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Glutathione in foods listed in the National Cancer

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Frequency Questionnaire
Article in Nutrition and Cancer February 1992
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Nutrition and Cancer

ISSN: 0163-5581 (Print) 1532-7914 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hnuc20

Glutathione in foods listed in the national

cancer institute's health habits and history food
frequency questionnaire
Dean P. Jones , Ralph J. Coates , Elaine W. Flagg , John W. Eley , Gladys Block ,
Raymond S. Greenberg , Elaine W. Gunter & Bethany Jackson
To cite this article: Dean P. Jones , Ralph J. Coates , Elaine W. Flagg , John W. Eley , Gladys Block ,
Raymond S. Greenberg , Elaine W. Gunter & Bethany Jackson (1992) Glutathione in foods
listed in the national cancer institute's health habits and history food frequency questionnaire,
Nutrition and Cancer, 17:1, 57-75, DOI: 10.1080/01635589209514173
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01635589209514173

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Glutathione in Foods Listed in the National

Cancer Institute's Health Habits and History Food
Frequency Questionnaire
Dean P. Jones, Ralph J. Coates, Elaine W. Flagg, John W. Eley,
Gladys Block, Raymond S. Greenberg, Elaine W. Gunter,
and Bethany Jackson

Abstract
Glutathione (GSH) is an antioxidant and anticarcinogen that is present in plant and animal
tissues that form the bulk of the human diet. Recent studies show that GSH is absorbed intact
in rat small intestine and that oral GSH increases plasma GSH concentration in humans. To
provide a database for epidemiological studies of dietary intake of GSH and risk of diseases
in humans, we have measured the content of GSH in the foods listed in the National Cancer
Institute's Health Habits and History Questionnaire. Foods were purchased in the Atlanta
area and prepared as most commonly consumed in the United States. GSH analyses were
performed using a high-performance liquid chromatography technique with a method of
additions to correct for losses during sample preparation. A separate set of samples was run
after treatment with dithiothreitol to measure the total of GSH and its disulfide forms
(GSH,). The results show that dairy products, cereals, and breads are generally low in GSH;
fruits and vegetables have moderate to high amounts of GSH; and freshly prepared meats are
relatively high in GSH. Frozen foods generally had GSH contents similar to fresh foods,
whereas other forms of processing and preservation generally resulted in extensive loss of
GSH. Thus this database will allow researchers to examine the relationship between dietary
GSH and risk of cancers and other diseases.
(Nutr Cancer 17, 57-75, 1992)

D. P. Jones is affiliated with the Department of Biochemistry, D. P. Jones, R. J. Coates, J.

W. Eley, and R. S. Greenberg with the Winship Cancer Center, and E. W. Flagg, R. J.
Coates, J. W. Eley, and R. S. Greenberg with the Division of Epidemiology, Emory
University, Atlanta, GA 30322. G. S. Block is affiliated with the Division of Cancer
Prevention and Control, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892. E. W. Gunter is
affiliated with the Nutritional Biochemistry Branch, Division of Environmental Health
Laboratory Sciences, Center for Environmental Health and Injury Control, Centers for
Disease Control, Atlanta, GA 30333. B. Jackson is affiliated with the Department of
Nutrition and Family Studies, Andrews University, Berein Springs, IL 49104.

Copyright 1992, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Downloaded by [University of California, Berkeley] at 18:36 09 May 2016

Introduction
Epidemiological research on dietary intake and risk of cancer has been largely limited to
investigations of the effects of a few food groups, such as fruits, dairy products, and meats,
and a few components of foods, including dietary fiber, fats, and several vitamins and
minerals (1,2). Although results of such studies have been somewhat inconsistent, it is
increasingly recognized that a higher intake of fresh fruits and vegetables is associated with
lower risk of several cancers, including those of the head and neck, lung, stomach, and colon
(1-6). Although it is not certain what components in fruits and vegetables may be responsible
for these effects, /3-carotene, vitamin C, and other dietary antioxidants are recognized as
potential candidates (1-3,7-8). Laboratory studies have identified a number of other
naturally occurring potentially anticarcinogenic compounds in foods, including aromatic
isothidcyanates, coumarins, lactones, flavonoids, indoles, phenolic acids, and glutathione
(7-9), but epidemiological studies evaluating dietary intake of these compounds and risk of
disease have not been conducted.
For a number of reasons, research on the potential health effects in humans of dietary
intake of glutathione (GSH) may be scientifically useful. GSH may protect cells from
carcinogenic processes through a number of mechanisms: 1) by functioning as an antioxidant
(10,22), 2) by binding with mutagenic chemical compounds (12,13), 3) by directly or
indirectly acting to maintain functional levels of other antioxidants such as vitamins C and
E and /3-carotene (11,13,14), 4) through its involvement in DNA synthesis and repair (15,16),
and 5) by enhancing the immune response (17,18). All mammalian cells are capable of
producing GSH from the amino acids glutamate, cysteine, and glycine, and the liver appears
to be a major source of plasma GSH (19,20). However, recent animal studies have found
that dietary GSH is absorbed intact (21), and studies in humans indicate that orally
administered GSH may be absorbed by buccal and intestinal mucosa (22,23). Laboratory
studies have also shown that lung and other epithelial cells are capable of taking up
exogenous GSH, and this uptake protects cells from oxidative damage (24,25).
There have been only two reports to date concerning GSH concentrations in foods
consumed by humans. A 1978 report characterized GSH and cysteine levels in six fruits.
More recently (26), an analysis of 39 foods commonly consumed in the United States
indicated that meats contain relatively high concentrations of GSH, fresh fruits and
vegetables contain moderate amounts, and other foods contain little or none and that
cooking and processing decreases concentrations substantially. The authors suggested that
GSH intakes may vary from 2.9 to 131 mg/day, depending on food selection and methods
of preparation. This work indicates that if dietary intake does affect cancer risk, there should
be sufficient variability in GSH intakes in the US diet for such effects to be observed.
However, the limited number of foods selected in this study and the lack of uniform methods
of analysis resulted in information that was too limited for adequate characterization of
dietary intakes for epidemiological studies.
The National Cancer Institute's Health Habits and History Questionnaire (HHHQ)
(27-29) is a food frequency questionnaire that was developed to assess dietary intakes for
epidemiological investigations of the role of dietary factors in disease and is widely used by
researchers in the United States. The 98 listed food items and groups were selected by
National Cancer Institute researchers because they have been found to contribute 90% or
more of calories, dietary fiber, and 18 major nutrients in the US diet (27,28). The nutrient
database and software (29,30) were developed to allow investigators to readily add
information on additional foods and nutrients. Because of the potential value of epidemiological investigations of dietary GSH and because the HHHQ questionnaire is widely used
and is easily available for epidemiological research, we measured GSH contents of foods in
the HHHQ nutrient database and make these data available for interested researchers.

58

Nutrition and Cancer 1992

Experimental Procedures
Selection of Representative Foods

Downloaded by [University of California, Berkeley] at 18:36 09 May 2016

For the GSH measurements, a representative food was selected for each food item or food
group of the HHHQ. The specific food and the method of preparation were those most
commonly reported in the second National Health and Nutrition Survey, a national
population-based survey conducted in the United States between 1976 and 1980 that
obtained 24-hour recalls of dietary intake through a personal interview. For each food, such
as hot dogs or ice cream, three different brand name products were analyzed. For products
where brand names are not necessarily associated with the sample, such as meats and fresh
produce, three different samples were procured. Foods were purchased in major chain
supermarkets, cafeterias, or restaurants in northeast Atlanta during January through
November 1990. Perishable foods were refrigerated before laboratory analysis, which was
performed within one week of purchase.
Materials for Analytic Procedures
Dithiothreitol (DTT), l-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (FDNB), ethylenediamine tetraacetic
acid (EDTA), and iodoacetic acid were purchased from Sigma Chemical (St. Louis, MO).
All other chemicals were at least of reagent grade and purchased locally. For food analysis,
four solutions were prepared and kept on ice until time for derivation. Solution A was 0.9%
(wt/vol) NaCl containing 5 mm EDTA. Solution B was Solution A, to which 10 iM GSH
was added. Solution C was solution A to which 20 /*M GSH was added. Solution D was
Solution A with 5 mM DDT.
Laboratory Analyses of Foods for GSH and GSH,
Food samples were analyzed for both the reduced tripeptide GSH and for all forms of GSH
obtained after reduction with dithiothreitol (GSHt). In general, the former represents the
bulk of the glutathionyl moiety found in biological systems and is the form that is absorbed
in the small intestine (31). However, cooking can result in a substantial increase in the
disulfide forms (26), and recent evidence shows that a reductase system is present in the small
intestine that converts glutathione disulfide (GSSG) to GSH (32). Thus, oxidized forms of
GSH may be present in substantial concentrations in some foods, and these forms may be
bioavailable. Because we do not presently know whether GSH or GSHt is more nutritionally
relevant, we measured both.
The samples were taken from the portions of the foods generally considered in the United
States to be edible. Foods that are most commonly consumed after cooking were cooked
according to a standard protocol. In general, steamed or boiled foods were cooked in a small
amount of water until tender and then drained. Pan-fried foods, such as pork chops, were
fried at medium heat for five minutes or until done (e.g., loss of pink or red color in meats).
For all foods, a standard method of additions procedure was followed in which five 1-g
portions of each of three different store samples were taken and treated as follows. One
sample was placed in an aluminum tray and dried at 105F for at least 24 hours to obtain a
dry weight. The other four samples were distributed into beakers containing 10 ml of ice-cold
homogenation solution (Solution A, B, C, or D). Foods that were solutions or homogenates
(orange juice, grapefruit juice, apple juice, tomato juice, cola, beer, wine, alcohol, coffee,
tea, fruit drink, cranberry juice) were mixed on a vortex shaker. Foods that produced
emulsions (e.g., milk, ice cream) were extracted by the method of Folch and co-workers (33)
to remove lipids before further treatment. Control experiments showed that GSH is not

Vol. 17, No. 1

59

Downloaded by [University of California, Berkeley] at 18:36 09 May 2016

extracted by this procedure. One-milliliter aliquots were immediately taken and added to a
test tube containing 0.5 ml of ice-cold 30% (wt/vol) trichloroacetic acid. For samples that
were not already solutions or homogenates, homogenation was performed using a Polytron
homogenizer. Samples were maintained on ice until all samples had been prepared to this
point; then samples were centrifuged to remove insoluble material. One-half-milliliter
aliquots were transferred to new tubes containing 0.1 ml of 40 mM iodoacetic acid. Samples
were neutralized by adding a solution of 1 M KHCO3 in 1 M KOH to achieve pH 8. After
one hour of shaking at room temperature, 0.5 ml of 1.5% (vol/vol) FDNB in absolute
ethanol was added to each tube. Samples were mixed and stored overnight in the dark before
analysis by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). HPLC analysis was performed essentially as described by Reed and colleagues (34) using a C,g amine column
(Beckman) with 80% ethanol as Solvent A and 54 g of sodium acetate trihydrate plus 75 ml
of glacial acetic acid in 64% methanol as Solvent B. Derivatives were detected at 365 nm and
quantified relative to standards by integration.
Integral results for Solutions A, B, and C for each sample were plotted as a function of
GSH content (0, 10, and 20 jtM), and the negative of the x-axis intercept was taken as the
GSH concentration. Values for each of the three samples were multiplied by 11 to adjust for
dilution (1-g of sample plus 10 ml of solution), multiplied by the molecular weight, and
multiplied by 100 to provide values as milligrams per 100 g wet wt. Values are expressed as
means SE for three samples. Values are also converted to milligrams per usual portion size
by use of the HHHQ medium portion sizes from the HHHQ database. In the final data set
given in Table 1, substitutions were made for some items that were not measured. These
items are identified along with the substitutions that were made (e.g., the value for whole
milk was substituted for 2% milk).
Results
The results for GSH and GSHt are given in Tables 2-5 for the analyses performed in this
study; a complete listing of mean values for each item in the HHHQ, in the order of listing
in the questionnaire, is given in Table 1.
Fruits and Fruit Juices
Nineteen fruits and six fruit juices and drinks were analyzed (Table 2). Fourteen of the
fruits had detectable GSH, but orange juice was the only fruit juice or fruit drink with GSH.
For fruits, average GSH content was 3.2 mg/100 g wet wt (range 0-6.9), and average GSHt
content was 4.3 mg/100 g (range 0-9.9). Combined, fruits and fruit juices have a mean GSH
content of 2.6 mg/100 g and GSHt of 3.4 mg/100 g. Fresh citrus fruits (oranges, grapefruits)
and melons (cantaloupe, watermelon) had high concentrations of GSH. Except for orange
juice, juices had no GSH. For fruits and fruit juices containing detectable GSH, the
percentage of GSHt present as GSH ranged from 44% to 97%, with a mean value of 76%
for all these foods. When expressed per usual portion size, oranges, cantaloupe, strawberries, and fresh peaches had the highest contents of GSH and fresh apples, pears, and bananas
contained moderately high GSH. Because of an exceptionally large portion size, watermelon
also had a high GSH content per usual portion.
Vegetables
Thirty-eight vegetables were analyzed for GSH content (Table 3). Of these, 32 had
detectable levels of GSH; 5 of 6 of the other foods were canned products. Mean GSH was
4.7 mg/100 g, and mean GSH, was 6.5 mg/100 g. Canned vegetables were generally low in
GSH; the mean of 10 canned vegetables was 1.1 mg GSH/100 g wet wt and 2.3 mg GSH/100

60

Nutrition and Cancer 1992

Vol

Table 1 . Glutathione and Sulfur Amino Acid Contents of Foods Listed in the HHHQ Food Frequency List

Downloaded by [University of California, Berkeley] at 18:36 09 May 2016

7. No.

*-*
Sequence
No."
1*
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11"
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

18
18
1819
20
21
22*
22
23
24
25
26
27
ON

Food Analyzed
Apples, raw, not pared
Pears, raw, not pared
Bananas, raw, common
Peaches, sweetened, canned
Peaches, unsweetened, raw, pared
Cantaloupe, raw (in season)
Cantaloupe, raw (out of season)
Watermelon, raw
Strawberries, frozen
Strawberries, raw (in season)
Oranges, raw, pared
Orange juice, reconst, from cone
Grapefruit juice, canned
Grapefruit, white, raw, pared
Orange drink, from powder
Apple juice, bottled
Fruit cocktail, sweetened, canned
Beans, green, canned, heated
Peas, green, canned, heated
Beans, pinto, canned, heated
Blackeyed peas, canned, heated
Beans, pinto, dried, soaked, cooked
Corn, sweet, canned, heated
Mixed vegetables, frozen, cooked
Squash, winter, acorn, baked
Tomatoes, raw
Tomato juice, bottled
Red chili sauce, salsa
Broccoli spears, fresh, cooked
Cauliflower, fresh cooked
Spinach, raw
Spinach, canned, heated

HHHQ Nutrient Database

Food Name'
Apples and applesauce, pears
Apples and applesauce, pears
Bananas
Peaches, apricots (canned, frozen)
Peaches, apricots (fresh, in season)
Cantaloupe (in season)
Cantaloupe (out of season)
Watermelon
Strawberries (canned, frozen)
Strawberries (fresh, in season)
Oranges, tangerines
Orange or grapefruit juice
Orange or grapefruit juice
Grapefruit
Tang and Start
Other fruit juice, fort drinks
Other fruits
Green beans
Peas
Beans (dried type)
Beans (dried type)
Beans (dried type)
Corn
Mixed vegetables
Winter squash
Tomatoes and tomato juice
Tomatoes and tomato juice
Red chili sauce, salsa
Broccoli
Cauliflower, brussels sprouts
Spinach (raw)
Spinach (cooked)

Glutathione,
mg/100 g
GSH, GSH
3.3
5.0
4.1
1.9
7.4
6.9
6.9
6.6
9.9
7.1
7.3
4.2
0.0
7.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.6
0.6
2.1
0.0
1.7
5.9
11.7
9.0
1.6
0.0
9.1
9.1
12.2
2.2

1.5
3.3
3.3
1.2
5.0
6.1
6.1
5.0
5.1
6.9
4.8
2.8
0.0
6.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.2
0.5
1.3
0.0
0.6
3.2
11.0
7.5
1.3
0.0
5.5
4.0
11.4
1.4

Methionine, Cysteine,
mg/100 g
mg/100 g
2
2
11
11
17
6
6
6

1
1
20
12
2
2
0
0
0
14
67
69
69
69
55
44
14
8
8
8
36
26
53
52

3
3
17
4
6
2
2
2
5
5
10
18
0
0
0
0
0
11
26
50
50
50
21
19
10
12
12
12
21
22
35
34

Substitute Food

Cantaloupe, raw (in season)

Tomato juice, bottled

(Continued)

Table 1 . (Continued)
Downloaded by [University of California, Berkeley] at 18:36 09 May 2016

'

Sequence
No."
27*
28
29"
29
30
30*
30

31
31*

32
33

Z
o'
D.

33*
34
35
36
38
39
40
41
42
43
4445
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54

55

Food Analyzed
Spinach, fresh, cooked
Turnip greens, fresh, cooked
Coleslaw with mayonnaise
Cabbage, fresh, cooked
Carrots, raw
Carrots, fresh, cooked
Peas and carrots, frozen, cooked
Lettuce, leaf type, raw
Salad, green
Potatoes, french fries, fast food
Sweet potatoes, canned, heated
Sweet potatoes, fresh, baked
Potatoes, boiled, with skin
Rice, white enriched, cooked
Mushrooms, canned, heated
Hamburger, pan fried
Steak, beef, pan fried
Stew, beef, canned, heated
Liver, beef, pan fried
Pork chop, lean, pan fried
Chicken breast, deep fried
Chicken, roasted
Fish (pollock), deep fried
Tuna fish, canned
Shrimp, canned
Fish (cod and perch), pan fried
Spaghetti and meat sauce, restaurant
Cheese pizza, restaurant
Macaroni and cheese
Liverwurst
Frankfurter, cooked
Boiled ham
Soup, vegetable beef, canned, heated

HHHQ Nutrient Database

Food Name"
Spinach (cooked)
Collards, kale, greens
Coleslaw, cabbage
Coleslaw, cabbage
Mixed vegetables with carrots
Mixed vegetables with carrots
Mixed vegetables with carrots
Salad composite
Salad composite
French fries, fried potatoes
Sweet potatoes
Sweet potatoes
Other potatoes
Rice
Other vegetables
Hamburger, meatloaf
Beef (fat unspecified)
Beef stew, pot pie
Liver
Pork (fat unspecified)
Fried chicken (fat unspecified)
Other chicken (fat unspecified)
Fried fish
Tuna
Shellfish
Fish broiled or baked
Spaghetti
Pizza
Dishes with cheese
Liverwurst
Hot dogs
Ham, lunch meats
Vegetable soup

Glutathione,
mg/lOOg
GSH, GSH
7.2
3.2

2.4
4.7
7.9
5.8
5.9
2.6
2.6
14.3
3.8
2.9
13.6
1.6
0.0
17.5
13.4
1.2
2.5
23.6
13.1
8.7
2.6
1.6
1.3
6.0
3.6
0.0
0.0
9.1
6.2
23.3
0.7

5.7
1.5
1.2
2.1
5.9
4.7
3.2
1.1
1.1
10.2

1.4
1.9
11.0
0.8
0.0
11.8
12.3
1.3
0.8
18.9
6.5
7.7
1.5
1.1
1.0
5.7
3.0
0.0
0.0
7.0
2.4
13.7
0.3

Methionine, Cysteine,
mg/100 g
mg/100 g
52
26
19
19
7
7
7
14
14
39
32
32
30
56
37
612
639
142
675
666
716
707
424
470
650
715
9
0
90
287
228
524
39

34
13
15
15
8
8
8
14
14
22
10
10
24
49
5
268
279
. 53
410
350
348
358
227
172
259
259
11
0
32
152
130
298
16

Substitute Food

Lettuce/mayonnaise

Noodles/cheese/eggs
Liver, pork, pan fried

Downloaded by [University of California, Berkeley] at 18:36 09 May 2016

56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75"
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
8283
84
85
86
87
88
89
89*
89
90
1J

Chicken noodle soup

Bread, white, enriched
Bread, whole wheat
Cornbread
Potato chips
Peanut butter
Butter
Margarine
Mayonnaise
Beef gravy, prepared from mix
Bran flakes
Fortified corn cereal
Cornflakes
Oatmeal or rolled oats, cooked
Sugar
Chicken eggs, pan fried
Bacon, pan fried
Pork sausage
Ice cream, 10% fat
Doughnuts, glazed
Cake, white
Pumpkin pie (sin.'e crust)
Apple pie (double crust)
Candy, milk chocolate
Candy (nonchocolate)
Cottage cheese
Cheese, American
Flavored yogurt
Milk, cow fluid, whole
Milk, cow fluid, 2%
Milk, cow fluid, 1%
Cola
Diet soft drinks
Beer
Table wine, 12.2% alcohol
Table wine, red
Table wine, white
80 Proof, 33.4% alcohol

Other soup
Bread, rolls, crackers
Dark bread
Corn bread
Salty snacks (new portion)
Peanuts, peanut butter
Butter
Margarine
Mayonnaise, salad dressings
Gravy with drippings
Bran and granola cereal
Fortified cereals
Other dry cereals
Cooked cereal
Sugar
Eggs
Bacon
Sausage
Ice cream
Doughnuts, cookies, cake
Doughnuts, cookies, cake
Pumpkin pie
Other pies
Chocolate candy
Candy (nonchocolate)
Cottage cheese
Other cheese
Flavored yogurt
Whole milk (beverage)
2% Milk
Skim milk
Soft drinks
Diet soft drinks
Beer
Wine
Wine
Wine
Liquor

1.8
0.0
1.2
0.0
27.1
2.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.2
0.6
0.0
2.4
0.0
0.0
5.0
6.2
0.0
0.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.2
2.3
1.6
2.9
0.0

1.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
6.0
1.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.5
0.4
0.0
1.5
0.0
0.0
2.2
2.4
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.1
1.5
0.7
2.3
0.0

32
144
130
152
0
302
21
21
35
0
177
173
124
43
0
377
72
478
91
128
128
106
40
571
0
413
579
129
82
84
83
0
0
1
0
0
0
0

19
174
178
117
0
315
8
8
23
0
229
190
117
64
0
278
312
196
33
111
111
67
48
286
0
127
143
40
30
31
30
0
0
3
0
0
0
0

Frankfurter, cooked

Sugar
Cheese, American
Yogurt, plain, lowfat
Milk, cow fluid, whole
Milk, cow fluid, whole
Cola

(Continued)

Downloaded by [University of California, Berkeley] at 18:36 09 May 2016

Table 1 . (Continued)
Sequence
No.'
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
HI
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123

HHHQ Nutrient Database

Food Namec

Food Analyzed
Decaffeinated coffee
Coffee

Decaffeinated coffee
Regular coffee

Tea

Tea

Nondairy creamer
Milk on coffee/tea
Cream
Sugar
Artificial sweetener
Beef(fat trimmed off)
Beef (fat not trimmed off)
Pork (fat trimmed off)
Pork (fat not trimmed off)
Fried chicken (without skin)
Fried chicken (with skin)
Other chicken/turkey (without skin)
Other chicken (with skin)
Cooking oil
Half margarine, half butter
Margarine
Margarine
Lard
(01) Veal cutlet
(02) Chili con came, canned
(03) Tofu
(04) Dishes with beef
(05) Dishes with chicken
(06) Chop suey with meat, restaurant
(07) Mexican dishes
(08) Seafood Creole
(09) Refried beans
(10) Polish-style sausage
(11) Cream soups-clam chowder
(12) Noodles, cooked

Nondairy creamer
Milk on coffee/tea (by program)
Cream
Sugar
Artificial sweetener (by program)
Beef (fat trimmed off)
Beef (fat not trimmed off)
Pork (fat trimmed off)
Pork (fat not trimmed off)
Fried chicken (without skin)
Fried chicken (with skin)
Other chicken/turkey (without skin)
Other chicken (with skin)
Salad oil, cooking oil
Half margarine, half butter
Soft margarine
Stick margarine
Lard
(01) Veal, lamb
(02) Chili
(03) Tofu
(04) Dishes with beef
(05) Dishes with chicken
(06) Chinese dishes
(07) Mexican dishes
(08) Seafood Creole
(09) Refried beans, bean burrito
(10) Polish or Italian sausage
(11) Cream soups
(12) Noodles

Glutathione,
mg/100 g
GSH, GSH
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
13.4
13.4
23.6
23.6
13.1
13.1
8.7
8.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
23.9
1.1
0.0
1.2
8.7
5.7
1.1
1.5
0.6
6.2
0.0
0.0

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
12.3
12.3
18.9
18.9
6.5
6.5
7.7
7.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
26.3
0.9
0.0
1.3
7.7
1.2
0.9
0.8
0.5
2.4
0.0
0.0

Methionine, Cysteine,
mg/100 g
mg/100 g
0
0
0
150
82
73
0
0
639
639
666
666
716
16
707
707
0
21
19
21
0
639
95
153
612
707
142
612
650
69
276
82
87

2
2
0
0
30
27.
0
0
279
279
350
350
348
348
358
358
0
8
7
8
0
279
61
165
268
359
53
268
259
50
225
41
130

Substitute Food
Coffee

Milk, cow fluid, whole

Milk, cow fluid, whole

Steak, beef, pan fried

Steak, beef, pan fried
Pork chop, lean, pan fried
Pork chop, lean, pan fried
Chicken breast, deep fried
Chicken breast, deep fried
Chicken, roasted
Chicken, roasted
Margarine
Margarine/butter
Margarine
Butter

Stew, beef, canned, heated

Chicken, roasted
Chili con carne
Shrimp/tomato sauce/rice
Beans, pinto, canned, heated
Frankfurter, cooked
White bread, enriched

Downloaded by [University of California, Berkeley] at 18:36 09 May 2016

124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161

(13) Salt only (175 mg na/sv)

(14) Vegetarian hot dogs
(15) Vegetarian fried chicken
(16) Vegetarian hamburger
(17) Vegetarian roast beef
(18) Vegetarian shellfish
(19) Vegetarian chili
(20) Biscuits, muffins
(21) Waffles, pancakes
(22) Instant breakfast, from powder
(23) Pudding
(24) Milkshake
(25) Other dairy product
(26) Other dessert or sweet
(27) Yogurt, plain, lowfat
(28) Milk on cereal
(29) Vegetarian lunch meat
(30) Vegetarian bacon
(31) Sour cream
(32) Diet salad dressing
(33) Catsup
(34) Green chilis, canned
(35) Salsa picante
(36) Vegetarian sausage
(37) Vegetarian turkey
(38) Vegetarian tuna fish
(39) Vegetarian fish
(40) Vegetarian stew
(41) Onions, cooked
(42) Squash, zucchini, fresh, cooked
(43) Asparagus, fresh, cooked
(44) Green bell peppers, raw
(45) Red sweet peppers, raw
(46) Bean sprouts, mung, raw
(47) Avocado, raw, Calif, pared
(48) Beets, canned
(49) Romaine lettuce, raw
(50) Okra, fresh, cooked

(13) Salt only (175 mg na/sv)

(14) SPACE FOR OTHER FOOD
(15) SPACE FOR OTHER FOOD
(16) SPACE FOR OTHER FOOD
(17) SPACE FOR OTHER FOOD
(18) SPACE FOR OTHER FOOD
(19) SPACE FOR OTHER FOOD
[20) Biscuits, muffins
[21) Waffles, pancakes
(22) Instant breakfast (powder)
(23) Pudding
(24) Milkshake
(25) Other dairy product
(26) Other dessert or sweet
(27) Plain yogurt
[28) Milk on cereal line item
(29) SPACE FOR OTHER FOOD
(30) SPACE FOR OTHER FOOD
(31) Sour cream and dip
(32) Diet salad dressing
(33) Catsup
(34) Green chilis
(35) Salsa picante
(36) SPACE FOR OTHER FOOD
(37) SPACE FOR OTHER FOOD
(38) SPACE FOR OTHER FOOD
(39) SPACE FOR OTHER FOOD
(40) SPACE FOR OTHER FOOD
(41) Onions
(42) Summer squash
(43) Asparagus
(44) Green pepper
(45) Sweet red pepper
(46) Bean sprouts
(47) Avocado
(48) Beets
(49) Romaine lettuce
(50) Okra

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
6.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
6.4
6.2
28.3
5.5
5.9
0.0
27.7
7.9
2.6
12.0

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

9.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.5
8.4
21.8
3.4
5.5
0.0
20.6
0.9
1.1
11.3

0
253
253
253
253
253
253
133
163
146
47
87
86
124
145
82
253
50
80
0
7
11
8
253
253
253
253
253
7
9
25
10
10
25
37
10
20
20

0
305
305
305
305
305
305
132
133
54
0
32
32
107
45
30
305
75
29
0
8
17
12
305
305
305
305
305
16
7
31
16
16
12
21
11
19
18

5 foods analyzed
5 foods analyzed
5 foods analyzed
5 foods analyzed
5 foods analyzed
5 foods analyzed
White bread
White bread
Milk, cow fluid, whole
Milk, cow fluid, whole
Ice cream, 10% fat
Cheese, American
Cake, white
Milk, cow fluid, whole
5 foods analyzed
Yogurt, plain, lowfat
Hellmann's real mayonnaise
Tomato sauce
Tomato juice, bottled
5 foods analyzed
5 foods analyzed
5 foods analyzed
5 foods analyzed
5 foods analyzed

Lettuce, leaf type

(Continued)

Downloaded by [University of California, Berkeley] at 18:36 09 May 2016

Table 1 . (Continued)
Glutathione,
Sequence
No."
162
163
164
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
190*
190
193
194
195
196
197
198
200

201
202
203

Food Analyzed
(51) Kohlrabi
(52) Veg lasagne, frozen, cooked
(53) Vegetarian ham
(61) Pineapple, canned
(62) Prune, dried
(63) Fruit drink, canned
(64) Cranberry juice, bottled
(65) Grapes, raw
(66) Mangoes, raw, pared
(67) Papaya, raw, pared
(68) Honeydew melon, raw
(69) Lemons, raw
(70) Nuts and seeds-walnuts
(71) Wheat bran, toasted
(72) Sour cherries, raw
(73) Sweet cherries, raw
(74) Berries-blueberries, frozen
(75) Rhubarb
(76) Grapefruit, pink
(79) Cucumbers, raw, pared
(79) Mushrooms, canned, heated
(82) Cottage cheese, lowfat
(83) Sherbet or jello
(84) Popcorn (plain)
(85) Liver, beef, pan fried
(86) Liver, calves
(87) Liver, pork, pan fried
(89) Liver, chicken, pan fried
(90) Carrots, raw
(91) Carrots, canned, heated
(92) Brussels sprouts, frozen, cooked

HHQ Nutrient Database

Food Namec
(51) Kohlrabi
(52) SPACE FOR OTHER FOOD
(53) SPACE FOR OTHER FOOD
(61) Pineapple
(62) Prunes
(63) Hi-C
(64) Cranberry juice
(65) Grapes
(66) Mangoes
(67) Papayas
(68) Honeydew, casaba
(69) Lemons, lemon juice
(70) Nuts and seeds
(71) Bran
(72) Sour cherries
(73) Sweet cherries
(74) Berries
(75) Rhubarb
(76) Pink grapefruit
(79) Vegetables
(79) Vegetables
(82) Lowfat cottage cheese
(83) Sherbet or jello
(84) Popcorn (plain) (new portion)
(85) Beef liver
(86) Calves liver
(87) Pork liver
(89) Chicken liver
(90) Carrots, fresh or frozen
(91) Carrots, canned
(92) Brussels sprouts

mg/lOOg
GSH, GSH
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.0
4.8
6.4
6.6
8.7
15.1
1.5
0.0
0.0
0.0

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.7
4.3
5.8
5.0
4.8
3.7
0.6
0.0
0.0
0.0

7.9
4.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
2.5
2.5
9.1
18.8
7.9
0.0
2.5

6.5
3.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.8
0.8
7.0
14.5
5.9
0.0
1.9

Methionine, Cysteine,
mg/100 g
mg/100 g
14
90
253
11
12
0
0
22
5
2
6

2
280
234
6
6
11
0
2
37
37
373
28
184
675
675
645
577
7
4
35

7
32
305
1
10
0
0
11
0
0
2
0
345
371

5
5
7
0
0
5
5
115
10
158
410
410
491
327
8

5
23

Substitute Food

5 foods analyzed

Watermelon, raw
Oranges, raw, pared

Sweet cherries, raw

Grapefruit, white, raw, pared

Cheese, American
Milk, cow fluid, whole
Liver, beef, pan fried
Liver, beef, pan fried

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Z
o
204
205
206*
206
207
208
209
210
211
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291

(93) Cauliflower, fresh, cooked

(94) Peaches, raw, pared
(95) Apricots, canned
(95) Nectarines, raw, pared
(96) Blackeyed peas, canned, heated
(97) Beans, pinto, canned, heated
(98) Cream cheese
(00) Hard cheeses
Crisco
Diet margarine
Whipped butter
Fried chicken (without skin), light
Fried chicken (with skin), light
Other chicken (without skin), light
Other chicken (with skin), light
Tuna in water
Beef trimmed and extra lean
Hamburger, regular
Hamburger, extra lean

(93) Cauliflower
(94) Raw peaches
(95) Raw apricots or nectarines
(95) Raw apricots or nectarines
(96) Limas or blackeyed peas
(97) Pinto, navy, white beans
(98) Cream cheese, soft cheese
(00) Hard cheeses
Crisco
Diet margarine
Whipped butter
Fried chicken (without skin), light meat
Fried chicken (with skin), light meat
Other chicken (without skin), light meat
Other chicken (with skin), light meat
Tuna in water
Beef trimmed and extra lean
Hamburger, regular
Hamburger, extra lean

9.1
7.4
1.9
7.4
2.1
0.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
13.1
13.1
8.7
8.7
1.6
13.4
17.5
17.5

4.0
5.0
1.2
4.9
1.3
0.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
6.5
6.5
7.7
7.7
1.1
12.3
11.8
11.8

26
17
17
17
67
69
181
652
0
13
21
716
716
707
707
470
639
612
612

22
6
6
6
52
50
66
125
0
5
8
348
348
358
358
172
279
268
268

Peaches, unsweetened, raw, pared

Peaches, sweetened, canned
Peaches, unsweetened, raw, pared

Cheese, American
Cheese, American
Margarine
Margarine
Butter
Chicken breast, deep fried
Chicken breast, deep fried
Chicken, roasted
Chicken, roasted
Tuna fish, canned
Steak, beef, pan fried
Hamburger, pan fried
Hamburger, pan fried

a: Sequence nos. 165-171 are not included because they are allocated as blank spaces for other foods to be added by investigators to the database. No. 37, "Table fat
added by program" is also excluded.
b: In those instances in which more than 1 food was analyzed for a given Health Habits anc History Questionnaire (HHHQ) food name (those with the same sequence
no. , these are the recommended representative foods for use in HHHQ analyses.
c: Space for foods is provided for individual respondents to include foods commonly induced in their diet but not otherwise included on the questionnaire. Items included
in the current study were largely main course vegetarian foods.

Table 2. GSH and GSH, Contents of Fruits, Fruit Juices, and Fruit Drinks"

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Food 6
Apples, raw, not pared
Bananas, raw, common
Cantaloupe, raw (in season)
Grapefruit, white, raw, pared
Grapes, raw
Mangoes, raw, pared
Orange juice, reconst from concentrate
Oranges, raw, pared
Papaya, raw, pared
Peaches, sweetened, canned
Peaches, unsweetened, raw, pared
Strawberries, raw (in season)
Strawberries, frozen
Watermelon, raw

Dry Weight,
% of wet wt
16
26
10
11
18
16
2.2
14
10
11
11
7.0
11
9.6

Glutathione,
Usual mg/usual portion
Portion
Size, g
GSH,
GSH

Glutalhione,
mg/100 g wet wt
GSH,
3.3
4.1
6.9
7.9
3.0
4.8
4.2
7.3
6.4
1.9
7.4
7.1
9.9
6.6

0.5
0.2
1.4
0.2
0.3
0.7
0.1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.7
2.4
1.7
0.5

GSH
1.5
3.3
6.1
6.5
2.7
4.3
2.8
4.8
5.8
1.2
5.0
6.9
5.1
5.0

0.6
0.2
1.0
0.6
0.2
0.7
0.2
0.7
0.1
0.3
0.2
0.7
1.3
0.3

138
119
136
185
100
85
186
145

70
125
100
75
120
426

4.6
4.8
9.4
14.6
3.0
4.1
7.9
10.6
4.5
2.4
6.8
5.3
11.9
28.3

2.0
3.9
8.2
12.1
2.7
3.7
5.2
7.0
4.0
1.5
4.5
5.2
6.1
21.1

a: GSH, refers to total of all forms present as or converted to glutathione (GSH) after treatment with
dithiothreitol. Values are means SE for 3 different samples of each item. All assays were performed
with 1 g wet wt food. Values < 0.05 mg/100 g are given as 0.0 mg/100 g. Variation in water content is
common in foodstuffs because of differences in storage and processing conditions. To allow comparisons
independent of water content (e.g., Table 4), dry weights were also measured and are expressed as
percentage of wet weight.
b: Other foods that were analyzed but had < 0.05 mg GSH or GSH, per 100 g wet wt were bottled apple
juice, frozen blueberries, raw sweet cherries, bottled cranberry juice, canned fruit cocktail, canned fruit
drink, canned grapefruit, orange drink (prepared from powder), canned pineapple, and dried prunes.

g, compared with respective means for fresh or frozen vegetables of 6.2 and 8.3 mg/100 g.
The mean fraction of GSH, that was GSH was 67%, but the value was higher for fresh or
frozen (74%) than for canned vegetables (47%). Thus, in comparison to fruits, there is more
GSH in the vegetables, but there is also a greater percentage of oxidized forms in the
vegetables than in the fruits. Cruciferous vegetables (broccoli, cauliflower, brussels sprouts,
and cabbage) had GSH and GSHt contents that were not unusual compared with the entire
group of vegetables with mean values of 3.4 mg/100 g for GSH and 6.4 mg/100 g for GSHt.
Similarly, GSH values for provitamin A-containing foods, such as carrots, sweet potatoes,
and greens, were not much different from those of other vegetables.
When expressed per portion size, avocado, asparagus, squash, potatoes, okra, cauliflower, broccoli, and raw tomatoes had the highest GSH contents. Spinach, carrots, beets,
and frozen mixed vegetables also had moderately high GSH contents.
Main Course Dishes (Meat, Fish, Poultry, Eggs, Mixed Dishes)
The mean values for the 30 main dishes were 5.4 mg GSH/100 g (range 0-26) and 7.0 mg
GSH/100 g (range 0-24) (Table 4). In general, fresh meats, fish, and poultry had
substantially higher GSH contents than canned and processed foods. The mean values for
freshly prepared meat, fish, and poultry were 9.7 mg/100 g for GSH and 11.9 mg/100 g for
GSH,, and the corresponding values for canned and processed foods were 2.4 and 3.5. The
only foods in the latter category with moderate or high GSH contents were frankfurters,
lunch meat, and vegetarian bacon. Five vegetarian foods made from texturized plant protein
were also measured and found to contain no detectable GSH (riot included in Table 4).
For foods that contained GSH, GSH as a percentage of GSH, averaged 73%. For dishes
that were prepared from fresh meats, fish, or poultry, the mean was 83% as GSH, and those

68

Nutrition and Cancer 1992

Table 3. GSH and GSH, Contents of Vegetables"

Downloaded by [University of California, Berkeley] at 18:36 09 May 2016

Food*
Asparagus, fresh, cooked
Avocado, raw
Beets, canned
Broccoli spears, fresh, cooked
Brussels sprouts, frozen, cooked
Cabbage, fresh, cooked
Carrots, fresh, cooked
Carrots, raw
Cauliflower, fresh, cooked
Coleslaw with mayonnaise
Corn, sweet, canned, heated
Cucumbers, raw, pared
Lettuce, leaf type, raw
Mixed vegetable, frozen, cooked
Okra, fresh, cooked
Onions, fresh, cooked
Peas and carrots, frozen, cooked
Peas, green, canned, heated
Pepper, green, bell, raw
Pepper, red, bell, raw
Potatoes, boiled, with skin
Potatoes, french fries, fast food
Spinach, canned, heated
Spinach, raw
Squash, winter, acorn, baked
Squash, zucchini, fresh, cooked
Sweet potatoes, fresh, baked
Sweet potatoes, canned, heated
Tomato juice, bottled
Tomatoes, raw
Turnip greens, fresh, cooked

Dry Weight,
of wet wt

ID

7.3
20
9.6
9.6
12
8.8
12
11
7.7
9.5
21
3.4

5.6
18

5.7
27
14
17
6.4
9.3
19
70
8.3
7.3
11
8.0
28
31
6.0
5.3
8.7

Glutathione,
mg/100 g wet wt

GSH,

GSH

28.3 5.4
27.7 4.0
7.9 0.6
9.1 3.0
2.5 0.3
4.7 1.4
5.8 1.5
7.9 1.5
9.1 2.3
2.4 0.2
1.7 0.4
4.3 0.7
2.6 0.7
5.9 2.3
12.0 2.3
6.4 0.3
5.9 2.3
5.6 0.2
5.5 0.9
5.0 0 . 4
13.6 2.5
14.3 1.0
2.2 0.4
12.2 0.8
11.7 2.5
6.2 2.6
2.9 0.6
3.8 0.9
1.6 0.2
9.0 0.8
3.2 0.9

21.8 7.8
20.6 1.4
0.9 0.3
5.5 0.9
1.9 0.2
2.1 0.7
4.7 1.1
5.9 1.8
4.0 0.9
1.2 0.1
0.6 0.1
3.5 0.6
1.1 0.1
3.2 0.3
11.3 2.3
0.5 0.2
3.2 0.3
5.2 =fc 0.3
3.4 0.9
5.5 0.5
11.0 2.4
10.2 0.7
1.4 0.1
11.4 1.2
11.0 3.4
8.4 2.2
1.9 0.6
1.4 0.5
1.3 0.1
7.5 1.2
1.5 0.4

Usual
Portion
Size, g

Glutathione,
mg/usual portion
GSH,

GSH

93
113
85
85
73
60
75
75
90
60
83

26.3
31.3
6.7
7.8
1.8
2.8
4.3
5.9
8.2
1.4
1.4

20.3
23.3
0.8
4.7
1.4
1.2

76

3.3

93
91
93
105
75
83
30
30
93
102
95
41
123
105
100
100
121
121
90

2.4
5.3
11.1
6.7
4.4
4.7
1.6
1.8
12.7
14.6
2.1
5.0
14.4
6.5
2.9
3.8
2.0
10.9
2.8

3.5
4.4
3.6
0.7
0.5
2.7
1.0
2.9
10.5
0.5
2.4
4.3
1.0
1.7
10.2
10.4
1.3
4.7
13.6
8.9
1.9
1.4
1.6
9.1
1.3

a: See notes to Table 2.

b: Other foods that were analyzed but had < 0.05 mg GSH or GSH, per 100 g wet wt were canned green
beans, raw mung bean sprouts. canned carrot. , canned chili peppers, canned mushrooms, and canned
tomato sauce.

with canned and/or processed meat (including vegetarian bacon and lasagne) had a mean of
67% as GSH. Thus, processed foods generally had lower contents of GSH and GSHt and
also a lower percentage of GSH, present as GSH.
On the basis of usual portion size, pork chop, veal cutlet, beef steak, hamburger, chop
suey with meat, chicken, and spaghetti with meat sauce had the highest GSH contents. Class
II fish, frankfurters, and liver (pork, chicken) also had moderately high GSH contents.
Breads, Cereals, Legumes, and Nuts
Table 5 shows breads, cereals, legumes, and nuts. With the exception of walnuts, all 15
foods analyzed had relatively low contents of GSH and GSHt. The GSH content averaged
0.67 mg/100 g (range 0-3.7), and the GSHt content averaged 1.9 mg/100 g (range 0-15).
Without walnuts in this group, the values would be 0.98 and 0.46, respectively. GSH
represented a lower percentage of the GSH, (43%) than the fruits, vegetables, and main
dishes. However, all these foods were processed, and some probably underwent multiple

Vol. 17, No. 1

69

Table 4. GSH and GSH, Contents of Meats, Fish, Poultry, Eggs, and Mixed!Dishes"
riry
% of wet wt

Food*
Bacon, pan fried
Boiled ham
Chicken breast, deep fried
Chicken, roasted
Chili con carne, canned, heated
Chop suey with meat, restaurant
Fish (pollock), deep fried
Fish (cod and perch), pan fried
Frankfurter, cooked
Hamburger, pan fried
Liver, beef, pan fried
Liver, chicken, pan fried
Pork chop, lean, pan fried
Pork liver, pan fried
Shrimp, canned
Soup, chicken noodle, canned, heated
Soup, vegetable beef, canned, heated
Spaghetti and meat sauce, restaurant
Steak, beef, pan fried
Stew, beef, canned, heated
Tuna fish, canned
Veal cutlet, pan fried
Vegetarian bacon, frozen, cooked

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Glutathione,
mg/100 g wet wt

83
24
46
44
27

22
53
30
53
41
40
35
33
46
20
15
14
27
36
21
29
36
96

GSH

GSH,

5.0
23.3
13.1
8.7
1.1
5.7
2.6
6.0
6.2
17.5
2.5
18.8
23.6
9.1
1.3
1.8
0.7
3.6
13.4
1.2
1.6
23.9
6.5

Glutathione,

Usual mg/usuai portion

Portion
Size, g GSH,
GSH

0.7
6.5
2.8
2.1
0.2
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.8
0.7
3.4
1.7
1.4
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.3
1.0
0.1
0.2
0.9
0.7

2.2
13.7
6.5
7.7
0.9
1.2
1.5
5.7
2.4
11.8
0.8
14.5
18.9
7.0
1.0
1.4
0.3
3.0
12.3
1.3
1.1
26.3
9.3

0.6
3.5
1.9
2.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.6
0.5
0.2
0.1
2.2
1.7
1.9
0.2
0.4
0.0
0.2
1.1
0.1
0.2
2.8
0.4

16
56
102
96
191

250
85
85
88
85
85
25
88
85
38
184
184
250
112
245
80

85
16

0.8
13.0
13.4
8.3
2.2
14.4
2.2
5.1
5.4
14.9
2.1
4.7
20.8
7.8
0.5
3.3
1.3
9.0
15.0
3.0
1.3
20.3
1.0

0.4
7.7
6.7
7.4
1.7

3.1
1.2
4.9
2.1
10.0
0.7
3.6
16.6
6.0
0.4
2.5
0.5
7.5
13.8
3.2
0.9
22.4
1.5

a: See notes to Table 2.

b: Other foods that were analyzed but had < 0.05 mg GSH or GSH, per 100 g wet wt were cheese pizza,
pan-fried chicken, eggs, canned clam chowder, and frozen vegetarian lasagne.

Table 5. GSH and GSH, Contents of Breads, Cereals, Legumes, and Nuts"

Food"
Beans, pinto, canned, heated
Blackeyed peas, canned, heated
Bran flakes
Bread, whole wheat
Fortified corn cereal
Oatmeal or rolled oats, cooked
Peanut butter
Rice, white enriched, cooked
Walnuts
Wheat bran, toasted

Dry Weight,
9b of wet wt
27
25
97
58
97
14
99
39
97
96

Glutathione,
mg/100 {5 wet wt
GSH,
0.6
2.1
1.2
1.2
0.6
2.4
2.4
1.6
15.1
1.5

0.1
0.3
0.5
0.4
0.1
0.1
0.5
0.1
0.8
0.2

GSH

0.5
1.3
0.5
0.0
0.4
1.5
1.1
0.8
3.7
0.6

0.0
0.1
0.2
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.1
1.6
0.2

Usual
Portion
Size, g
140
140
28
50
28
160
18
131
18
7

Glutathione,
mg/usua portion
GSH,

GSH

0.9
3.0
0.3
0.6
0.2
3.8
0.4
2.1
2.7
0.1

0.6
1.8
0.1
0.0
0.1
2.4
0.2
1.0
0.7
0.0

a: See notes to Table 2.

b: Other foods that were analyzed but had < 0.05 mg GSH or GSH, per 100 g wet wt were dried pinto beans
(soaked and cooked before assay), enriched white bread, cornbread, corn flakes, and tofu.

70

Nutrition and Cancer 1992

processings, so that the low values are not unreasonable compared with the other groups of
food. None of these foods had a moderately high or high GSH content when expressed per
usual serving size.
Oils and Fats
No GSH or GSHt was detected in beef gravy (prepared from mix), butter, American
cheese, ice cream (10% fat), margarine, mayonnaise, cow's milk (whole), nondairy creamer,
or plain lowfat yogurt.

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Sweets and Snacks

Of the 10 foods analyzed, potato chips, doughnuts, and popcorn were the only foods that
contained detectable GSH or GSHt. Popcorn had < 0.05 mg GSH and 0.1 mg GSHt per 100
g wet wt. Because the usual portion size is only 28 g, popcorn contributes < 0.05 mg GSH
per portion. Doughnuts contained a relatively small amount of GSHt (0.7 mg/100 g wet wt),
and only 36% was present as GSH. With a usual portion size of 42 g, this indicates that a
usual portion supplies 0.1 mg GSH and 0.3 mg GSH, per serving. Potato chips had a
relatively high content of GSH, (27.1 mg/100 g wet wt) but a relatively low percentage of
GSH (22% of total) compared with most fruits, vegetables, and meats. When expressed per
usual portion size (28 g), GSH, is 7.6 mg/serving and GSH is 1.7 mg/serving. Apple pie
(double crust), artificial sweetener, white cake, milk chocolate, pumpkin pie, and sugar had
< 0.05 mg GSH or GSH, per 100 g wet wt. Thus, as a group, snack foods are generally low
in GSH and GSH,, except for potato chips, which are very high in GSH,. When expressed
per usual portion size, potato chips were the only food in this group with a high or
moderately high GSH content.
Beverages (Other Than Fruit Juices, Drinks, and Dairy Products)
Of the seven beverages (beer, coffee, cola, red wine, white wine, tea, and 80-proof alcohol)
analyzed, only the fermented beverages, beer and wine, had detectable GSH or GSH,. Of
these, white wine had a moderate amount of GSH (2.3 mg/100 g wet wt) and GSH, (2.9
mg/100 g wet wt). Red wine and beer had relatively low contents of both GSH and GSH,.
However, expressed per usual serving size, beer contains more GSH (4.1 mg/portion; GSH,
was 4.5) and is the only item in this group to provide even a moderate amount of GSH per
serving.
Discussion
GSH is a cysteine-containing tripeptide that functions both in reduction of peroxides
catalyzed by GSH peroxidases and in reaction with mutagenic electrophilic compounds
catalyzed by glutathione S-transferases (10). Experimental studies in which cellular GSH
concentrations have been modified in cell cultures and in rodents in vivo have shown that
decreased GSH can enhance cell injury while increased GSH can reduce cell injury from
peroxides and electrophiles (10,15). Because of the apparent importance of these types of
compounds in initiation and promotion of cancer, it appears likely that factors affecting
cellular GSH concentrations may contribute to the development and incidence of human
cancers.
Previous studies showed that some epithelial cells have a Na+-dependent uptake system
for GSH that allows uptake from the blood plasma and enhances protection against
chemical-induced injury (24,25). This is particularly relevant because epithelial cells function
in chemical detoxication (35) and give rise to carcinomas, which include several common
forms of human cancer (36). Thus, variable supply of GSH from the blood plasma could, in
principle, affect the initiation and promotion of epithelial cell cancer.

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Orally administered GSH increases plasma GSH in humans (31). Although the mechanism
of this increase has not been established for humans, GSH is absorbed intact in the small
intestine of rats (21), and administration to humans of the constituent amino acids of GSH
does not produce the same increase in plasma GSH as seen with GSH administration (22).
Thus it appears likely that dietary GSH is absorbed in humans and that such absorption can
increase the plasma GSH concentration. Consequently, dietary intake of GSH may be an
important determinant of sensitivity or resistance to cancer.
Fruits and vegetables, which have been associated with decreased risk of some cancers
(1,2), contained moderate to high concentrations of GSH. In addition, GSH was lowest in
foods, such as smoked meats, fats, and oils, that have been associated with increased risk.
Although consumption of fresh meat has been found to be inversely associated with risk of
esophageal cancer (37-40), consumption of red meats has been associated with increased risk
of several other cancers (1), particularly colon cancer (41). Therefore, specific studies will be
needed to determine whether associations occur between GSH intake and risk of cancer of
different anatomic sites.
Inclusion of measures of both GSH and GSH, was deemed important in the current study
because experimental studies showed that GSH is the form that is actually absorbed, but a
reductive mechanism is present within the small intestine that can convert disulfide forms
(both GSSG and disulfides of GSH, proteins, and other thiol-containing compounds) to
GSH (32). However, the current data indicate that this distinction may not be important
because the GSH and GSHt contents of foods are highly correlated (Pearson's correlation
coefficient of 0.916 for log-transformed data). Thus, epidemiological studies would probably be most appropriately done with the GSHt, but there is likely to be little difference if
GSH values are used instead.
The values reported in the present study do not provide a systematic assessment of the
variations in GSH that could occur in foods as a consequence of seasonal, regional, varietal,
and storage differences. In addition, many items on the HHHQ list are groups of similar
foods rather than single items. This could result in error in two ways: 1) by grouping together
foods that unknowingly differ considerably in contents of carcinogenic or anticarcinogenic
components and 2) by the selection of representative food samples for analytic measurement
of contents of specific dietary components. For instance, many questionnaires developed to
assess dietary intake make no distinctions between fresh, frozen, and canned goods for fruits
and vegetables. A comparison of this for GSH contents is given in Table 6, where fresh
preparations of fruits and vegetables are compared with canned or processed forms. For this
comparison, values were expressed relative to dry weight to correct for changes in water
Table 6. Comparison of GSH, in Freshly Prepared Fruits and Vegetables With
Corresponding Canned or Bottled Foods
GSH,, mg/100 g dry wt
Food (comparison)
Apples (raw/bottled juice)
Peaches (raw/canned)
Grapefruit (raw/canned juice)
Tomatoes (raw/canned juice)
Tomatoes (sauce)
Spinach (raw)
Spinach (fresh, cooked/canned)
Carrots (raw)
Carrots (fresh, cooked/canned)
Sweet potatoes (fresh, cooked/canned)

72

Fresh

Canned

21.0
65.1
70.6

16.6

169

0.0
0.0
27.2

0.0
166
108
74.6
35.3
11.3

27.1

0.0
12.2

Nutrition and Cancer 1992

Downloaded by [University of California, Berkeley] at 18:36 09 May 2016

content during processing. The results show that, of these foods where values were available
for both forms, the mean GSH, content of fresh preparations was 80.1 mg/100 g and only
10.3 mg/100 g for processed foods. This difference in GSH contents between fresh and
processed preparations was applicable to most foods within the fruit and vegetable
categories. An insufficient number of foods is available to allow comparison for fresh and
frozen foods, but frozen strawberries and reconstituted frozen orange juice had contents that
were comparable to respective values for fresh strawberries and oranges. These data indicate
that frozen foods may retain GSH better than foods processed by canning or bottling. Thus,
individuals who consume predominantly fresh and/or frozen fruits and vegetables may in
general have a higher intake of GSH than individuals who consume the same foods that have
been canned, and this possible difference needs to be examined in more detail.
In conclusion, the present study provides an experimental basis for assigning GSH and
GSHt values for the items listed in the National Cancer Institute's HHHQ. The results show
that contents of GSH and GSH, are highly correlated, so that either can be used for
epidemiological studies. Because GSH is synthesized from sulfur-containing amino acids,
intakes of cystine and methionine may affect GSH availability from endogenous synthesis
and therefore also be important in epidemiological studies. The contents of these amino
acids were taken from information provided by the US Department of Agriculture [42-44;
written communication, M. Hoke, September 19, 1990, Nutrient Data Research Branch,
Human Nutrition Information Service, US Dept. of Agriculture; US Dept. of Agriculture
Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, expansion of data published in Composition of
FoodsRaw, Processed, Prepared, revisions of.Handbook No. 8 (May 1988, computer
tape), Consumer Nutrition Division, Human Nutrition Service, US Dept. of Agriculture,
Hyattsville, MD] and are also listed along with GSH and GSHt in Table 1. This database will
be made available to researchers who are interested in studying the potential relationships
among dietary GSH, sulfur amino acids, and risk of cancer or other diseases.
Acknowledgments and Notes
This study was supported in part by Contract DHR-6-39252 from the Georgia Department of Human Resources
(Atlanta, GA) and a grant from the American Institute for Cancer Research (Washington, DC). J. W. Eley is a
recipient of a Clinical Development Award from the American Cancer Society (Atlanta, GA). Address reprint
requests to Dr. D. P. Jones, Dept. of Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322.
Submitted 22 May 1991; accepted in final form 13 August 1991.

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