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Calculating minor losses for pipe fittings in AioFlo
In order to calculate the minor losses (i.e. pressure drops in fittings and valves) for a pipe it is
necessary to give details of the start of the line, the end of the line, and all the fittings and valves in
the line. AioFlo therefore breaks up the data input into these categories to make it logical and easy to
check that everything has been covered.

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Defining the start of the line

In the AioFlo model a pipe can start as the outlet from a tank or vessel, or it can be a continuation
from another pipe.

The outlet from a tank can either be flush with the side of the tank, or it can project into the tank
(sometimes known as a "Borda" entrance). The radius of the joint between the tank and a flush
entrance can vary because a well radiused entrance has a very much lower resistance coefficient than
a square outlet.
Because AioFlo is designed for pipes of a single diameter, any change in diameter must occur at either
the start or end of the line. The change in diameter can be either an increase or a decrease from the
previous section, and it can be implemented as a sudden expansion or contraction, or as a conical

reducer, or as a standard pipe reducer. The diameter of the previous section can be keyed in as a
numeric value, or it can be selected from the built in pipe dimension tables. The resistance coefficients
for the changes in diameter are calculated using the Hooper Method.

Specifying elbows and tees for the calculation of minor

losses

A variety of threaded, welded (or flanged) and mitered fittings is included.

The second page covers elbows and tees. The resistance coefficients (K values) for the elbows and
tees are calculated using the Darby 3-K Method which allows accurate calculation of pressure drops in

the fittings for laminar and turbulent flow. This gives better accuracy than using equivalent lengths or
fixed K values.
Where applicable, the details of the fittings are selected from drop down lists, and the number of
fittings is keyed in.

Specifying valves and orifices for the calculation of

minor losses

A wide variety of generic valves is included, and there is the option of adding specific details for
calculating losses in control valves and orifices.

The third page covers valves and orifices. The resistance coefficients for the generic valve types are
calculated using the Darby 3-K Method which allows accurate determination of losses for laminar and
turbulent flow. These K values are based on average values found in the open literature and catalogs
and will be sufficiently accurate in most cases. However, if you have specific data for a valve you can
enter that as a separate K value.
The control valve resistance is specified by entering a Cv value in the US, British or European form.
Thin, sharp edged orifices as well as thick orifices are included. The permanent pressure loss through
the orifices is calculated using the Hooper Method.
Generic resistance coefficient (K value) data is included for gate valves, globe valves, ball valves, plug
valves, diaphragm valves, butterfly valves, Y-type strainers and a selection on non-return (check)
valves.

Defining the end of the line

In the AioFlo model a pipe can end in the same diameter as the main pipe line, or there can be an
increase or decrease in diameter. The acceleration or exit loss can be included if the pipe discharges to
the atmosphere or to an open tank, or the loss can be ignored if the pipe joins onto another section.

At the end of a pipe the kinetic energy due to the fluid velocity is lost if the fluid discharges to an
unpressurized zone, or it can be retained if the fluid remains in another pipe (or if it is a gas
discharged to a pressurized zone). This loss of kinetic energy is known as the "Exit Loss". This is an
either-or selection in AioFlo.
In the same way as a change of diameter is allowed at the start of the line, there can be a change of
diameter at the end as well. The change in diameter can be either an increase or a decrease to the

downstream section, and it can be implemented as a sudden expansion or contraction, or as a conical

reducer, or as a standard pipe reducer. The diameter of the downstream section can be keyed in as a
numeric value, or it can be selected from the built in pipe dimension tables. The resistance coefficients
for the changes in diameter are calculated using the Hooper Method.

Selecting units for individual properties

This image shows just the Input Data section of the Main Screen. Note that the units for each data
entry value are shown to the right of the entry field.

Every data input field and every result output field has a label showing the units for that field. Clicking
one of these labels opens a list of available units. As soon as one of the units in this list is selected,
the associated value is immediately converted to the new units. In the example shown above the
available units for pipe length are shown in the drop-down list, ready for a new unit to be selected.

Working with sets of units

AioFlo has 6 sets of units. There are 3 predefined sets and 3 sets which can be defined by the user to
enable mixing of units.

When working with sets of units, the units for every single property can be changed at once by
selecting a different set. The 3 predefined sets of units cover SI Units, Metric Units and US Customary
Units.
The first column in the image above allows you to select which set of units will be in place when you
start AioFlo. The second column shows the name of each set of units. The names of the bottom three
(the user defined sets) can be edited to describe the set.
Clicking an "Apply" button in the "Use Now" column will set the units for every property in AioFlo
according to the units defined in the applicable set. Any data that had already been entered, and any
calculation results available, will be instantly converted to the new units. This allows the user to set up
and perform the calculation in one set of units, and then swap the entire set of units to suit a
particular client or application. The units set in this way will remain in place until they are changed, or
AioFlo is restarted. At restart the units will be set to the start up default as described above.
The 3 "Define" buttons in the last column allow the user to make up their own sets of mixed units.
This is described below.

Defining your own sets of mixed units

This page shows the name of the user defined set of units, together with the selected units for every
property used in AioFlo.

The name of each user defined set of units can be edited in the top right of the page to be descriptive
of the particular set. The units for each property are set by clicking on the units label associated with
the property, and then selecting the new choice. Alternatively, if the units for the individual properties
have already all been set on the main screen the entire collection of currently selected units can be
imported at once by clicking the "Get Current Units" button in the bottom left corner.
Once the units have been set to the new requirements they can be saved and will be available for
selection in the "Select Units" window shown above.

Selecting the pipe inside diameter

AioFlo uses a single form to allow selection of Sch 10S, 40 or 80 pipe in a range of sizes from 1/2 inch
to 24 inch NB.

In the fields where AioFlo requires you to specify the inside diameter of the pipe you can enter it as a
number, or you can click the ellipsis button to bring up this form and simply select it. Note that the
form lists the NB sizes in inches and millimeters, and also gives the actual inside diameter in the units
specified in the top right corner.

Specifying the pipe roughness

From this pop-up page you can select from a wide range of materials, finishes and conditions for the
pipe roughness.

In non-laminar flow the friction factor, and therefore the pressure drop, is dependent on the pipe
roughness. Using the correct roughness for the type of pipe in use is important in being able to
accurately predict the pressure drops and flows. AioFlo allows you to enter your own pipe roughness
value in the Main Screen, or you can click the ellipsis button to bring up this window and select the
applicable material and condition to give the correct roughness for your pipe.