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AXIAL STRESS
What is known as Axial (or Normal) Stress, is defined as the force perpendicular to the cross sectional
area of the member divided by the cross sectional area. Or
So axial stress is really the 'pressure' in a solid member. Now the question becomes, how much 'pressure' can a
material bear before it fails.
2. BENDING STRESS
Stress developed by the dead weight (pipe, insulation, fluid, fittings, valves, and other component) &
external loading such as wind, earthquake etc.
Sb = I (Mb / Z)
Sb = Bending stress
I = SIF
Mb = Resultant bending moment
Z = Section modulus
Since the Axial Stress (tension and compression) and the Shear Stress (vertical and horizontal), which
develop in a loaded beam, depend on the values of the Bending Moments and the Shear Forces in the
beam. Determining the axial stress - which is often known as the Bending Stress in a beam; and
determining the shear stress - often called the Horizontal Shear Stress
In Diagram 1 we have shown a simply supported beam loaded at the center. It deflects (or bends) under
the load.
In Diagram 2, we have shown the left end section of the beam. As discussed previously, when examining bending
moments, horizontal forces act on the cross sectional face of the beam section. We have shown only the
horizontal forces along the top and bottom in Diagram 2a, but the forces act across the whole cross section as
shown in the side view in Diagram 2b. The horizontal forces decrease from maximum at the outer edges to zero
at the neutral axis (an axis running through the centroid of beam cross section).
While the formula above was derived for the maximum stress, it actually holds for the stress at any point in the
beam cross section and is known as the Flexure Formula.
Flexure Formula:
My/I
In diagram 2, we see that, if our metal rod is tested by increasing the tension in the rod, the deformation
increases. In the first region the deformation increases in proportion to the force. That is, if the amount of force
is doubled, the amount of deformation is doubled. This is a form of Hooke's Law and could be written this way: F
= k (deformation), where k is a constant depending on the material (and is sometimes called the spring
constant). After enough force has been applied the material enters the elastic region - where the force and the
deformation are not proportional, but rather a small amount of increase in force produces a large amount of
deformation. In this region, the rod often begins to 'neck down', that is, the diameter becomes smaller as the rod
is about to fail. Finally the rod actually breaks.
The point at which the Elastic Region ends is called the elastic limit, or the proportional limit. In actuality, these
two points are not quite the same. The Elastic Limit is the point at which permanent deformation occurs, that is,
after the elastic limit, if the force is taken off the sample, it will not return to its original size and shape,
permanent deformation has occurred. The Proportional Limit is the point at which the deformation is no longer
directly proportional to the applied force (Hooke's Law no longer holds). Although these two points are slightly
different, we will treat them as the same in this course.
Next, rather than examining the applied force and resulting deformation, we will instead graph the axial stress
verses the axial strain (diagram 3). We have defined the axial stress earlier. The axial strain is defined as the
fractional change in length or Strain = (deformation of member) divided by the (original length of member) ,
Strain is often represented by the Greek symbol epsilon(), and the deformation is often represented by the
Greek symbol delta(), so we may write: Strain
(where Lo is the original length of the member)
Strain has no units - since its length divided by length, however it is sometimes expressed as 'in./in.' in some
texts.
As we see from diagram 3, the Stress verses Strain graph has the same shape and regions as the force verses
deformation graph in diagram 2. In the elastic (linear) region, since stress is directly proportional to strain, the
ratio of stress/strain will be a constant (and actually equal to the slope of the linear portion of the graph). This
constant is known as Young's Modulus, and is usually symbolized by an E or Y. We will use E for Young's modulus.
We may now write Young's Modulus = Stress/Strain, or:
The value of Young's modulus - which is a measure of the amount of force needed to produce a unit deformation depends on the material. Young's Modulus for Steel is 30 x 106 lb/in2, for Aluminum E = 10 x 106 lb/in2, and for
Brass E = 15 x 106 lb/in2. For more values, select: Young's Modulus - Table.
To summarize our stress/strain/Hooke's Law relationships up to this point, we have:
The last relationship is just a combination of the first three, and says simply that the amount of deformation
which occurs in a member is equal to the product of the force in the member and the length of the member
(usually in inches) divided by Young's Modulus for the material, and divided by the cross sectional area of the
member. To see applications of these relationships, we now will look at several examples.
3. TORSIONAL STRESS
Stress developed due to the twisting of a piping component is torsional stress.
Mt = Mt / 2Z
Mt = Torsional stress.
Mt = Torsional movement
Z = Section modulus
Z = Section modulus
I = Moment of Inertia
4. Longitudinal stress or Principal stress?
Longitudinal Stress (SL) developed due to pressure, weight, and other sustained loads, or Caused by axial force
loading, longitudinal bending and pressure. Which shall not exceed Sh (Hot allowable stress)
SL = (PDi / 4t)
SL = Longitudinal stress
P = Internal pressure
Di = Internal diameter
t = Thickness of pipe
The longitudinal stress may be found by equating the force due to internal gas/fluid pressure
with the force due to the longitudinal stress as follows:
P(A) =
(A'); or P(3.1416 * R2) =
(2 * 3.1416 * R * t), then canceling terms and
solving for the longitudinal stress, we have:
= P D / 4 t ; where
P = internal pressure in cylinder; D = dia of cylinder, t = wall thickness
We once again equate the force on the cylinder section wall due to the internal pressure with
the resistive force which develops in walls and may be expressed in terms of the hoop stress,
. The effective area the internal pressure acts on may be consider to be the flat cross
section given by (2*R*L). So we may write:
P(A) =
(A'); or P(2*R*L) =
(2*t*L), then canceling terms and solving for the hoop
stress, we have:
= P D / 2t ; where
P = internal pressure in cylinder; D = dia of cylinder, t = wall thickness
6. What is meant by radial stress?
Acts on a line from the center of pipe radially through the pipe wall. This stress is compressive stress
acting on the pipe id, caused by internal pressure or tensile stress caused by vacuum pressure.
7. What is meant by expansion stress?
Stresses developed due to displacement.
8. What is Youngs modulus of elasticity?
E = stress / strain
So E - decreases with increase in temp.
Lower the value of E higher the system flexibility, & lower the stress
9. What is meant by allowable stress?
As per ANSI B 31.3
Allowable stress = Tensile strength / 3
Allowable stress = 2 / 3(Yield strength)
Plants designed to B31.3 generally have a life of 20 to 30 years.
As per ANSI B 31.1
Allowable stress = Tensile strength / 4
Plants designed to B31.1 generally have a life of 40 years. This is due to the difference in FOS used in
these codes. B 31.3 uses a 3 to 1 FOS, where as in B 31.1 uses a 4 to 1 FOS.
when SL > Sh
&
SA = f [1.25(SC + Sh)-SL] when SE > SA
SA = Allowable stress range
SE = Computed displacement stress range
f = Cyclic factor up to 7000 cycles, f = 1, also known as stress range reduction factor, which decreases as no. Of
cycle increases.
SC = Allowable stress at cold condition
12. What are the formulae for code stress (calculated) for sustained condition?
As per B31.3
SL = PD / 4tM + [{(Ii Mi) 2 + (IO MO) 2} 0.5] / Z < = Sh
P = Max. Internal pressure
D = Outside diameter
tM = Minimum wall thickness.
Ii = In plane SIF
IO = Out plane SIF
Mi = In plane Bending Moment
MO = Out plane Bending Moment
Z = Section modulus.
Sh = Hot allowable stress.
As per B31.1
SL = PD / 4t + (0.75 I Mb) / Z <= Sh
P = Max. Internal pressure
D = Outside diameter
t = Nominal wall thickness.
I = SIF
Mb = Resultant Bending Moment due to sustained load
Z = Section modulus
Sh = Hot allowable stress.
13. What are the formulae for code stress (calculated) for thermal condition?
As per B31.3
SE = {(Sb) 2 + 4(St) 2} 0.5 < = SA
As per B31.1
SE = I MC / Z <= SA
Sb = Resultant Bending stress = [{(Ii Mi) 2 + (IO MO) 2} 0.5] / Z
St = Resultant torsional stress = Mt / 2Z
Mt = Torsional moment
Mc = Resultant moment due to thermal expansion
Z = Uncorroded Section modulus
SA = Allowable stress range = f (1.25SC + 0.25Sh)
14. What is meant by SIF?
This is the factor by which circumferential stress exceeds longitudinal stress in any component.
It is of two type:- 1) In-plane, 2) Out-plane
SIF of some most commonly used components..
1) Weld neck flange
1.0,
2) Slip-on flange
3) Socket weld flange
1.3,
4) Lap-joint flange
5) Threaded flange
2.3,
6) Corrugated pipe
7) Reducer
1.0,
8) Butt weld joint
9).
0.0,
10)..
0.0,
11)..
0.0,
12).
0.0,
13).
0.0,
14)..
0.0,
1.2,
1.6,
2.5,
1.0,
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
What
What
What
What
What
Out-plane
In-plane
0.75 / h 2/3
0.9 / h 2/3
2/3
2/3
0.9 / h
0.9 / h
0.9 / h 2/3
I + 1/4
0.9 / h 2/3
0.9 / h 2/3
The force of friction is a common but complex force. The exact method by which friction works is still a topic of great
scientific interest but we can make some general statements about it. We do know that it arises from the electromagnetic
forces between atoms and molecules at the surfaces of objects.
We can build a simple model of the friction force that is useful in many situations. The model friction force has the
following properties:
There are two types of frictional force. The force of static friction and the force of kinetic friction.
The direction of the static frictional force is along the contact surface and opposite in direction of any applied
force.
The plot below of the frictional force vs. the applied force illustrates some of the features of the frictional force.
Note that the frictional force equals the applied force (in magnitude) until it reaches the
maximum possible value sN. Then the object begins to move as the applied force exceeds
the maximum frictional force. When the object is moving the frictional force is kinetic and
roughly constant at the value kN, which is below the maximum static friction force.
The table below summarizes the main characteristics of the frictional force.
Static Friction
Kinetic Friction
Symbol
fs
fk
Direction
Magnitude
< sN
kN
Heater
C. COMPRESSOR
R. COMPRESSOR
STEAM TURBINE
AIR-FIN COOLER
C. PUMP
R. PUMP
LARGE OD TANK
28. What is the difference between variable & constant spring hanger?
Spring hangers: Set of reactions as required to check for piping reaction to imposed stresses due to static and
dynamic loads.
Selection of spring hanger should be done at operating condition only.
Variable spring hangers:
Recommended for vertical deflection up to 4 for non-critical system, & up to 2 for critical system.
Cold load = Hot load (vertical movt. x Spring rate)
% Variability = (Hot load Cold load) x 100 / Hot load
Constant spring hangers:
Recommended for vertical deflection greater than 4 & used in case of critical system.
Travel should be equal to actual travel + 20% excess, but should not be less than 25mm.
29. What are all the factors required to specify variable spring hanger?
Hot load, Cold load, Vertical movement & its direction, Horizontal movement, Spring rate, Load
variation, Hanger basic model,
30. What are all the factors required to specify constant spring hanger?
Hot load, actual travel, total travel, Hydro-test load, direction of travel, Pre-set pin locking position,
Hanger basic model.
31. What are all the metals used to manufacture springs?
50 Cr. V4, DIN 17221 / 735 A or En 47, BS 970 part V of 1972
32. How to decide without analysis a line can be safe?
Without analyzing the less critical system, checking can be done with empirical formulae, known as
simplified method
i.e.
DY / (L-U) 2 208. 3
D= Pipe OD in mm,
Y= Total expansion to be absorbed by pipe
L= Actual Pipe running between two anchors.
U= Imaginary straight line connecting anchors. [(X 2 + Y 2 + Z 2) 0.5]
But this cannot be used for jacketed piping, in case of change in pipe diameter, other than steel lines,
When numbers of cycle more than 7000.
33. What is the expansion rate of steel?
For CS = 0.0115 mm / m / OC
For SS = 0.0165 mm / m / OC
34. What is Thermal Bowing?
It is the temp difference, which exists between top of pipe & bottom of the pipe.
Likely to happen in LP steam, Vapour line prone to condense, etc.
dT= T PIPE TOP T PIPE BOTTOM
35. What is the formula for calculating thermal force?
WRC 297 calculates flexibility of cylinder-to-cylinder intersections & also computes the stresses in the
nozzle and the vessel.
& is used for cylindrical nozzle on cylindrical vessel, strictly not for spheres.
dn/Dv 0. 5
20 < Dv/Tv 2500
20 dn / tn 100
d\T >5
Forced draft type: tube bundles located on the discharge side of fan
Induced draft type: tube bundles located on the suction side of fan
Forced draft type: tube bundles located on the discharge side of fan
55. Draw a layout for compressor piping system? Single stage as well as two-stage compressor?
Edition 2004
57. What is to be checked in Flange leakage/stress calculation & what r the different factors involved in it?
Checking is done against which code?
There are mainly two ways of checking Flange leakage/stress.
1) Equivalent pressure method: - Flange allowable pressure rating as per B16.5 / equivalent
pressure,
Which much be greater than one,
2) As per ASME SECT VIII DIV 1 (According to A93 APPENDIX S)
58. Which is the weakest point in flange joint? Define different points of flange failure?
Forced draft type: tube bundles located on the discharge side of fan
Forced draft type: tube bundles located on the discharge side of fan
Forced draft type: tube bundles located on the discharge side of fan
62. How do you go for pump analysis? How many cases will be there in case of two pumps?
Forced draft type: tube bundles located on the discharge side of fan
Forced draft type: tube bundles located on the discharge side of fan
64. How many options are there to make any pump safe?
Forced draft type: tube bundles located on the discharge side of fan
Forced draft type: tube bundles located on the discharge side of fan