Running head: MEMORY STORAGE

MEMORY STORAGE

Memory Storage
Robert Boyce
Georgia Southern University

MEMORY STORAGE

Memory Storage
Overview
Memory is something that can be difficult to figure, how items are stored and encoded
into long term memory will be a strong determining factor in how well a person can produce that
memory to assist when it is needed. Looking over the question, the predictor of how well a
person can remember newly learned information is? Some may believe that it is where the
information is stored in memory that would be the best predictor. Yet in fact the answer is the
quality of storage, not where it is stored. Both do play a role but how the information is encoded
and the method used to obtain the information tends to play a larger role in how well knowledge
can be recalled.
Several articles found in the Galileo database as well as a standard Boolean search on
Google have brought up an interesting take on the idea of learning and how information is passed
on to long term memory. The articles also discuss how the knowledge in long term memory is
able to be divulged through the methods of learning that were associated with it.
Long-Term Memory
Storing Information
Memory is a fluid system that changes constantly. Researchers have gone over it for
decades coming up with new names and parts of human memory to try and decipher just how
memory works and how information is stored. In the article, Memory Storage, by Mrazik and
Thieman they discuss different forms of memory storage and how the information can be
networked together. In the beginning the authors look at episodic memory and how it varies
from semantic memory as well as how they work together. The importance on what each of these
two forms of memory take brings the article into personal memory.
Episodic memory relates to experiences in life that a person has had (Mrazik and
Thieman, 2014). These experiences help to bond with the semantic memory and build up the
storage of personal and general experiences. Semantic memory is then described as information
in long-term memory that is both necessary and descriptive (Mrazik and Thieman, 2014). By
using both a person can describe a situation that happened to them and reconstruct what they
remember.
There has been much research into memory storage and consolidation, how it happens
and how to improve it. Being emotionally invested in something helps a person to remember

MEMORY STORAGE

information in a study done by Cahill, Gorski, and Le from the University of California they
researched the effects of stress hormones on memory consolidation. In the experiment they tested
neutral images along with arousing ones to see which would be remembered better and if stress
hormones affect all forms of memory consolidation and recall. The experiment resulted in a
heightened recall for arousing images but it did not show much promise for the neutral ones
(Cahill, Gorski, & Le, 2015). If emotions happen to be involved, in this case specifically arousal,
a person can have a better quality storage of information.
Another experiment conducted by Dewar, Alber, Cowan, and Sala studied the effects of
wakeful rest on long-term memory. In the article the authors set up two different experiments the
first experiment tested memory based on words with a presentation, immediate recall, a rest
period followed that and was comprised of both a high or low sensory stimulation, and a
distractor. After all of that the final two segments of the research were both recall portions. The
first was scheduled for 15 minutes later while the last was planned for week after the initial
words. The main objective in this experiment was to see how much could be recalled if the
subjects had a resting period where they could intentionally rehearse the information that was
learned (Alber, Cowan, Dewar, & Sala, 2014).
In the second experiment the main focus was to see how consolidation and recall would
work when there was something that could not be intentionally rehearsed (Alber et al., 2014). To
that end the experiment used recognition testing rather than the free recall that was allowed in the
first scenario. The set up was an initial presentation followed directly by the restful period and a
distraction. From there the test went on to the 15 minute recognition and the week later
recognition.
The end result for both experiments was a decrease in the information remembered after
the week long period. The findings from the research were that intentional rehearsal was not a
factor in helping a person remember information before a wakeful rest (Alber et al., 2014). In
fact in the end it can be said that consolidating memory is more than enough and as long as the
information processed is of some meaning to the person there is a better chance of them
remembering it.
Reconstruction & Retrieval
The reconstruction of a memory depends on how well it was first stored and how much
time has passed since it was recalled or experienced. Being that people have both semantic and

MEMORY STORAGE

episodic memory they can sometimes become intermixed leading to an incorrect recall of
information. One such example was given by the article, Memory Storage:
For example, in answering the question What were you doing at 2:00 p.m. on the third
Monday in September five years ago?, peoples retrieval strategy would depend on some
abstract factual information from semantic memory (for example, determining that one
was a sophomore in high school that year and would have been in school, in an afternoon
biology class). One might then reason that since mid-September is early in the semester,
one was probably studying some introductory biological concept such as evolution. That
insight then cues an episodic memory of Mr. Brown, the biology teacher, blaming
evolution for the football teams loss in their opening game the previous Saturday night.
(Mrazik & Thieman, 2014 p. 1)
Cues and prompts work with what is already in memory to bring forth a thought of what
happened in history for a person. The article, Memory Storage, goes on to continue detail other
forms of memory in light detail though the main draw of the article is episodic and semantic
memory, and the role they play in our lives.
Taking a look at the idea and ability of lying research has shown in one case at least that
humans have a propensity to remember and recall when they are dishonest faster than what the
truth may be concerning something that they have lied about previously; the article, The Implicit
Cognition of Lying, details this idea. Lying is depicted as something that requires a massive
amount of reflective and cognitive control that is conscious to the person as stated in a quote by
Vrij, Mann, Fisher and others (Koranvi, Schreckenbach & Rothermund, 2015 p 68). Not only
does lying require effort over normal memory but it also requires an active decision to see if
telling a lie would be in the best interest of the individual (Koranvi et al., 2015).
The ability to lie is based in episodic knowledge because a person will know what has
happened and be able to fabricate something based on that experience. What the study has shown
is that while the original creation of a lie requires more cognition than simply telling the truth
every time a person needs to repeat that lie it is faster. Experiment 1 used a standard test of
honest and dishonest questions and answers, the end results showed that lying produced faster
and more accurate responses in most every category (Koranvi et al., 2015). The second
experiment was similar to the first, another interview, but the researchers also used questions that
were not based on the interview to see what answers they would get. The results from this test

MEMORY STORAGE

also mirrored those of the first where being able to recall a lie was faster than the truth after it
had been created (Koranvi et al., 2015).
In the final article that was discovered, Visual long-term memory has a massive storage
capacity for object details, the authors of the piece examine the storage capacity and the quality
of the details stored in long-term memory through visual learning. The idea behind it was to
disprove the belief that visual details stored in long-term memory are not vivid or very
informative and that all is that is left is a small portion of information (Alvarez, Brady, Konkle,
& Olivia, 2008). To test this hypothesis the authors prepared a set of images for their test subjects
to view for approximately 3 seconds. They were informed before beginning the test to try and
remember the details of the images (Alvarez et al., 2008). The researchers used basic-level
images to reduce interference and they also tested memory with a forced-choice test (Alvarez et
al., 2008). The test was separated into three different categories between novel, exemplar, and
state based items.
By the end of the tests the subjects were still able to remember a vast amount of details
about the images Once again reinforcing the idea that the quality of the information stored is a
strong predictor in being able to recall knowledge. The participants were quite alert to find even
the repeat images that had appeared on the test scoring high in that area as well for identifying
duplicates (Alvarez et al., 2008).
Conclusion
Memory is a very difficult thing to pin down and from reading these articles it has
become even more interesting of a topic. Realizing that the quality of storage is vastly more
important than just the location of storage yields skills that will be helpful later on, I have learned
that visual learning is not only a great way to learn information but it also tends to last in longterm memory. It could be said that the capacity for visual learning in and of itself is massive. I
have also picked up that the use of immediate rehearsal would be mostly meaningless so in the
future constantly going over information for me would not be the best course of action. It also
would not be the best way to approach teaching information. I have come to believe that visual
aids are definitely important especially if you can link the visual with something meaningful
from a persons personal experiences or something that will connect with them emotionally. This
will increase the likelihood that the person would remember it. I often times remember things

MEMORY STORAGE

that are funny so finding ways to connect humor with information that I am picking up along the
way maybe a way to help it remain in my long-term memory and be easier to retrieve.
Lying comes naturally to most people and so I will need to keep a keen eye on that in the
future when I am teaching a class or leading a group. Answers that happen to be too fast and lack
great detail may not be the most truthful answers that are given. I also find it fascinating that it is
that much easier to recall a lie over the truth after it has been produced, though it makes sense.
The person is simply rewriting their own memory of the incident with that of the lie to keep their
image of self preserved. Much like when people have a completely different idea about what is at
the center of the solar system even if facts are brought forth due to what they have written in
their memory about that specific topic. This topic was quite interesting and each article brought
up a different view point on the idea of memory and how it is recalled or used.

MEMORY STORAGE

Reference
Alber, J., Della Sala, S., & Dewar, M. (2014). Boosting Long-Term Memory via Wakeful Rest:
Intentional Rehearsal Is Not Necessary, Consolidation Is Sufficient. Plos ONE, 9(10), 110. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0109542
Alvarez, G., Brady, T. F., Konkle, T., & Olivia, A. (2008). Visual long-term memory has a
massive storage capacity for object details. PNAS Proceedings of the national academy
of sciences of the United States of America, 105(38), pp. 14325-14329. doi:
10.1073/pnas.0803390105
Cahill, L., Groski, L., & Le, K. (2003). Enhanced human memory consolidation with postlearning stress: interaction with the degree of arousal at encoding. Cold Spring Harbor
Laboratory Press. 10: pp. 270-274. doi: 10.1101/km62403
Koranvi, N., Rothermund, K., & Schreckenbach, F. (2015). The implicit cognition of lying:
knowledge about having lied to a question is retrieved automatically. Social Cognition,
33(1), pp 67-84. doi: 10.1521/soco.2015.33.1.67
Mrazik, M. & Thieman, T. J. (2014). Memory storage. Salem Press Encyclopedia of Health, Jan.
2014. Retrieved from:
https://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?sid=64ad57bb-ca1a-4c40-a9ac2d03d16565e9%40sessionmgr4001&vid=1&hid=4211&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpd
mU%3d#db=ers&AN=93872099