of Calfornia mandates that the factor of safely for the wie rope that sus-
pends a passenger elevator must be from 7.6 to 11.9, depending on the speed ofthe elevator [3). In
other words, an elevator should be able to support up to 11.9 times its rated load before it fails. In
other cases, its up tothe engineer to decide the appropriate factor of safety to use, which isa func-
tion of
+ Degree of certainty in material properties
+ Degree of cortainty in loading conditions
+ Consequence of failure
Introductory Engineering Design wm ‘Chapter 14: The Basics of Engineering Mechanics
It may be surprising to know that the structure of an airplane is typically designed with a factor of
safety of only 1.5! Although the consequence of a wing falling offis extremely severe, both the loads
that an airplane experiences and the materials from which it is made are extremely well known. Ifa
plane were made with the same factor of safety as an elevator, it would be too heavy to get off the
ground
Design for Rigidity
Rigidity is usually a more common design goal than strength. For example, itis possible to
design the floor of a house so that it wll safely withstand the force of someone walking across it. Yet,
Ifthe floor is too springy (i.
ceived as unsafe, even though itis actually not, This criterion is usually specified as the maximum
‘amount of deflection that a structure may have,
it deflects noticeably when a person walks across it), it will be per-
Example 14.9
‘Assume a 50-in. rod must support a load of 100 lb and net extend more than
(050 in, tan aluminum (E = 10,000,000 psi rod is chosen, Equation 14.12 can be
solved for the required rod diameter, D = 118 in. But, recall that one of the basic,
{design rules is to use standard sizes,” and this dlameter fod is not available, atleast
not at reasonable cost. Therefore, 1/8 in. (126) should be selected. Equation 14.12
‘predicts that the actual deflection will bo 041 in, which is within the design require-
‘ment of 050 in, maximum defection
even less deflection is required, the designer has two options: use a stifer
material (@.g., steel, which has an elastic modulus three times that of aluminum, oF
use a larger diameter rod).
“The engineer should also check the stress in the od to ensure that can handle
the 1004b load, Using Equation 14.9, the stress is found to be 8,150 ps, which is
Well below the yield strength of aluminum given in Table 14.3.
—_—
UNITS
Inthe study of mechanics, there are four basic quantities as shown in Table 14.4 (the gravitation
‘constant, g, relates the units to each other but is not a quantity of measurement in itsel.
Table 14.4, Basic quantities and units
Unit of Measure | US Gustomary (FPS) | International System of Units (SI)
Length Feat) Meter (m)
Time Second (8) Second ()
Mass Sug. ((oes!yty Kllogram (ko)
Force Poured Newton (N) (opr?
Gravtaton Constant | ga17 we? 0207 mist
172
Introductory Engineering Design ‘Chapter 14: The Basics of Engineering Mechanics
‘Two of the unite (length and time) are independent. However, in order for force and mass to be
dimensionally homogenous, they are related to each other by Newton's second law:
IF
a
Inthe International System of Units (SI), the units for length, time and mass are specified, and
then used to derive the remaining basic unit for force. Length is given in meters (m), time in seconds
(s), and mass in kilograms (kg). The unit for force is called a Newton (N) in honor of Sir Isaac. The
Newton is derived from Equation 14.16 so that a force of 1N
impart an acceleration of 1 m/s* to
(kgemy)
2. Inthe SI system, the gravitation constant g = 9.807 mis®, With this value of the acceleration due.
to gravity on Earth, the weight ofa mass of 1 kg is:
amass of 1 kg he., 1 N=(1 kg) (1 mis), For dimensional homogenely itis clea that
W= mg= (1kg)(9.807 m/s?) = 9.807 N
In the US Customary System, length is given in foot ft}, ime in seconds (6) and force in pounds
(lo). Tho unit for mass i called a slug, which is derived from Equation 14.16 0 that force of tb
«will impart an acceleration of 1 ft/s® to a mass of 1 slug [i ©., 1 Ib = (1 slug) (1 ft/s*)). For dimensional
hhomogonsity itis clear that a slug = (bes). n the US Customary System, the gravitation constant
g = 92.17 tis?,
In adcition tothe quanti presented in Table 14.4, several ther quantities are use for stat-
ics and strength of materials, sted in Teble 14.5.
Table 14.5. Units of other frequently used quantities.
US Customary SI Equivatent
‘Moment M foot-pound (to) ‘ewton-meter (Nem)
stress 9 poundisquare foot (bit) Pascal (Pa= (Nim)
Stain e dimensionless dimensionless
“The quantities in Table 14.5 are given in terms of the basic units for length, time and force. How-
‘ever, in practice other units are often employed. For instance, moment may be expressed as in.elb
stead of felb, and stress expressed as MPa (moga Pascal) instead of Pa (1 MPa = 1,000,000 Pa =
+1 Nimm2) or psi (Ib/n.2) instead of (Ibif2). Conversions between the two systems are listed in
Table 14.6
Table 14.6. Unit conversion factors,
Unit of Measure US Customary | Si Equivatent
‘Acoeteration fs? 0,048 mis?
ins? 0.0254 m/s?
@ 0020 m?
Area “ =
in? 645.2 mm?
Energy c 1.356
Introductory Engineering Design 173 Chapter 14: The Basics of Engineering Mechanics,
Table 14.6, Unit conversion factors. (Continued)
Unit of Measure | US Customary | SI Equivalent
nae Kp sae
© 4488
impulse Ts FAB Nes
* 0.9048 m
Length in 25.40 mm
i 4.609 km
Trias 04596 4g
Mass ug 145949
ton mass 907.2 kg
aan feo 71356 Net
Inato 0.1190 Nem
“rea Moment of neta int 0.4162 x 10% mn
ai ‘eis 1386
ho 570
2 47.88 Pa
Stress and pressure a
bn2(05) 6.805 kPa
ts 0.3046 m5
Velocity inJe 0.0254 mvs
nuh (mph) 0.4470 mis
8 0.02802 m?
Volume n? 16.90m°
al 37081
Work wi 1356
_——$—
CONCLUSION
(One of the characteristics of engineering design, as opposed to trial-and-error, is the use of
analysis, which allows the engineer to make design decisions based on analysis, before parts are
bull, Engineering mechanics is an important analysis tool that can preckct how physical parts of @
design will react to forces. While a thorough understanding ofthis complex topic requires several
semesters of in-depth study, the purpose of this chapter is to provide enough details to alow stu-
ents to design parts that will neither break, nor bend too much,
‘The following method applies to many design situations:
41, Use statias to understand the complete state of external and internal forces and moments
that act on a body, assumed for the moment to be rigi.
2. Calculate the stress (e.9.. Equations 14.3, 14.4) that develops inside a body when forces act
onit
3. Compare the stress to the strength of the material and calculate the factor of safety.
4, Caleulate how much a body will deform in reaction to appliad forces (e.g... Equations 146,
14.7)
5. Adjust the dimensions or material to make sure that the part will perform as intended,
174 Introductory Engineering Design REFERENCES
+. Young, W.C., Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain, Sixth Ed., McGraw-Hill, 1989,
2. Shigley, J.E. and Mischke, C.R., Mechanical Enginsering Design, Fitth Edition, McGraw-Hill,
1989,
8. Califomia Division of industrial Safety, Depantment of Industrial Relations, Subchapter 6. Eleva~
tor Safety Orders.
Introductory Engineering Design 175 Chapler 14: The Basics of Engineering Mechanics
———
APPENDIX 14.A: Shear, Moment and Deflection of Some
Simple Loading of Beams.
2) Cantilever beam — concentrated toad
Myax = Fl
Yuan
Max = “SET
) Cantilever beam — uniform load
-_, "
176 Introductory Engineering Design Chaptor 14: The Basics of Engineering Mechanic
©) Simple supports — center load
Max = >
4) Simple supports — intermediate load
(a
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