General - purpose model of power-system loads

G. Shackshaft, B.Eng., Ph.D., Mem. I.E.E.E., C.Eng., F.I.E.E., O.C. Symons, B.Sc.Tech., and J.G. Hadwick, C.Eng., M.I.E.E.

Indexing terms:

Power systems, Load (electric)

Abstract

The paper is concerned with the derivation of a load model for use in studies of power-system dynamics and with
the parameters to be used in such a model. It describes some system tests in which small voltage disturbances were
imposed on a power-station auxiliary system and on consumer loads. The objectives of the tests were to determine
the important factors in the power/voltage response of loads and to explore the possibility of determining the load
composition and characteristics from such tests. The parameters obtained from the analysis of the small-disturbance
tests on the power-station auxiliary system are used in an attempt to simulate a large disturbance to that system.
List of symbols

P,Q = active and reactive power demands at supply point

V, 6 = voltage magnitude and phase-angle at supply point
PS'Qs = active and reactive power of static load
GS,BS conductance and susceptance of static load
Ys,4>s = magnitude and phase angle of static load admittance
RS,XS = resistance and reactance of static load
Pm >Qm active and reactive power of motor load
Gm ,Bm = conductance and susceptance of motor load
Ym'tim = magnitude and phase angle of motor load admittance
Ri,Xt = stator resistance and leakage reactance of motor load
^2 >^2 = rotor resistance and leakage reactance of motor load
Xm
Vm
magnitude of internal voltage of motor load
H
inertia constant of motor load
S
motor slip
/0
rated system frequency, Hz
Unless otherwise stated, all quantities are expressed in per unit, based
on 1MVA and the rated voltage of the supply point, and phase angles
are in radians.
1

Introduction

Up to the present, the efforts of power-system analysts

engaged in the study of the dynamics of power systems have been
mainly devoted to a better understanding of the modelling of
generators, and, in more recent times, to seek to ensure that relaible
and accurate data are used in the generator models. The performance of
the loads in power systems, which are equal in magnitude to the
generation, has received scant attention.
Hore, in his book,1 states: i do not consider that the method of
synthesising total load/voltage characteristics from an assumed distribution is a worthwhile approach to the problem; and as the data is
not usually available one must search elsewhere for a more convenient
approach.' His book contains a good summary of the present day use
of load characteristics in power-system analysis, and, although the
validity of the first part of the above quotation cannot be denied, the
second can be disputed, and it is certainly not claimed that the
approach presented in this paper is more convenient.
In the CEGB, the relative shortage of information on load stems
from the fact that generator stability problems usually occur when
power stations are remote from the body of the network, and hence
from the loads, and thus the representation of the latter in such
studies is not of importance. However, there are other kinds of study
of system dynamics in which the absence of reliable information on
load characteristics causes concern about the reliability of study
results. One obvious example is the study of slowly cleared system
faults, owing to malfunction of either circuit breakers or protection
equipment, which may cause stability problems for generation sited
close to load centres. Another example concerns what has become
known as the long-term dynamics of power systems, 2 ' 3 the study of
which may involve frequency and voltage swings throughout a power
system over a period of several minutes; the performance of the
system loads is of considerable importance. A third example stems
from the fact that as the generation tends to be sited remote from the
load, and small inefficient power stations in load centres are shut

down, so the load becomes remote from the generation and the capability to study the stability of the load itself is required.
The above mentioned factors have caused the CEGB to carry out
several investigations of load behaviour. One such investigation, which
is reported herein, was carried out with the co-operation of the South
Wales Electricity Board and had the declared objectives of determining
the important factors in the power/voltage response of loads and to
explore the possibility of determining the load composition and
characteristics from such tests. The tests involved imposing small
changes of voltage, within the statutory voltage limits (6%), at
various supply points and measuring the changes of active- and
reactive-power demand.
In order to obtain an appreciation of how loads behave under disturbed conditions, some exploratory tests were carried out on the
auxiliary load of one generator at the Rogerstone power station,
where the load composition and some of the motor characteristics
were known. Tests were then carried out at six bulk supply points, two
of which could be generally described as industrial, two as domestic
and two as mixed; the results obtained at one of each of the supply
points covered by these general descriptions are presented and analysed
in this paper. It is emphasised that these are 'general descriptions' and
that they do not influence the analysis presented in this paper; the
results show that these descriptions do not reflect the determined
composition and characteristics of the loads.
2

Test procedures and measurements

2.1

Rogerstone power station

The system arrangement for the tests at the Rogerstone

power station is shown in Fig. 1. The normal running arrangement was

J32kV
Llaniarnam
66kV

busbar
coupler

)r

PROC. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 8, AUGUST 1977

'"genera toFf"|
auxiliary
i
, system'
i

Paper 7904 P, first received 4th November 1976 and in revised form 24th March
1977
Dr. Shackshaft and Mr. Symons are, and Mr. Hadwick was formerly, with the
System Technical Branch, Planning Department, CEGB, Sudbury House,
15 Newgate Street, London EC1A 7AU, England. Mr. Hadwick Is now with the
Generation Development & Construction Division, CEGB, Barnwood, Gloucs.
CL4 7RS, England

66kV

415V

Fig. 1

Schematic of switching arrangement used for tests at Rogerstone

power station
715

in the system under test were locked to prevent interference with the
results.
Table 1 gives the main characteristics of the bulk supply points at
which the results of the tests are reported herein. At each supply
point a number of test series (A,B,C etc.) were carried out, and at
each supply point the series were timed to give a comparison between
morning, evening and night loads;at two points the tests were extended
to give a comparison between weekday and weekend loads.
Each test series took about one hour to complete, and, although
each was timed to avoid periods of rapidly changing load, there was
some natural variation of the load during each series; however, this
was not large enough to invalidate any of the tests. Each test series
consisted of several individual tests involving both positive and negative step changes of the supply voltage.

changed so that generators Gx and G2 and the auxiliaries of G 2 were

connected to one section of the 66 kV busbars and the auxiliaries of
d
were supplied from the other section of the 66 kV busbars.
Initially, the busbar-coupler circuit breaker was closed and the disturbance to the Gi auxiliary system was imposed by opening it. By
adjusting the initial active and reactive power flows through the
busbar coupler the magnitude and phase-angle changes of the voltage
disturbances applied to the auxiliary system could be controlled. The
active power flow was controlled by changing the output of G2 and
the reactive power flow was controlled by changing taps on transformer Tx at LJantarnam.
132 kV system

tap 8

2.3

'O 923

IOI7

In order to achieve the objectives of the tests with regard to

the transient behaviour of loads it was necessary to use an accurate
and highly responsive technique to measure the transient changes in
active and reactive power and voltage. Additionally, as it was required
that the voltage changes should not cause excursions beyond the
statutory limits ( 6%), small changes were being monitored, which
made it essential that an adequate signal/noise ratio be obtained at the
output of the measuring equipment.
A small transportable electronic analogue computer was chosen to
perform the measurements. The following equations were solved to
obtain unidirectional values for active and reactive power and voltage
magnitude from the sinusoidally varying phase voltages VR,VY, VB,

tap 2

P = I77MW
0=28 4MVAr
33 kV

P=I6 OMW
Q=-l8-4MVAr
V = I-Olp.u.

system

p=33-7MW
0= IO O MVAr

load

Test measurements

and currents IRJY,

P=
Q=

Fig. 2

Test arrangement at a bulk supply point

V=

a Line diagram showing layout

b Power flows for one test before disturbance

(vR-vY)iR+(vB-YY)rB
(vRiB-vBiRyj3
[2/3(F

2
y

VRVB)V

(1)
(2)
(3)

Changes in the phase-angle of the voltage were calculated by hand

using the above measurements.
For the tests at bulk supply points, the measurements were made
at the lower-voltage terminals of the bulk supply transformers (33 kV
in all cases), and at Rogerstone the measurements were made at the
lower-voltage terminals (33 kV) of the station transformer supplying
the auxiliary system under test.

Bulk supply points

2.2

IB '

A typical system arrangement for the tests at a bulk supply

point is shown in Fig. 2a. Under normal conditions the taps on both
transformers would have been set on tap 5, but by staggering the taps,
e.g. tap 8 and tap 2 as shown, and then switching one transformer out,
a voltage change in both magnitude and phase was imposed on the
load. Fig. 2b shows the corresponding transformer ratios (p.u.) and
the active and reactive power flows in the transformers. If the lefthand transformer is switched out, the 33 kV system voltage falls, and
if the right-hand transformer is switched out, the voltage increases. In
both cases the voltage phase angle decreases because the power in the
remaining transformer is increased.
The magnitude of the voltage disturbance was controlled by
adjusting the initial tap stagger, but, unlike the arrangement at
Rogerstone, it was not possible to control the phase-angle change of
the voltage.
For all the tests, except some which are described separately in
Section 3.2, all the automatic tap changers on area-board equipment

Test results

3.1

Step and overall responses

In this section, the results of tests at the Rogerstone power

station and the three bulk supply points are presented. The average
results obtained in each test series are presented in tabular form and
some individual test results are given in diagramatic form. Since the
tabulated results are the averages of up to seven tests in a series, some
small discrepancies will be observed if the individual test results
presented are compared with the averages.
Unles otherwise stated, the results are presented in the per-unit
system, based on 1 MVA and the rated voltage of the supply point.

Table 1
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF BULK SUPPLY POINTS
Type of supply
point and test
series

Bulk supply point

transformers
voltage
rating
MVA

kV

Industrial
A Friday morning
B Friday evening
C Friday night
D Sunday morning

2x 60

132/33

Mixed
A Sunday morning
B Sunday evening
C Sunday night
D Monday morning
E Monday evening

2 X 45

Domestic
A Wednesday morning
B Wednesday evening
C Wednesday night

2x 60

716

132/33

132/33

Previous
winter
peak
load

Timing of test
series
finish
start

Load
during test
series
(percentage
of previous
winter peak)

1005
17-42
0123
1115

10-56
18-37
01-57
11-45

%
64
63
56
74

11-20
17-27
00-59
11-41
17-50

12-29
1818
01-42
12-32
18-30

56
32
18
69
51

09-39
1716
00-49

11-32
18-12
0202

49
41
23

MW
484

30-4

98-2

PROC. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 8, AUGUST 1977

3.1.1

Rogerstone power station

Several tests were carried out on the response of the auxiliary

system to step changes of voltage magnitude, voltage phase angle and
both voltage magnitude and phase angle; the results for one of each of
such disturbances are shown in Figs. 3, 4 and 5, respectively. In each
case, the disturbance causes a step response of both voltage and load,
followed by a transient response lasting for up to about 0-5s, followed
by operation in a new steady-state condition.
Fig. 3 shows the response of the auxiliary system to a disturbance
in which the voltage magnitude step change predominates (magnitude
change = 5-3%, phase-angle change = 0-2) and the major response is
in the reactive-power demand. Fig. 4 shows the response of the
auxiliary system to a disturbance in which the voltage phase-angle step
change predominates (magnitude change = 0-3%, phase-angle change =
2-6) and the major response is now in the active-power demand. Fig.
5 shows the response to step changes in both voltage magnitude and
phase angle (voltage change = 3-5%, phase-angle change = 3-7) and
both active and reactive powers are shown to respond significantly.

The overall response of the auxiliary system, i.e. from the initial
condition to the new steady-state condition, is also shown. It reveals
a negligible overall response of active power and only a small response
of reactive power to changes of voltage magnitude, and zero overall
response of both active and reactive power to changes of voltage phase
angle.
The above step and overall responses are typical of an inductionmotor group and were to be expected, since only about 3% of the
auxiliary load was composed of static load, i.e. lighting, heating,
battery charging etc. Had the load been entirely static load, responsive
to the square of voltage, its response would have been as shown by the
broken lines of Figs. 3,4 and 5. The main differences between motorand static-load responses are as follows:
(a) The overall active power response to voltage-magnitude changes
is significant for static loads but negligible for motor loads.
(b) The step response of reactive power to voltage-magnitude changes
is much greater for motors than it is for static load.
(c) The step response of active power to voltage phase-angle changes
is large for motor load, whereas for static load it is zero.
The average initial conditions, step responses, overall responses and
transient responses for all the tests conducted at Rogerstone power
station are given in Table 2; these parameters described in greater
detail in Section 3.1.2.

>*
O 94-

3.1.2

Bulk supply points

Examples of the response of the load at a supply point

(industrial point, series .4), when subjected to the type of disturbance
described in Section 2.2, are shown in Figs. 6 and 7. Fig. 6 shows a
step voltage decrease and Fig. 7 shows a step voltage increase. The
3Ostep responses of active and reactive powers are typical of those of a
motor load to step changes of voltage phase angle and magnitude,
respectively; the overall responses of both active and reactive powers
indicate the presence of static load. The analysis of an individual test
could be pursued further to yield some information about the load.
However, for reasons which will be explained later, individual tests
were not analysed in this way and the analysis to be described in
Section 4 is based on average responses obtainted for each test series.
The step and overall responses for all the tests carried out at the
industrial point, series A, are shown in Fig. 8. Changes in the active
and reactive powers are plotted against changes in the supply-voltage
magnitude; crosses indicate test measurements and the lines drawn
through the crosses indicate the average responses for the series. The
IO
O5
step response of the active power, shown in Fig. 8a, demonstrates an
time, s
important feature and explains why the average responses of a series
are used in the analysis. The average step response cuts the ordinate
Fig. 3
Response of power station auxiliaries to step change of magnitude of at a substantial value of dP; this shows the response for a step change
of zero voltage magnitude, and therefore is the response of the load
voltage
O5

IO

I-O2-

I-O2-,

i-O-

IO -

O-98-

o 98-

>

O-96-

o 96-

O-94 -

o 94

I
OS

OS

IO

3O

3O

A 2OQ.

6
a
0.

OS
time, s

Fig. 4

IO-

OS

IO

I
l-O

Fig. 5

Response of power-station auxiliaries to step change of phase angle of Response of power-station auxiliaries to step changes of both magnitude and phase angle of voltage
voltage
PROC. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 8, AUGUST 1977

717

Table 2
MEASURED AVERAGE INITIAL CONDITIONS AND RESPONSES
2
4
5
3
1

T/

2-95

1-94

dP
30

dv

4-1

13-9

dp

overall
response
dQ_
dP

step response

initial conditions

Supply point
and test series

10

transient
response
Tn

dV

dV

22-9

1-8

ms
80

Hz
2-5

P.S. auxiliaries

1015

Industrial
A
B
C
D

101
101
101
101

311
306
27-2
360

91
7-5
81
8-5

56
59
52
66

85
80
72
66

129
114
119
119

48
47
45
61

45
40
46
44

180
180
180
160

1-7
1-9
1-7
1-8

Mixed
A
B
C
D
E

101
101
100
101
100

16-9
9-8
5-4
211
15-4

2-7
0-3
0-3
5-9
2-7

45
23
17
53
43

24
5
18
47
27

45
24
21
76
63

30
21
9
35
28

18
12
12
33
18

50
50
80
40

2-7
2-5
2-7
30

Domestic
A
B
C

100
100
100

47-8
401
22-2

7-5
1-6
-1-6

109
98
63

87
79
65

155
102
79

62
64
39

67
43
28

50
50
50

2-3
2-7
2-7

time, s
O-5

-,- O-O6
5.-004

3-O-2
Ci

^002

>-O-4
-O-6

X * "

| I M

X X X X X X X

-2

-4

-2
CL

6 2

-4

O-5

-6

I-O

1-5

Fig. 6
Example of response at bulk supply point to step decrease of voltage

Fig. 7
Example of response at bulk supply point to step increase of voltage

test result
XXX computed result

test result
XXX computed result

to the step change of voltage phase angle that occurs when one transformer is switched out. Thus, the averaging process allows one to
separate the active-power response to voltage-magnitude changes from
its response to voltage phase-angle; this is a key feature of the
analysis.
Table 2 gives the average responses obtained for the individual
test series. Columns 1, 2 and 3 give the initial conditions; columns
4, 5 and 6 give the step responses of the active and reactive powers to
voltage magnitude and phase angle changes (the response of the reactie power to phase angle changes is zero); columns 7 and 8 give the
overall response, i.e. from initial conditions to new steady state, of the
active and reactive powers to voltage-magnitude changes (the overall
response of both to phase angle changes is zero); columns 9 and 10
give the main features of the transient response (see Fig. 6 for
example), Tn is the time constant of decay of the reactive power
transient and / is the oscillation frequency of the active power.

the test series an additional test was carried out in which an approximate 6% voltage depression was imposed on the load, with the above
mentioned automatic tap changers in service.
In all these tests, the load changed to a new level immediately after
the disturbance, stayed at this new level for about one minute, and
then recovered to its initial level in a fairly linear manner during the
next minute.

3.2

Long-term response at bulk supply points

As stated previously, for the above tests, all the automatic

tap changers on area-board equipments in the system under test were
locked to prevent interference with the results. However, in some of
718

Analysis of load composition

4.1

Load model and method of analysis

The parameters given in Table 2 can be used to determine all

the parameters of the equivalent load model shown in Fig. 9; details
of the calculations are given in Appendix 9, and the derived parameters are given in Table 3. The equivalent load model consists of an
induction motor load (taking powers Pm and Qm), a constant
impedance static-load model Ps and Qs, and a saturation characteristic
Qsat to represent the departure from a square-law characteristic of
transformer and motor steel. This is a very simple model but it simulates accurately all the measured characteristics of the auxiliary
system and all the bulk supply points.
PROC. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 8, AUGUST 1977

42

Analysis of tests at Rogerstone

The derived parameters given in Table 3 for the auxiliary

system compare favourably, in all but one respect, with the known
characteristics of the load.
At the time of the tests there was, in fact, 285 MW of motor load
and 0-1 MW of static load, but the analysis is not sufficiently sensitive
to reveal the latter component. It is noteworthy that, in the calculations to determine division between motor and static load, the
assumption is made that the overall response of the active-power
demand of motors to voltage changes is zero; the results of these and
other tests on auxiliary systems support this assumption.
Another parameter which can be checked is the fault power contributed by the motors. (The fault power is the product of the initial
current backfeed from the motors if a 3-phase fault were to be applied
at the measuring point with rated voltage at that point). The fault
power is approximately equal to the inverse of the motor reactance
(Xm in per unit) and the derived parameters give a value of 14-2 MVA;
this compares favourably with that measured during 3-phase fault
tests on the Rogerstone auxiliary system which yield a fault power of
about 14 MVA. A more exact value of the calculated fault power is
given by Vm Ym (see Appendix) and it is noteworthy that this parameter is calculated from the step response of the active power and

6-

Pirt Qm

P,Q

dQ

dP

not from the step response of the reactive power, as is usually done.
The problem with the latter step response is that it is distorted by
saturation effects in motor and transformer steel.
The only main parameter which does not line up with the known
characteristics of the auxiliary system is the inertia constant. The
total inertia calculated from the response tests is 7-5 MWs and is to
be compared with the measured value (obtained from run-down tests)
of about 22'5 MWs. The calculated value is obtained from consideration of the frequency of oscillation of the active power as a
result of the step change, and it is clear that if motors are present that
do not respond at near this 'natural' frequency, their inertia will not
be revealed. Examination of the individual motors shows that there
are two groups of motors (primary-air and induced-draft fans) which
account for two-thirds (15-7 MWs) of the total inertia, but which only
compose about one-quarter of the total motor capacity. The natural
frequency of these two groups is about 1 Hz, and it seems certain that
their inertia has been lost in the calculation; the sum of their inertia
and the calculated value is close to the total measured value of
22-5 MWs. Therefore, it seems that the calculation of the inertia constant will reveal a minimum value for the inertia of a group, but that
some motors, particularly those with large inertia constants, may not
be detected.

4-

PsQs

2-

Xm

Qsot
<

< Re

<
c
<D

dV

dV

<

saturation
characteristic

0-06
-O-O2
O-O6
-002
O-O2/" '
-O-O6-O-O4
0060-04
O-O2O-O4
/o-O4
-2- 7

R.
*\/V\^-

Xs

7 -4
a

-6-

2-1

Q...-

1/

dP

dO

o-c
-O-O2
O-O6-O-O4 /
O-O2 0 0 4

O-O6
O-O2 O-O4

O-O2

dV

-2-

O 9

dV

II

-4

-4-

Fig. 8

Step and overall responses measured at industrial point: test series A

a, b Step response
c, d Overall response
dV = voltage magnitude change (p.u.)
dP and dQ = active- and reactive-power changes, respectively (p.u.)
XXX test results

Fig. 9
Model used to represent load
a Equivalent circuit
b Saturation characteristic for use in a

Table 3
PARAMETERS FOR USE IN EQUIVALENT LOAD MODEL IN FIG. 9

Supply point
and test series
P.S. auxiliaries
Industrial
A
B
C
D

10

1-91

2-95

0-63

10
10
10
10

23-8
23-3
22-3
30-2

8-1
6-5
7-4
7-7

6-9
6-9
4-5
5-2

0-6
0-6
0-3
0-4

29-0
27-4
30-9
28-6

12-8
111
13-4
7-9

10
1-0
1-0
10
10

151

10-4
4-5
17-3
14-0

2-4
01
0-3
5-4
2-6

1-8
-0-8
0-9
3-4
1-4

01
01
0
02
01

131
11-8
11-6
22-2
12-9

10
10
1-0

31-0
320
19-5

4-3

16-8
81
2-7

3-2
0-8
01

64-8
430
316

Qs

Qm

dQsat
dV
0-44

X,
(x 1000)

(X 1000)

523-6

10
Ri

70-4

(x 1000)
5-87

37-7
39-8
40-4
311

11-9
12-6
141
15-4

0170
0-822
0506
0034

10-3
0-9
12-7
16-4
130

64-6
961
211-5
52-7
70-0

32-3
1530
48-0
19-7
29-5

4-4

31-7
31-2
509

11-3
13-9

(X 1000)

11

12
H

(x 1000)
3-23

7-85

0249
0-261
0-287
0-348

97-9
74-8
84-8
70-2

Mixed
A
B
C
D
E

180

2-23

15-6

84-6
18-9

9-9
_

61

14-8

0-89
2-57

24-4
13-7

3-4
3-7
4-5

0-77
0-86

621

102

341

41

Domestic
A

B
C

08
-1-7

PROC. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 8, AUGUST 1977

0-8
-4-5

100

40-6

719

4.3

Analysis of tests at bulk supply points

The calculated parameters for use in the equivalent circuit in

Fig. 9 are given in Table 3. To demonstrate the accuracy with which
the two approximate formulas for the inertia constant H and the rotor
resistance R2 can be used to simulate the transient response, two comparisons of measured and computed results are shown in Figs. 6 and 7.
The comparisons are for two tests in series A at the industrial point
and the computed results use the parameters given in Table 3, except
the supply-point loading is adjusted to the actual conditions for each
individual test. The power flows given in Fig. 1b are, in fact, the initial
conditions for the step response test shown in Fig. 6.
Some of the initial voltages and active and reactive powers given
in Table 3 differ slightly from those given in Table 2; this is owing to
the fact that the initial voltage has been corrected to its nominal value
in the calculation of parameters.
As shown above, in order to simulate the behaviour of a supply
point it is not necessary to know the actual capacity of the motors
supplied. However, in order to understand better the composition of
the demand, it would be helpful to have an approximate value for the
motor capacity, and this is obtained by dividing the fault-powor contribution of the motors by four. (This is about the same as saying that
the reactance of all motors is 0-25 p.u.). The motor capacity so calculated is used to derive some of the parameters given in Table 4.
Columns 1 to 5 of Table 4 show the total load at the supply point
(at nominal voltage), the percentages of static and motor load, the
capacity of the motors, and the percentage loading of the motors. The
main points which emerge from comparison of these five columns are
as follows:
(a) The general descriptions of the supply points (industrial, domestic
and mixed) do not reflect the compositions of the groups in terms
of static and motor loads
(b) At the industrial point, the load and its composition are not much
affected by day /night and weekday/weekend considerations
(c) At the mixed point, the total load changes considerably but its
composition is not much affected by day/night and weekday/
weekend considerations. (The negative motor load in series B is
attributed to inaccuracies caused by a low signal/noise ratio on
measurements for this series)
(d) At the domestic point, the total load and its composition change
from day to night. At night, the motor load is significantly lower
but the capacity of the connected motors is not much changed.
(e) At both industrial and mixed points, the percentage loading of
motors is unexpectedly low.
Column 6 gives the inertia constants of the motors (on motor rating
base) which vary between 2 and 4-7 MWs/MVA, the highest values
being obtained at the industrial point. Electric motors usually have an
inertia constant of less than 1 MWs/MVA and thus the differences
between this and the calculated figures must reflect the inertia of the
drives. The factor discussed in Section 4.2, regarding the failure of the
method to detect some high-inertia motors at Rogerstone, could be
equally valid for the tests at the supply points.
It is mentioned above that in the division of the total load between
motor and static load, the assumption is made that the active power
response of motors to voltage changes is zero. However, it was also

necessary to assume that static load responds as a function of voltage

squared, i.e. that it can be represented by constant impedances in
Fig. 9. Most of the static load is probably resistive heating and filament
and gas-discharge lighting; the heating load responds as a function of
voltage squared, but lighting load responds at a somewhat lower
power of voltage (say about 1-5). There is no way in which the
division of static load can be estimated, but it is noteworthy that if
one reduces the active power response of the static load (from the
assumed square law) one must increase the capacity of the static load,
and hence reduce the motor load, in order to obtain the same overall
active-power response.
3-3 kV

66kV

66kV

33kV

132 kV

o.h. line

auxiliary
system

Fig. 10

System arrangement for fault-throwing

Rogerstone power station
5

tests on auxiliaries at

Use of parameters to simulate a large disturbance

Independently of the tests described above, some large disturbance tests had been conducted previously on the auxiliary system
of one generator at the Rogerstone power station. The tests involved
the application of 3-phase faults on the supply system to the auxiliary
motors, and the main purpose of the tests was to obtain test results
which could be used to check the validity of computer programs for
the analysis of large disturbances. The system configuration, which
was specially arranged for the tests to avoid disturbance to consumer
loads, is shown in Fig. 10. Details of the test system can be found in
Reference 4.
The voltage, current, active and reactive powers (measured at
3-3 kV) supplied to the motors before, during and after a 3-phase fault
of 0 2 2 s duration at the fault point shown in Fig. 10, are shown by
the solid lines in Fig. 11.
In order to investigate the ability of the parameters obtained from
step response tests to simulate large disturbances, and, particularly, in
an attempt to learn more about the significance of the inertia constant, two studies were done using the loading conditions and electrical
parameters obtained from the step response tests. In one study the
inertia constant obtained from these tests was used, and in the other
the known value was used; the results of the studies are shown by the
broken lines in Fig. 11.
Both studies produce results which are of the right order with, it is
considered, the best overall agreement with the test result being given
by the study with the inertia constant obtained from the step response
tests. As in the case of the step response tests, it may be that because
the heavy motors do not swing violently, they do not influence the
overall results much, and that the lighter motors, which constitute

Table 4

CALCULATED COMPOSITION OF SUPPLY POINTS

1

Supply point
and test series
Industrial
A Friday morning
B Friday evening
C Friday night
D Sunday morning
Mixed
A Sunday morning
B Sunday evening
C Sunday night
D Monday morning
E Monday evening
Domestic
A Wednesday morning
B Wednesday evening
C Wednesday night
720

Loading

MW

MVA

Inertia
constant on
motor
capacity
base
MWs/MVA

30-7
30-2
26-8
35-4

76
74
83
85

24
26
17
15

21
20
18
16

33
35
25
33

4-7
3-7
4-7
4-4

16-7
20-7
15-4

89
108
83
84
91

11
-8
17
16
9

7
2
5
12
7

26
18
28
20

2-2
2-1

20
2-0

47-8
40-1
22-2

65
80
88

35
20
12

22
20
17

76
42
16

2-8

Total
load at
1 p.u.
voltage

Static
load

9-6
5-5

Motor
load

Motor
capacity

of

motors

20
2-0

PROC. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 8, AUGUST 1977

three-quarters of the total capacity, are the dominant factor in the

power swings.

The tests to measure the longer term response of the loads through
operation of automatic tap changers are not significant in overall
system response because, normally, the automatic tap changers on the
132/33 kV transformers would be set to operate much more quickly
than those on the lower-voltage transformers. The tests show that it
will not be necessary to lock the tap changers on the lower-voltage
transformers in any future tests.
The attempt to simulate a large disturbance to the auxiliary system,
using the parameters obtained from small disturbances, is inconclusive.
However, the results are such as to encourage further work in this area.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to the Central Electricy Generating

Board for permission to publish this paper. Appreciation is also owing
to I.A. Erinmez and A.T. Poray for their assistance. The System
Technical Engineer, CEGB, is grateful to the South Wales Electricity
Board, and to the South Western Region of the CEGB, and to their
staffs for assistance in executing the tests.

References

1 HORE, R.A.: 'Advanced studies in electrical power system design' (Chapman &
Hall, 1966)
2ASHMOLE, P.H., BATTLEBURY, D.R., and BOWDLER, R.K.: 'Powersystem model for large frequency disturbances', Proc. IEE, 1974, 121, (7),
pp. 6 0 1 - 6 0 8
3 DUNLOP, R.D., EWART, D.N., and SCHULZ, R.P.: 'Use of digital computer
simulations to assess long-term power system dynamic response', IEEE Trans.,
PAS-94, pp. 850-857
4 HUMPAGE, D.W., DURRANI, K.E., and CARVALHO, V.F.: 'Dynamicresponse analysis of interconnected synchronous - asynchronous machine
groups', Proc. IEE, 1969, (12), pp. 2015-2027
5 DAVIES, M., MORAN, F., and BIRD, J.I.: 'Power/frequency characteristics
of the British grid system' ibid., 1959, 106A, (26), pp. 154-162

time, s

Appendixes: Analysis of load composition

Fig. 11

Results of 3-phase fault test on auxiliary system

test result
computed result (H = 7-85)
computed result (H = 2 2 5 )

Concluding remarks

The paper shows how it is possible to use the results of step

response tests to derive parameters for use in a simple model of a load.
The model contains static load, motors and iron-saturation effects and
computer studies using the model have demonstrated its accuracy in
simulating the response of consumer loads to voltage changes.
Whether or not the model accurately reflects the actual division of
the total load between static load and motor load is open to debate.
The key assumption in the calculation of this division is that the
active-power demand of the static load varies as a function of voltage
squared. However, this assumption does not affect the ability of the
model to simulate small disturbances but it may be more important
if the model is used to study large disturbances.
The analysis failed to determine the total inertia of the motors in
the tested auxiliary system and it is probable that it has failed similarly at the tested supply points. Again, however, this is unimportant
in the small disturbance response but is expected to be more important
in the study of large disturbances. It is considered unlikely that, even
with improved analysis, small voltage disturbances can reveal the
inertia accurately, and that the frequency of the voltage system2lS
will have to be disturbed for this to be done. The full practical significance of the failure cannot be adequately assessed at the present time;
further work is required to establish this.
The test method reveals a reliable value for the fault power contribution of motors in which the 'apparent' contribution due to ironsaturation effects has been eliminated.
From such a limited sample of supply points it is not possible to
draw any conclusions about load composition in general. The results
obtained at the industrial, mixed and domestic supply points do not
exhibit the expected differences and this fact offers some hope that if
the tests were to be done at a higher level of voltage transformation
(400/132 kV), i.e. with larger and more diverse loads, the differences
would be even less, and that a truly general-purpose load model might
result.
PROC. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 8, AUGUST 1977

9.1

Use of initial conditions and step-response data

It is assumed that a load group can be simulated by the

simple equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 12,, in which a constant shunt
admittance represents the static load and a voltage behind a constant
admittance represents a motor. By definition, the internal voltage of
the motor is initially unaffected by the step change of voltage
imposed on the group.
The real and reactive powers taken by the motors are
Pm = V2 Gm - V Vm Ym cos (0 m + 0)

(4)

Qm =

V Bm-VVmYmsm(<Pm+9)

(5)

and those taken by the static load are

(6)
2

Qs = V BS

PQ

(7)

PmQm

G j B

t
Ps Q s

v/e

Fig. 12

Simple equivalent circuit

721

giving group demands of

9.2

P = V2{Gm + GS)~ VV Ym cos (<pm + 9)

r

Use of change from initial conditions to new steady state

(8)

Y
Q = V2(Bm + BS)- VV
' m Ymi ;in(0 m -f 0 )

(9)

in which
(10)

Ym =

OO
Y8 = (G2S+B2Y

When the transients resulting from the step change have died
away, the load group settles down to a new steady state. The overall
responses of real and reactive power as a function of the voltagemagnitude change are given in Table 2; changes to the phase angle of
the voltage do not influence the final steady state. The static load in
the model of Fig. 12 responds as a function of voltage-magnitude
squared and the active-power demand of the motor is virtually independent of the voltage magnitude. Therefore, from eqn. 6,

(12)
(13)

The active power of the group responds to step changes in both the
magnitude and phase angle of the supply voltage and the following
equations apply:
dP

bP

(14)

=V-d

(15)

0)

(16)

= VVmYm sin (0 m + 0)

(19)

and
P

G8) - Vm Ym cos

(18)

2 dV

(20)

= P P

* m

and
^

dV

hence

in which
bP
- = 2V(G

2P.
V

dV

To accurately calculate the reactive power demand Qm of the motor

we need to know its susceptance Bm and admittance Ym and these
are not known at this point. However, the quantity is not very
important and it is considered that the overall results of this analysis
justify the use of the following approximate equations:

Using the measurements of dP, dV and dd in each test series, a

multiple-regression analysis is used to produce the best-fit values for
bP/bV and bP/bO; the resulting values for each test series are given in
Table 2. Eqns. 8, 15 and 16 are then solved, using the values of
P, V, bP/bV and dP/dd given in Table 2, to obtain (0 m + 0), Vm Ym
and (Gm + Gs), the values of which are given in columns 1, 2 and 3 of
Table 5.
The value of (Bm + Bs), given in column 4 of Table 5, is obtained
by substituting Q, V, (4>m + 6) and Vm Ym in eqn. 9.
The reactive power of the group also responds, in theory, to step
changes in both the magnitude and phase angle of the supply voltage,
but its response to phase angle could not be detected in the test results
and this factor is neglected. Therefore, the following equation governs
the step response of the reactive power of the group:

Yv

+ Bs)-VmYmsin(<t>m

(17)

+ 0)

However, at this point in the analysis, all the parameters on the right
hand side of eqn. 17 are known and the values of dQ/dV obtained by
substitution are given in column 5 of Table 5. These values differ from
the measured values given in Table 2, and thus an error in the linear
circuit of Fig. 12 is indicated; the difference is attributed to the
magnetic saturation of transformer and motor steel and is shown in
column 6 of Table 5.

nSim =
and

(21)

yv 1 y
m

(22)

Qs = Q-Q

The values of Ps, Qs, Pm and Qm obtained from the above are given in
columns 7 to 10, respectively, in Table 5.
The approximate overall response of the reactive power of the
group, using the above parameters and assumptions, is given by
dQ
=
dV

(23)

2(QS-Qm)

and the response of the model for each test series is given in column 11
of Table 5. These responses differ from the measured results and the
differences, which are shown in column 12 of Table 5, are attributed
to magnetic saturation.
Given the parameters in Table 5, purely routine mathematical
manipulation is required to obtain the individual parameters for use
in Fig. 9; these are given in Table 3. The saturation characteristic used
in the model in Fig. 9. is that obtained above from the overall
response.

Table 5
SUPPLY-POINT PARAMETERS OBTAINED FROM STEP AND OVERALL RESPONSES
1

10

dQ

dQsat
dV
step
response
5-4

Ps

Qs

Pm

Qm

1-31

2-95

11
dQ

12

0-63

dV
overall
response
1-36

dQsat
dV
overall
response
0-44

and test series

<t>m+6

P.S. auxiliaries

1-70

13-8

1-2

15-4

dV
step
response
17-5

Industrial
A
B
C
D

1-64
1-59
1-60
1-65

84-3
79-2
71-3
65-6

25-0
28-4
24-8
301

92-2
85-8
78-5
73-0

102-2
94-1
87-3
82-2

26-8
19-9
31-7
36-8

24-2
23-7
22-7
30-8

8-5
6-9
7-8
81

6-9
6-9
4-5
5-2

0-6
0-6
0-3
0-4

160
12-6
151
15-4

290
27-4
30-9
28-6

Mixed
A
B
C
D
E

1-12
0-94
1-24
1-33
1-15

26-4
6-2
190
47-9
29-6

28-0
13-2
11-6
31-8
27-6

26-2
5-2
18-3
51-9
29-7

29-1
5-5
18-6
58-2
32-4

15-9
18-5
2-4
17-8
30-6

151
10-6
4-5
17-7
140

2-6
0-2
0-3
5-7
2-6

1-8
-0-8
0-9
3-4
1-4

01
01
0
0-2
01

4-9
0-2
0-4
10-8
51

131
11-8
11-6
22-2
12-9

Domestic
A
B
C

1-42
1-35
1-29

88-0
810
67-6

61-2
57-9
40-8

94-5
80-6
63-4

1020
82-2
61-8

53-0
19-8

3 1 0 4-3
32-0 0-8
19-5 - 1 - 7

16-8
81
2-7

3-2
0-8

2-2
0
-3-6

64-8
430
316

Supply

722

v
V
m YJm

Gm+Gs

Bm+Bs

17-2

01

PROC. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 8, AUGUST 1977

9.3

Use of active and reactive power transients

When a step change of voltage is applied to a load group, the

reactive power demanded by the motors of the group takes time to
adjust to the new conditions and the test results show that it does so
in an exponential manner. The average measured time constant of
decay Tn for each test series is given in column 9 of Table 2, and the
approximate formula governing the decay is
7V, =

(Xm+Xt)
2nf0R2

(24)

in which Xt is the reactance of the supply system and from which R2

can be calculated.
The step change of voltage also results in an oscillation in the active
power demand of the motors as their rotors settle down to a new
steady operating condition. The average frequency of the oscillation
/ for each test is given in column 10 of Table 2 and the approximate
formula governing the frequency is
fn =

/o

4n(Xm+Xf)H

(25)

From which H can be calculated.

Errata
BRYCE, G.W., AGNEW, P.W., FOORD, T.R., WINNING, D.J., and
MARSHALL, A.G.: 'On-site investigation of electrohydraulic
governors for water turbines', Proc. IEE, 1977, 124, (2), pp. 147-153:

SEONI, R.M., SHADED, E.N., SIMPSON, R.J., and WARNOCK, J.G.:

'Review of trends of large hydroelectric generating equipment', Proc.
IEE, 1976, 123, (1 OR), pp. 1138-1162:

Eqn. 4 should be:

The following two lines which appeared in error at the beginning of

p. 1150 should be inserted at the end of page 1146:

Aft
AA

(1 -a) -5(1

ot(l-sTE)
-a)TE+saTM-05s2TMTE

Manufacturing approach for Grand Coulee III

The six Grand Coulee III turbines are being supplied by two

Eqn. 5 should be:

AA
Aft

ETC34P

1
1 +s!6
0-03 (1 + s ) ( l + s l 6 0

In Section 5.3, the first equation should be

A* _ 1 + s(T2 +T4+Kl) + s2(T2T4 + Kx T4 + K2)
AQ
a(\ +sT2)(] +sT4)(\ +sT7/o)
In Table 2, the units of column 4 should be s and not Hz.
ETC33 P

PROC. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 8, AUGUST 1977

723