Three Kinds of Earthquakes

Shallow fault earthquakes

A fault is a break in the rock beneath our feet. Shallow fault quakes
occur very close to the surface. Only recently, weve discovered a
fault beneath Seattle and right across Puget Sound. There was a
major quake on this Seattle fault about 1,100 years ago. Because
shallow fault earthquakes are so near the surface, even small ones
cause a lot of damage from shaking.
Subduction zone earthquakes
The largest earthquakes ever recorded are subduction zone
earthquakes. They can last several minutes. Subduction zone
shaking can occur along the whole subduction zone. In the Pacific
Northwest, these major quakes seem to occur every few hundred
years. The last known subduction zone earthquake along the Oregon
and Washington coast was January 26, 1700. In addition to causing
huge shifts in land level here, this quake sent huge waves
tsunamis racing across the Pacific.
Deep earthquakes
Deep earthquakes occur in the subducting ocean slab, deep beneath
the continental crust. In the Pacific Northwest, deep quakes start
about 50 km (30 mi) beneath the surface. Large ones have shaken
the Pacific Northwest in 1949, 1965, and 2001about every 30
years. The last big deep quake the 2001 Nisqually earthquake
occurred under the southern end of Puget Sound.
Types of Earthquakes & Faults
There are four different types of earthquakes: Tectonic, volcanic,
collapse and explosion.
o A tectonic earthquake is one that occurs when the earth's
crust breaks due to geological forces on rocks and adjoining
plates that cause physical and chemical changes.
o A volcanic earthquake is any earthquake that results from
tectonic forces which occur in conjunction with volcanic
activity.
o A collapse earthquake are small earthquakes in underground
caverns and mines that are caused by seismic waves
produced from the explosion of rock on the surface.
o An explosion earthquake is an earthquake that is the result
of the detonation of a nuclear and/or chemical device.
There are three different types of faults: Normal, Reverse, and
Transcurrent (Strike-Slip).
o
Normal faults form when the hanging wall drops down. The
forces that create normal faults are pulling the sides apart, or
extensional.

Reverse faults form when the hanging wall moves up. The
forces creating reverse faults are compressional, pushing the
sides together.
Transcurrent or Strike-slip faults have walls that move
sideways, not up or down.

What are the types of earthquakes?

Earthquakes can come in three main forms, depending on the plate
movements that occur beneath the earth's surface. They could
occur on a Convergent Boundary, Divergent Boundary or a
Transform Fault.
Convergent boundary:
Here, one plate is forced over another plate during movement
creating a thrust fault.
Divergent boundary:
Here, plates are forced apart each other, usually forming a Rift
Zone. This kind is common in ocean floors where new floors are
created. An example is the Mid Atlantic Ridge.
Transform fault:
Unlike divergent and convergent, the plates here slip by each other.
This is also called Strike-Slip.
Earthquake Waves
There are 2 types of earthquakes waves and the difference lies in
the way the seismic waves are transmitted. To understand this
better, let us see what a seismic wave is.
These are waves of energy that travel through the earth's layers,
and other elastic layers, often as a result of earthquakes. A wave, by
general definition is the transfer of energy from one place to
another without transferring solid, liquid or gas matter. Examples
include light and sound waves.
During an earthquake, the waves released may be P or S waves
depending on the speed and ways in which they travel.
P-waves are longitudinal in nature. The vibrations are along the
same direction as the direction of travel. It is also known as
compressional waves. P-waves travel faster than S-waves.
S-Waves (Secondary waves)
Here the waves travel at right angles to the direction of travel. They
are also known as transverse waves and example include water
waves.

With this in mind, you will notice that if you are close to the point
where an earthquake struck, you will feel both P and S waves close
within the same time frame. If you are further away, you will feel the
P-wave first and then the S-wave a bit later.
Both waves can be destructive, but their study helps us to know
where the earthquake struck.

Structure of the Earth

The illustration below is an attempt to model the large scale internal
structure of the Earth based on data from Lutgens & Tarbuck. The
habitable part of the Earth is a very thin layer. Though one might
quibble with the precision, the following captures the perspective
"all life is confined to the space between the snow of the mountain
tops and the heat of the Earth's interior. This narrow stratum as
compared with the diameter of the Earth is but one half the
thickness of one leaf of a thousand-page book." (Morrison)

The uppermost layer of

the mantle and the
crust tend to act
together as a rigid
shell. Together they are
called the lithosphere,
the "sphere of rock".
The lower level of the
mantle is called the
asthenosphere and it is
softer and weaker,
particularly in its upper
portion where a small
amount of melting can
occur. It is at this level
where the model
of plate
tectonicssuggests that
horizontal movement
can occur as a result of
convection of heat
upward from the Earth's
core.
The continental crust is made up of lighter granitic rock, while deepsea drilling reveals that the oceanic crust is basaltic in composition.
Basalt is significantly more dense (about 3 gm/cm3) than granite
(about 2.6 gm/cm3). The asthenosphere is thought to be a more
dense rock like peridotite. This judgement comes from the fact that
lava reaching the surface in volcanic activity comes from the
melting of the upper asthenosphere. Lava of similar composition can
be obtained by melting peridotite.
Modeling the core of the Earth must rest upon even more indirect
evidence. We observe that the metallic meteorites have cores of
iron and nickel, and this correlates with other evidence that
suggests that the Earth's core is similarly composed of iron and
nickel. Modeling the density of the center of the Earth yields
densities of about 14 times that of water, which could be obtainable
by compressing iron and nickel, but not surface type rocks. An iron
core also gives us a circulating electrical conductor, which could
provide the necessary mechanism for creating the Earth's magnetic
field.
The following table of density and depth data was taken from a
USGS publication by Eugene C. Roberson entitled The Interior of the
Earth. (http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/interior/)
Data on the Earth's Interior
Density
Thickness (g/cm3)
Types of rock found
(km)
Top Bottom

Crust

30

Upper
mantle

720

Lower
mantle

2,171

2.2

Silicic rocks
2.9

Peridotite, eclogite, olivine,

spinel, garnet, pyroxene

3.4
4.4

Outer core 2,259

Inner core 1,221

Andesite, basalt at base

4.4
5.6
9.9

Perovskite, oxides
Magnesium and silicon oxides

12.2

Iron + oxygen, sulfur, nickel

alloy

13.1

Iron + oxygen, sulfur, nickel

alloy

12.8

Total
6,401
thickness
Robertson gives credit for most of the data to Anderson, Don L.,
Theory of the Earth: Boston, Blackwell Publications, 1989.
Structure of the earth
When studying plate-tectonics the best starting point is examining the
structure of the earth. The earth is very similar to a peach in its structure. In
the centre is a solid core. Surrounding the core is the inner core, then the
mantle, which is covered in the earths 'skin' or crust.

The inner core is the centre of the earth and is the hottest part of the earth. It
is a solid mass of iron and nickel. The temperature of the core is around
5500C
The outer core is the layer around the inner core. It is also made up of iron
and nickel though it is in liquid form.

The next layer is the matle.This layer is made up of semi molten rock, known
as magma.
The final layer is the earth's crust. This layer is between 0-60km thick.
Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics
In 1912 Alfred Wegener published a theory to explain why the Earth looked
like a huge jigsaw. He believed the continents were once joined forming a
supercontinent he called Pangaea. Over 180 million years ago this
supercontinent began to "break up" due to continental drift.
During the 20th Century, scientists developed the theory of Plate Tectonics.
The theory suggested that the crust of the Earth is split up into seven large
plates (see map below) and a few smaller ones, all of which are able to slowly
move around on the Earth's surface. They float on the semi-molten mantle
rocks, and are moved around by convection currents within the very hot rock.
See why do plates move? for more details.
The are two types of tectonic plates - continental plates and oceanic
plates. Continental plates are lighter (less dense) than oceanic plates.
Oceanic crust is much younger in geologic age than continental crust.
Continental crust is on average thicker than oceanic crust.

Why do plates move?

The earth's tectonic plates are in constantly moving like giant 'rafts' on top of
the semi-molten mantle below. However this movement is slow and rates vary
from less than 2.5cm /yr to over 15cm/yr.
The movement of the earth's crustal plates is believed to be due to convection
currents which occur in the semi-molten mantle. These convection currents

are created by heat from within the earth - much of which is generated by
radioactive decay in the core.

So how do convection currents cause plate movements? As semi-molten rock

in the mantle is heated it becomes less dense than its surroundings and rises.
As it reaches the crust above, it spreads out carrying the plates above with it.
As the semi-molten rock then cools, it gradually sinks back down to be reheated.
Plate Boundaries
The point where two or more plates meet is known as a plate boundary. It is at
these locations where earthquakes, volcanoes and fold mountain form. There
are four main types of plate boundary. These are constructive, destructive,
conservative and collision margins.
Plate Boundary

Tensional /
Constructive(diverge
nt ) plate boundaries

Diagram

Description

Landform
Example
s

Constructiv
e plate
boundaries
occur when
two plates
move away
from each
other.

Ocean
ridge and
volcanic
islands

North
American
and
Eurasian
Plate

Compressional /
Destructive(subductio
n zones) plate
boundaries

Destructive
plate
boundaries
occur when
an oceanic
plate is
forced
under (or
subducts) a
continental
plate.

Conservative(transfor
m faults) plate
boundaries

Conservativ
e plate
boundaries
occur when
two plates
slide past
each other.

North
American
Plate and
the
Pacific
Plate

Collision plate
boundaries

Collision
plate
boundaries
occur when
Fold
two
Mountains
continental
plates move
towards
each other.

IndoAustralia
n and the
Eurasian
Plate

Fold
Mountains
and
Oceanic
trenches

Pacific
Plate and
the
Eurasian
Plate

In geology, a fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock,

across which there has been significant displacement as a result of rock mass
movement. Large faults within the Earth'scrust result from the action of plate
tectonic forces, with the largest forming the boundaries between the plates,
such as subduction zones or transform faults. Energy release associated with
rapid movement on active faults is the cause of most earthquakes.
A fault plane is the plane that represents the fracture surface of a fault. A fault
trace or fault line is the intersection of a fault plane with the ground surface. A
fault trace is also the line commonly plotted on geologic maps to represent a
fault.
ListOfMajorActiveFaultLinesIn
ThePhilippines.
*MarikinaValleyFault:
Montalban
SanMateo
Marikina

Pasig
Taguig
Muntinlupa
SanPedro
Bian
Carmona
SantaRosa

Calamba
Tagaytay
OrientalMindoro
*WesternPhilippineFault:
LuzonSea
MindoroStrait
PanayGulf
SuluSea
*EasternPhilippineFault:
PhilippineSea
*SouthernofMindanaoFault:
MoroGulf
CelebesSea
*CentralPhilippineFault:
EntireIlocosNorte
Aurora
Quezon
Masbate
EasternLeyte
SouthernLeyte
AgusanDelNorte
AgusanDelSur
DavaodelNorte
*Theearthquakethatdestroyed
GuinsaugonistheCentralPhilippine
Fault
*The1990earthquakethatdestroyed
CentralLuzonandBaguioisalsothe
CentralPhilippineFault.
*TheMARIKINAVALLEYFAULT
posesthegreatestdangerbecauseit
custsthroughallthemodernand
progressiveportionsofManilasuchas
Eastwood,Rockwell,OrtigasCenter,
BonifacioGlobalCity,
AyalaCenter,andAlabang.Also,the
PhiVolcspeoplehavewarnedthatthis
faultlinecanmoveanytimebecauseit
isalready11yearslateforits
movement.

Elastic rebound theory

The elastic rebound theory is an
explanation for how energy is
spread during earthquakes. As
rocks on opposite sides of
a fault are subjected to force and
shift, they accumulate energy and
slowly deform until their internal
strength is exceeded. At that time,
a sudden movement occurs along
the fault, releasing the accumulated
energy, and the rocks snap back to
their original undeformed shape.
In geology, the elastic rebound
theory was the first theory to
satisfactorily explain earthquakes.
Previously it was thought that
ruptures of the surface were the
result of strong ground shaking
rather than the converse suggested
by this theory.
Aftershock
Any earthquake which occurs after
a larger earthquake (a mainshock)
within one rupture-length of the
original fault rupture and before the
seismicity rate in that area has
returned to the background (premainshock) level is generally
considered an aftershock. For
some earthquakes, a specific
"aftershock zone" may be defined,
in lieu of the one-rupture-length
rule given above.
Afterslip
Aseismic slip, very similar to creep,
that occurs along a fault ruptured
by a large earthquake in the
months following that event.
Alluvium

Loose material -- clay, silt, sand,

gravel, and larger rocks -- washed
down from hills and mountains and
deposited in low areas.
Alquist-Priolo Act
Zoning act passed in 1972 -- in
response to the 1971 San
Fernando earthquake to prevent
building across the traces of active
faults. More information about the
Alquist-Priolo Act, and Earthquake
Fault Zone Maps is available from
the California Geological Survey.
Basin and Range
An area of the southwestern United
States characterized by roughly
parallel mountain ranges and
valleys, formed by a series of tilted
fault blocks, and brought about by
tectonic extension of the region. As
is true of any region experiencing
crustal extension, normal faulting is
common here. (This name can
apply generally to any zone of
similar landforms and tectonics.)
Blind thrust fault
A shallow-dipping reverse fault
which terminates before it reaches
the surface. When it breaks,
therefore, it may produce uplift, but
never any clear surface rupture.
Many still-unknown blind thrust
faults may exist in southern
California. Two examples of known
blind thrust faults: the Elysian Park
Thrust, which runs underneath
downtown Los Angeles and the
Northridge Thrust Fault, which
ruptured in the 1994 Northridge
quake.
Conjugate (faults)

Describes a pair of intersecting (or

nearly intersecting) faults, the slip
motions of which are opposite (e.g.,
right-lateral and left-lateral), so as
to accomodate the rotation of the
block they bound. Conjugate faults
will sometimes slip roughly
"simultaneously" (within hours or
days of each other), causing pairs
of earthquakes. One example of
this is the 1987 Elmore
Ranch/Superstition Hills
earthquakes, in which the rupture
of the left-lateral Elmore Ranch
fault was followed only a day later
by the rupture of the right-lateral
Superstition Hills fault. The 1992
Landers and Big Bear earthquakes
were also a conjugate pair.
Creep
Relatively slow, quiet movement
along a fault. It is sometimes called
"seismic creep" to distinguish it
from the slumping of rock or soil on
slopes (which is also known as
creep), and sometimes called
"aseismic creep", since it does not
trigger events greater than
microearthquakes.

Decollement
A detachment fault; a fault where
crustal deformation causes
separation along a boundary of
rock types, typically between socalled crystalline "basement" rock
and overlying sedimentary rocks.
Dip
The angle between a geologic
surface -- for example, a fault plane
-- and the horizontal. The direction
of dip can be thought of as the
direction a ball, if placed upon the

tilted surface, would roll. Thus, a

ball placed on a north-dipping fault
plane would roll northward. The dip
of a surface is always
perpendicular to the strike of that
surface.
Dip slip
Fault movement (slip) that is
parallel to the dip of the fault. This
can describe both normal slip and
reverse slip.
Eastern California Shear Zone
(ECSZ)
A region of increased seismic
activity which stretches from the
San Andreas fault near Indio, northnortheast across the Mojave and
northward into Owens Valley. It
may accommodate as much as 10
to 20 percent of the relative motion
between the North American and
Pacific plates.

to describe the fault itself; faults are

planar, not linear, features.
Fault strand
An individual fault of a set of
closely-spaced parallel or
subparallel faults of a fault system.
Focal mechanism
The direction and sense of slip on a
fault plane at the point of origin
(hypocenter) of an earthquake, as
inferred from the first seismic
waves which arrive at various
locations; often, they are draw on
maps with a "beachball"-like
symbol: Focal mechanism image.
The black areas denote
compression; the white areas
denote dilation. The fault plane
which moved is parallel to one of
the two planes dividing the sphere
in half.
Focus

Epicenter
see hypocenter
The point on the Earth's surface
directly above the (subterranean)
point of origin (hypocenter) of an
earthquake; only two
measurements, latitude and
longitude, are needed to locate it.
Fault
A fracture or zone of fractures
along which there has been
displacement of the sides relative
to one another, parallel to the
fracture.
Fault line
A commonly-used term that is
synonymous with the surface trace
of a fault. It should never be used

Footwall
Of the two sides of a non-vertical
fault, the side below the fault plane.
It is called the footwall because
where inactive faults have been
"filled in" with mineral deposits and
then mined, this is the side on
which miners walk. (See hanging
wall.)
Foreshock
Any earthquake which is followed,
within a short time span, by a larger
earthquake in the exact same
location can be labelled a
"foreshock". (In the case of an
earthquake swarm, this terminology
is not generally applied.)

Graben
An elongate part of the Earth's
crust bounded by faults on its long
sides and relatively down-dropped
compared to its surroundings.
Hanging wall
Of the two sides of a fault, the side
above the fault plane. It is called
the hanging wall because where
inactive faults have been "filled in"
with mineral deposits and then
mined, this is the side on which
miners can hang their lanterns.
(See footwall.)
Horizontal fault
A fault with no dip. Still theoretical,
this sort of fault should only exist
within a region of strong
compression or extension where
the tectonic forces required for
such movement could be present.
Holocene
The most recent geologic era; from
about 10,000 years ago to the
present. The Holocene is the latest
epoch of the Quaternary period.
Hypocenter
Also known as the focus, the
hypocenter is the point of origin of
an earthquake. It can be expressed
with no fewer than three
measurements: latitude, longitude,
and depth.

shaking during an earthquake. (Not

to be confused with magnitude.)
Isoseismal map
A map showing the distribution of
intensity across a region for a
particular earthquake using
isoseismal lines to connect points
of equal intensity.
Isoseisms (or isoseismal lines)
A line connecting points of identical
intensity for a given earthquake.
Lateral fault
A fault in which slips in such a way
that the two sides move with a
predominantly lateral motion (with
respect to each other). There are
two kinds of lateral slip: right-lateral
and left-lateral. They can be
distinguished by standing on one
side of the fault, facing the fault
(and, of course, the other side),
and noting which way the objects
across the fault have moved with
respect to you. If they have moved
to your right, the fault is rightlateral. If the motion is to the left,
then the fault is left-lateral.
View an animation of left-lateral slip
(50 K) or right-lateral slip (50 K).
Magnitude
A general term for a measure of the
strength or energy of an
earthquake as determined from
seismographic information.
ML (local magnitude)

Intensity
A measure of the effects at a
particular place produced by

A measure of the strain energy

released by an earthquake within
100 kilometers of its epicenter.
Strictly defined by Charles Richter

as the base-10 logarithm of the

amplitude, in microns, of the largest
trace deflection that would be
observed on a standard torsion
seismograph at a distance of 100
km from the epicenter.
Ms (surface-wave magnitude)
A magntiude determined at
teleseismic distances using the
logarithm of the amplitude of 20second period surface waves
generated by an earthquake.

slightly larger quakes, especially

those not felt by people nearby.
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
An earthquake intensity scale
adopted in 1931 that divides the
effects of an earthquake into twelve
categories, from I (not felt by
people) to XII (damage total). A full
listing of the scale is available.

Mw (moment magnitude)
Mojave Block
The seismic moment of an
earthquake, converted to a
magnitude scale that roughly
parallels the original Richter
magnitude scale. However, since it
is not based on the same
measurements as Richter (local or
surface-wave) magnitudes, the
different magnitudes do not always
agree, particularly for very large
quakes. Because it relates directly
to the energy released by an
earthquake, it has become the
standard in modern seismology.
Mainshock
The largest earthquake in any
series of earthquakes; to be
definitively called a "mainshock", it
should generally be at least half a
magnitude unit larger than the next
largest quake in the series.
Otherwise, the series of quakes
may more accurately fit the
definition of a swarm.
Microearthquake
A term used to describe
earthquakes under Richter
magnitude 2, and occasionally,

The tectonic region located

between the Garlock fault and the
San Andreas fault, and extending
eastward roughly to the CaliforniaArizona (and California-Nevada)
border.
Normal fault
A fault characterized by
predominantly vertical
displacement in which the hanging
wall is moved downward with
respect to the footwall of the fault.
Generally, this kind of fault is a sign
of tectonic extension.
View an animation of normal slip
(84 K).
Oblique (fault or slip)
Describing motion that is a
combination of movement both
perpendicular and parallel to the
strike of a fault -- a combination of
strike-slip and dip-slip (whether
normal or reverse).
View an animation of oblique slip
(89 K).

Playa
A term used primarily in the
southwestern United States to
describe a dry, vegetation-free, flat
area at the lowest part of an
undrained desert basin, underlain
by stratified clay, silt, or sand, and
commonly by soluble salts. They
are occasionally covered by
shallow lakes in the wettest parts of
the year.
Pleistocene
A name given to the geologic time
period between about 1.6 million
years and 10,000 years before the
present. The Pleistocene is the
earlier (older) epoch of the
Quaternary period; it is followed by
the Holocene.

necessarily exclude the Holocene

epoch.
Pre-Quaternary refers to any time
before 1.6 million years ago.
Reverse fault
A fault in which the displacement is
predominantly vertical, and the
hanging wall is moved upward with
respect to the footwall. Some
amount of reverse slip is often seen
in predominantly lateral faults.
If a reverse fault has a dip angle of
less than 45 degrees, it is called a
thrust fault.
View an animation of reverse slip
(67 K).
Richter scale

P-wave
The fastest of seismic waves, and
thus the first to arrive at a location
following an earthquake (the P
stands for "primary"). This is a
compressional body wave; particle
movement is parallel to the
direction of propagation of the
wave. Its speed is 5.5 to 7.2
km/sec in the crust and 7.8 to 8.5
km/sec in the upper mantle.
Quaternary
The period of geologic time starting
1.6 million years ago and
continuing to the present day. It is
divided into two epochs: the
Pleistocene and the Holocene, with
the division between these two
falling at about 10,000 years before
the present.
Late Quaternary refers to the time
between 700,000 years ago and
the present day. It does not

Introduced in 1935 by Charles F.

Richter, the Richter scale is a
numerical scale for quantifying
earthquake magnitude -- typically it
refers to local magnitude, but for
larger quakes, it often refers to
surface-wave magnitude.
(Currently, large quakes are
generally assigned a moment
magnitude, which is scaled to be
similar, but is based on seismic
moment, and a better measure of
the energy of an earthquake.)
Since the Richter scale is
logarithmic, very small earthquakes
(microearthquakes) can have a
negative magnitudes. While the
scale has no theoretical upper limit,
the practical upper limit, given the
strength of materials in the crust, is
just below 9 for local or surfacewave magnitudes (and just below
10 for moment magnitudes).
Scarp

A roughly linear, cliff-like slope or

face that breaks the continuity of a
surface into distinct levels. Scarps
are often produced by faulting,
especially that which involves a
significant amount of dip slip.

The sense with which one side of a

fault slips relative to the other side,
in a reference frame defined by a
horizontal (level) plane oriented
with the pull of Earth's gravity
pointed "down" (perpendicular to
the plane).

Seismic creep
Slip rate
See creep.
Seismic gap
A segment of an active fault zone
that has not experienced a major
earthquake during a time interval
when most other segments of the
zone have. Seismologists
commonly consider seismic gaps to
have a high future-earthquake
potential.
Seismic moment
A measure of the strength of an
earthquake, equal to the product of
the force and the moment arm of
the double-couple system of forces
that produces ground
displacements equivalent to that
produced by the actual earthquake
slip. It is also equal to the product
of the rigidity modulus of the Earth
material, the fault surface area, and
the average slip along the fault.
Therefore, both seismological and
geological observations can
produce the same result.
Seismic zone (or seismic belt)
A region of the Earth's crust,
generally linear, associated with
active seismicity. It may not
necessarily be connected with a
particular fault or surface fault
trace.

The relative speed with which the

two sides of a fault move past each
other. Typically, slip rates are
measured in millimeters per year.
This figure applies to the motion of
a fault over an extended period of
time, since most faults slip only
during earthquakes; in between
earthquakes, the two sides are
"locked." Thus, a slip rate of 6
mm/yr does not mean that two
structures built directly across from
each other on either side of a fault
will move past each other at 0.5
millimeters per month, 6 millimeters
per year, or 60 millimeters per
decade. They may, for example,
remain relatively "fixed" for many
years until they are suddenly offset
several meters in a large
earthquake.

Strike
The direction, or trend, of the line
marking the intersection of a fault
plane (or another planar geologic
feature) with the horizontal. Strike
is always at a right angle to dip.
Strike-slip fault
A fault along which the slip motion
is parallel to the strike of the fault.
Surface rupture

Sense of slip

The breakage of ground along the

surface trace of a fault caused by
the intersection of the fault surface
area ruptured in an earthquake with
the Earth's surface.

recording networks, this translates

to more than 100 km from the
nearest operational station in that
network.
Thrust fault

Surface trace

Swarm

A specific kind of reverse fault in

which the dip of the fault is less
than 45 degrees over much if not
all of its length. It is characterized
not so much by vertical
displacement, but by horizontal
compression. Thrust faults are an
obvious sign of compressional
tectonics.

A series of minor earthquakes,

none of which may be identified as
the mainshock, occurring in a
limited area and time.

View an animation of thrust fault

motion (77 K).

S-wave

Transverse Ranges

A seismic body wave which

propagates by a shearing motion;
particle vibrate in a direction
perpendicular to that of the
propagation of the wave. Slower
than the P-wave, the S-wave
always arrives after the P-wave
(the "S" stands for "secondary"). Its
speed is roughly 3 to 4 km/sec in
the crust and 4.4 to 4.6 km/sec in
the upper mantle. Because of its
shearing motion, it cannot
propagate through liquids. The Swave is responsible for our
determination that the Earth's outer
core is liquid, since S-waves
cannot travel through the outer
core.

The mountains formed by

compression associated with the
Big Bend of the San Andreas fault
zone -- primarily the San Gabriel
and San Bernardino Mountains.
They are called transverse
because they stretch east-west,
unlike the north-south trending
Sierra Nevada, Peninsular Ranges,
and the mountains of the Basin and
Range province. Thus, they are
transverse to most other California
mountains and to the overall
tectonic motion at this plate
boundary.

The intersection of a fault plane

with the surface of the Earth. It is
sometimes, but not always,
expressed at the surface by
geomorphic evidence (ridges,
valleys, saddles, etc.).

Teleseismic
An adjective to refer to
earthquakes, and any properties
thereof, that occur more than 100
km from a particular site. In this
age of modern seismic data-

Triggered slip
A somewhat poorly understood
process; involves the slipping of a
fault located in the same region as,
but not directly associated with, a
fault which ruptures in a major
earthquake. Most likely, the shaking
of the ground during the

earthquake causes minor slippage

along temporarily "loosened" faults.
What is the difference between
Magnitude and Intensity?
Intensity: The severity of
earthquake shaking is assessed
using a descriptive scale
the Modified Mercalli Intensity
Scale.
Magnitude: Earthquake size is
a quantitative measure of the size
of the earthquake at its source.
The Richter Magnitude
Scalemeasures the amount of
seismic energy released by an
earthquake.

Seismic waves are the waves of energy

caused by the sudden breaking of rock
within the earth or an explosion. They
are the energy that travels through the
earth and is recorded on seismographs.

BODY WAVES
Traveling through the interior of the
earth, body waves arrive before the
surface waves emitted by an
earthquake. These waves are of a
higher frequency than surface
waves.
P WAVES

When an earthquake occurs, its

magnitude can be given a single
numerical value on the Richter
Magnitude Scale. However the
intensity is variable over the area
affected by the earthquake, with
high intensities near the epicentre
and lower values further away.
These are allocated a value
depending on the effects of the
shaking according to the Modified
Mercalli Intensity Scale.

The first kind of body wave is the P

wave or primary wave. This is the
fastest kind of seismic wave, and,
consequently, the first to 'arrive' at
a seismic station. The P wave can
move through solid rock and fluids,
like water or the liquid layers of the
earth. It pushes and pulls the rock it
moves through just like sound
waves push and pull the air.

In an example, Magnitude can be

likened to the power of radio or
television waves sent out from a
broadcasting station. Intensity is
how well you receive the signal,
which can depend on your distance
from the energy source, the local
conditions, and the pathway the
signal has to take to reach you.

The second type of body wave is

the S wave or secondary wave,
which is the second wave you feel
in an earthquake. An S wave is
slower than a P wave and can only
move through solid rock, not
through any liquid medium. It is this
property of S waves that led
seismologists to conclude that the
Earth's outer core is a liquid. S
waves move rock particles up and
down, or side-to-side--perpindicular
to the direction that the wave is
traveling in (the direction of wave
propagation).

Seismology is the study of

earthquakes and seismic waves
that move through and around the
earth. A seismologist is a scientist
who studies earthquakes and
seismic waves.

S WAVES

SURFACE WAVES
Travelling only through the
crust, surface waves are of a lower
frequency than body waves, and
are easily distinguished on a
seismogram as a result. Though
they arrive after body waves, it is
surface waves that are almost
enitrely responsible for the damage
and destruction associated with
earthquakes. This damage and the
strength of the surface waves are
reduced in deeper earthquakes.
LOVE WAVES
The first kind of surface wave is
called a Love wave, named after
A.E.H. Love, a British
mathematician who worked out the
mathematical model for this kind of
wave in 1911. It's the fastest
surface wave and moves the
ground from side-to-side. Confined
to the surface of the crust, Love
waves produce entirely horizontal
motion.Click here to see a Love
wave in action.
RAYLEIGH WAVES

The other kind of surface wave is

the Rayleigh wave, named for John
William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, who
mathematically predicted the
existence of this kind of wave in
1885. A Rayleigh wave rolls along
the ground just like a wave rolls
across a lake or an ocean.
Because it rolls, it moves the
ground up and down, and side-toside in the same direction that the
wave is moving. Most of the
shaking felt from an earthquake is
due to the Rayleigh wave, which
can be much larger than the other
waves.