6 Special Topics

6
Chapter Six
Special Topics
Objective
Identify problems with side swipe and oblique reflectors.
Understand Fresnel zones and how they relate to migration.
Know that migration lowers the frequency of dipping events.
Define recording times and aperture length for structured sections.
Gain insight into techniques that deal with large elevation changes that
require some form of wave equation datuming.
Know that migration should be computed as close to the surface as possible.
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A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations
6.1 Special topics

6.2
Moving window migration ..............................................................................................6.4
6.3
Side swipe .................................................................................................................................................6.6
6.4
Oblique reflectors .........................................................................................................................6.8
6.5
Overlapping reflections ..................................................................................................6.10
6.6
Recording times and migration aperture .......................................... 6.12
6.7
Lateral resolution and Fresnel zones ...................................................... 6.16
6.8
Migration of spatially aliased data ................................................................6.22
6.9
Aliasing in time to depth conversions ................................................... 6.32
6.10
Frequency changes due to migration ..................................................... 6.34
6.12
Cascaded migration ..............................................................................................................6.36
6.13
Surface elevation, datums, and migration ...................................... 6.38
6.14
Example problem on recording time and aperture ........... 6.56
Page 6.2
Chapter 6 Special Topics
Blank page.
Page 6.3
6.2
Moving window migration
The migration of large data sets may be limited by computer memory.

In these cases a technique of migration, referred to as "moving window," may be
used. Portions of a line are migrated, and then merged together to complete the
migration.
A portion of the data that overlaps the desired window is selected and null
traces appended as required.
The small section is migrated and a central portion is saved and merged with
previous migrated output.
The process is repeated until the original input section is migrated.
The output portion must be large enough to accommodate the lateral shifts that
may occur due to migration of the data.
Figure 6.1 Moving window migration.
An extreme example of this would be the case of Kirchhoff migration in which

only one trace was output. The input to the migration would be the size of the
migration aperture.
Page 6.4
The following Figure 6.2 is an example to illustrate a potential wrap around

problem that may occur in FK migration. Where did the event in (b) come from?
The solution is evident in (c) where both events move out of the migration
window.
Project the dipping events to the surface, and then wrap the events.
The dip AB is migrated to the null traces on the right.
The dip CD is wrapped completely around to reappear in the section close to

the original position of AB.
a)
b)
c)
Figure 6.2 Example of steep dip wrap around, (a) the input, (b) the migration with
unusual positioning that is due to FK window wrap around illustrated in (c).
These problems should not be a factor in current processing as memory is very

inexpensive, and/or virtual memory is allowing large data arrays that may be
paged out of the CPU to disk.
Page 6.5
6.3 Side swipe

Sideswipe refers to reflections that occur from a structure that is out of the plane
of a 2-D seismic line as illustrated by the two anomalies in Figure 6.3a.
The top of each anomaly has the same RMS velocity.
The side swipe reflection is deeper in the section of (b) than the vertical plane
reflection.
The sideswipe reflection may be under-migrated if the velocity is increasing with
depth. Under-migration is usually negligible but does add to the confusion
caused by an erosional 3-D surface.
Beware of apparent reefs just below a known erosional surface.
This problem is eliminated by using 3-D seismic projects.
Page 6.6
a)
b)
Figure 6.3 Sideswipe illustration showing a) the structure and b) the resulting
reflections.
Page 6.7
6.4 Oblique reflector

A 2-D seismic line that crosses an oblique reflector (with angle ) may be
correctly processed to final stack but will require special attention for migration.
The reflection or diffraction from an oblique reflector is "flatter" than an
orthogonal (right angle) reflector as illustrated in Figure 6.4.
French in 1975 [4] showed the poststack migration velocity must be increased to
focus that specific portion of the section that is oblique to the line. Other parts
of a section may have different angles of obliquity and require different migration
velocities.
The migration velocity Vmig is defined by,
Vmig
Vrms
,
cos
(6.1)
and should not be confused with dip corrections.

Usually seismic lines are oriented to be orthogonal to the structures. Sometimes
this is not possible, especially in "channel sand" plays in which a channel may
cross a 2-D section many times and at different angles.
This potential problem may be used to advantage if the line is migrated to focus
the structure and then using the migration velocity and RMS velocity to compute
the angle . Migration velocities up to 300% Vrms have been successfully used to
focus oblique events with =70. At this velocity, only the oblique reflection is
correctly imaged. All other data will be incorrectly imaged.
3-D seismic eliminates this problem.
Prestack processing should include DMO to optimally stack oblique reflector

data.
Page 6.8
2-D
line
a)
b)
Figure 6.4 Oblique reflector illustrated with a) the structure and b) the resulting
section.
Special prestack migration operators may also be used to focus energy from an
oblique reflector [753].
Page 6.9
6.5 Overlapping reflections

A zero-offset final stack section may have reflections that overlap each other as
illustrated in Figure 6.5. These may be diffractions off faults or salt domes that
overlap the adjacent events, or dipping events in areas with complex geology.
This provides a dilemma for the processor as they must decide which event to
process; i.e. choose a velocity for that area that will stack one of the conflicting
dips. Even in a constant-velocity environment, dipping events must be stacked
with a velocity that is divided by the cosine of the dip. The resulting stacked
section will have one event that is strong while the other conflicting dip will be
weak.
A solution for constant velocities to apply NMO removal with the same velocity
followed by dip moveout (DMO).
In areas where the velocities vary, DMO will not solve the problem. NMO
removal still requires the RMS velocity at the respective reflection points. The
solution requires a prestack migration which estimates the correct velocity at
the reflection or scatter point, where there are no conflicting dips., Another
solution is Gardners DMO applied before a special MO correction. (See
Chapters 8, 9, and 11.)
Note that velocity errors from dipping events may have a greater range than
errors due to relative depth, thus enabling DMO to achieve good results in areas
with smoothly varying velocities.
Page 6.10
Figure 6.5 Overlapping dips on a seismic section.
Page 6.11
6.6 Recording time and migration aperture

When recording data that contains dipping events
The recording time must be long enough to allow enough dipping energy at
T to be MO corrected and migrated back to the reflection point z at the end
of an event.
The seismic line must be extended beyond the dipping event from position B
to position C. This distance is often referred to as the migration aperture.
The angle represents the reflection and the reflector in the following figure.
B
C
C
Migration aperture
T
T0
x
t
or
z
Figure 6.6 Construction for defining recording time requirements.

The line must be extended from B to C, the distance xBC given by,
x BC = z tan
(6.2)
The two-way recording time T is required to image the dipping geological depth
Z and is found from,
2(x
T =
2
BC
+z
V
2
b
Page 6.12
(6.3)
The dip limit b may be computed from the two-way travel-time T to the vertical
two-way travel-time T0b at z from
cos =
T0
T
2Z
VT
(6.4)
and tabulated in table 6.1.

Table 6.1 Extension of recording time to compensate for dip.
Dip Angle
Ratio T /T0b
20
1.06
30
1.15
40
1.21
50
1.56
60
2.0
70
2.92
80
5.76
The above information assumes constant velocities and has not taken into
account Snell's law.
Consequently the recording time and aperture are
pessimistic.
However, the line needs to be extended past C for the fold to build and to
produce a reasonable signal to noise ratio. If the reflection point at B is a
discontinuity, then an additional extension to the line might be required to image
the steeper dips of the diffraction.
In typical seismic data where the velocity increases, the linear assumptions in
this section tend to compensate for the fold.
Sometimes the migration aperture may refer to the dip-limited shape of the
Kirchhoff operator as it varies with time.
Page 6.13
An alternate view of Figure 6.6 is shown in Figure 6.7, which shows diffractions
and how their dips are limited by the maximum time tmax. After migration, the
dipping events will be restricted to the time or depth of the diffraction apex.
Dips of 90 degrees are only possible at the surface.
At the bottom of the section, only dips of 0 (zero) degrees are possible.
Migration angle b
Dip limit a
Figure 6.7 The recording time tmax or extent of the diffraction will limit the dip
angle of the migration as the depth within the section is increased.
Steeper dips may be observed in areas where the velocities increase with depth,
as the raypaths will bend according to Snell's Law. In areas with smoothly
increasing velocities, dips greater than 90-degrees are migratable.
Page 6.14
The migrated dip angle b may be plotted a function of depth as illustrated by the
gray area in Figure 6.8. This area is bound by:
spatial aliasing, the straight line from equation (3.23),
the migration aperture given by equation (6.2), and
the maximum recording time given by equation (6.4).
The area could also be bound by a dip limit impose by the migration
algorithm of, for example, 40 degrees.
The example in Figure 6.8 is taken from Margrave [691]. It used a constant
velocity of 3500 m/s, recording time of 3 sec., a migration aperture of 2500 m,
trace spacing 20 m, and a maximum frequency of 60 Hz [691].
90
Recording
time
60
Migrated
dip
angle
Spatial aliasing
b
30
(degrees)
Migration dip limit

Migration aperture
0
Depth (km)
Figure 6.8 Limit on migration angle b as a function of depth when considering

spatial aliasing, the migration aperture, and the length of the recording time.
An early reference on dip limitations was given by Lynn [692].

The reference used for the above example also provides a comprehensive
discussion for linearly increasing velocities with depth; i.e. Margrave in [691].
Page 6.15
6.7 Lateral resolution and Fresnel zones

6.7.1 Lateral resolution
The maximum lateral resolution of seismic data is illustrated with Figure 6.9a,
which shows seismic data before migration is bound by the 45 degrees of dip
and a maximum frequency Fm. The maximum lateral wave number is Km, which,
after an ideal migration in (b) is still defined by Km.
From the geometry in (a) Km = 2Fm/V thus the lateral resolution Km can never be
greater than the vertical resolution of the wavelet (Fm) on the seismic trace.
For maximum lateral resolution at all dips, data must be acquired with a CMP
trace spacing dx or wave number Ksamp = 1/dx 2*Km, from the aliasing equation
(3.23).
Figure 6.9c-d show the result of a dip limited migration aperture. Now the
maximum spatial resolution is limited by the dip b and maximum frequency.
After migration, the actual lateral resolution of a section depends on:
the migration algorithm, and extent of the diffraction or migration aperture,
the frequency content of the data.
The lateral resolution Kma = Kmb becomes
K m =K m tan ( ) = K m sin(
),
(6.5)
It was shown in Figure 6.8 that the angle b may vary with depth. Therefore the
lateral resolution Kma will also vary with depth.
Page 6.16
-Km
Kx
-Km
Km
Kx
Km
90
45
Fm
Seismic
data
Fm
Migrated
data
a)
b)
Kx
Kma
Kx
Kmb=Kma
b
Fm
Seismic
data
Fm
Migrated
data
c)
d)
Figure 6.9 Seismic energy for all dips on the FK plane a) before and b) after
migration. Dip limited energy is shown in c) before migration and d) after
migration. The origin in these figures is top-center.
Page 6.17
6.7.2 Fresnel zone

A modelled seismic section may be produced by convolving small geological
anomalies by a filtered hyperbola illustrated in Figure 6.10. The flat portion of
the hyperbola produces a spatial smear that may obscure geological anomalies.
The size of this lateral smear is referred to as the Fresnel zone and defined as:
the distance across the hyperbola at the time when time of the first arrival
has just changed polarity Claerbout, page 18 [294], or
The portion of a reflector from which reflected energy can reach a detector
within one-half wavelength of the first reflected energy, Sheriff [543].
Time of the
polarity change
Fresnel zone
Figure 6.10 Claerbout definition of the Fresnal zone.
The Fresnel-zone radius R from Sheriff [55] is
R =
v
2
kt
f ,
(6.6)
where v is the velocity, t the two-way time of interest, f the frequency of the data
(maximum or mid-band?), and 1.0 k 2.0 depending on the application.
If v = 3,000 m/sec, t = 1.0 sec, f = 30 Hz, and k = 2, then
R = 387 m.
The Fresnel zone is a measure of lateral resolution that applies to an unmigrated

section (Deregowski [211]).
The collapsing of the Fresnel zone after 2-D migration only applies in the
direction of migration. The Fresnel zone will still apply in the orthogonal
direction to sideswipe data or in crooked line processing.
Additional information may be found in pages 17 - 20 Claerbout [294], Sheriff
[55], Deregowski [211], Eaton [107], and Knapp [108].
Page 6.18
Migration has the potential to collapse the Fresnel zone to a spatial resolution
equivalent to the temporal resolution on the seismic trace. This requires a full
migration aperture of data with complete diffraction energy. The following
figures show input structures, modelled sections before migration with poor
lateral resolution, and the migrated results showing the recovery of the lateral
resolution.
a)
b)
c)
Figure 6.11 The structure in a) has gaps that in b) have been smeared by
modelling, and in c) the gaps have been resolved by migration.
a)
b)
c)
Figure 6.12 Focusing of migration is illustrated with a) an input structure
showing a gap in the dip, b) the modelled section with a smeared gap, and c) the
migration with gap recovered.
Page 6.19
6.7.3 Resolution as a function of position within the section

An ideal migration will collapse a diffraction to its maximum resolution if the
entire diffraction energy is present. The temporal and spatial edges of input data
truncate the input diffractions as illustrated by the various diffractions in Figure
6.13a. The migration of these truncated diffractions produce artifacts that further
reduce spatial and temporal resolution as illustrated in (b). A zoom of the four
highlighted areas in (b) is shown in (c).
a)
Figure 6.13 Effects of diffraction truncation by input boarders with a) showing
the input section with diffractions, b) the migrated section, and c) zoomed
features that are identified by the boxes in (b).
These figures are taken from Margrave [691]. His paper includes additional
information such as FK plots of the above figures.
Page 6.20
b)
c)
Page 6.21
6.8 Migration of spatially aliased data

6.8.1 FK migration of spatially aliased data
Spatial aliasing was initially discussed in Section 3.4. The following presents
examples of controlling aliasing with migration algorithms.
Figure 6.14 contains a copy of Figure 3.29 and 3.30, which show two dipping
events on a space-time section and an FK plot. The higher frequency dip q1 is
aliased as identified in Figure 6.14a.
Aliasing becomes a compromise between:
1. the frequency content of dipping events fm,
2. the dip angle of the events q,
3. the velocity V,
4. the trace spacing of the input data CMPx , and
5. the (aliasing) noise content.
These four parameters are related by the aliasing equation (3.23)
fm =
V
,
4 CMPx tan ( )
where CMPx = 1/2Kn.
Conventional FK migration migrated each half of the FK transformed data. One

half is of the migration is identified by the gray shading in Figure 6.15a that
migrates dips relative to q1, i.e., 0 q1 45. The aliased portion of q1 is migrated
as if it was part of q2 energy (0 q2 -45) and becomes noise.
The aliased portion of q1 energy could be included with the q1 migration by
extending the size of the kx window beyond the Nyquist limit as illustrated by the
gray area in Figure 6.15b.
In a similar manner, the kx migration range could be extended for q2 dips and the
two extended-range migrations for all q1s and q2s added together. Now, the
entire energy of the q1 dipping event is migrated and will give higher amplitudes
and frequency of the dipping event.
However, the extended range of the q1 migration will include part of q2 data that
will become aliased noise. The extended range of q2 will also included more
energy of q1 that also becomes aliased noise.
We have gained amplitude and additional frequency content
at the sacrifice of adding more aliasing noise.
Page 6.22
Kn
k
q1 f
q2
CMPx
Aliased
energy
q1
Fm
q2
F1
b)
a)
Figure 6.14 Two dipping events with a) the space-time section and b) the FK
transform.
Kn
q2
Kn
q1 f
q2
k
q1 f
Aliased noise,
relative to q1
Fm
Fm
F1
F1
b)
a)
Figure 6.15 FK transforms with a) showing the conventional migration area for
q1 dips in gray, and b) the extended area that includes the aliased energy.
We have not used a or b as the angle q could be before or after migration.
What factors control the four parameters on the previous page?
Page 6.23
6.8.2 Model for spatially aliased data

The constant velocity model in Figure 6.16 has diffractions, scatterpoints, and
dips that tend to 45 degrees. It was created kinematically with impulses linearly
interpolated between traces. A bandpass filter with a maximum frequency of 50
Hz created the wavelet. If the velocity is 10,000 ft/sec, dt = 2 ms, and the trace
spacing 100 feet, what is the maximum frequency before aliasing of:
a horizontal event? __________________ .
a = 30 dipping event? ____________
a = 45 dipping event (b > 90)? ____________ .
What are the dips a of the events in Figure 6.16a? _____ _____ _____ _____ .
In the software used for the following figures, dips on the left side of the input
section appear as dipping events on the right side of the FK transform.
The FK transform of the input data is shown in Figure 6.16b where the origin is
center-top. Note the aliasing of the steepest events identified by E1 and E2 in
part (a) and the corresponding location of the E1 energy on part (b) of Figure
6.16, especially the aliased energy of E1.
Two additional models were created:
one in which dead traces were inserted between each live trace (not shown),
the other a FX interpolation shown in Figure 6.19.
Page 6.24
E1
E2
a)
kx
E1
Aliased E1
b)
Figure 6.16 Input model a) in (x, t) and b) the FK transform.
Page 6.25
Aliased E1
6.8.3 Control of spatially aliased data using the Kirchhoff algorithm

Figure 6.17 shows a migrated section of the input data in Figure 6.16a. The
Kirchhoff migration algorithm allowed parameters to vary while running. The FK
transform of the input and migrated section are shown in (b) and (c).
The left half of the section used parameters designed for maximum speed.
The right half used parameters for best quality including a sinx/x type AAF.
Both sides used the same scaling and filtering (rjw) to enable an easier
comparison.
The left side ran thirty times faster than the left side. (Other AAFs are faster.)
The left side of the migrated section:
No sample interpolation or anti aliasing filter (AAF) was used.
Note the considerable aliasing noise of the dipping events.
Also note the horizontal aliasing noise from the horizontal event.
The right side of the migrated section:
A combined AAF and interpolator was used.
The aliasing noise is virtual eliminated.
On the steepest dipping event, note:

1. the lower amplitude and
2. the lower frequency.
When the AAF filter is not used, the summation operator is aliased, allowing the
inclusion of aliased energy with the dipping energy. In the FK domain, this
aliased operator extends beyond the Nyquist boundary to migrate the same
energy more than once: first as an extension of the dipping energy, and then as
aliased noise as evident in Figure 6.17c.
Aliasing of the steepest dips is evident on both sides of the input data (b) and
labeled E1 and E2. The aliased energy E2 on the right side of (b) and has been
effectively removed by the AAF in (c).
After migration, the aliased energy E1 becomes two events, E3 and E4. E3 is
migrated as an extension of the dipping event from the right side of (b) and
contributes to the amplitude and frequency of the steepest dip on the left of (a).
E4 is migrated as aliased noise on the left side of (b), and contributes to the
aliasing noise in (a).
Page 6.26
E1
a)
kx
E2
E1
b)
kx
f
E3
E4
c)
Figure 6.17 A Kirchhoff migration that allowed parameters to vary showing in a)
the migrated section, b) the FK transform of the input section, and c) Fk
transform of (a).
Page 6.27
6.8.4 Control of spatially aliased data using trace interpolation

The following examples (provided by Downton) control aliasing noise by
interpolating a new trace between existing traces. The fast Kirchhoff method
was used with no AAF.
The first method simply inserts a dead trace as discussed in Section 3.6.
The second method used FX interpolation to create the new traces.
The following examples may contain a small view of the FK section that is
identified in the label of the figure.
Note the following:
Figure 6.18: The input model is repeated in for compatibility with the following
examples.
Figure 6.19: The FX interpolated section.
Figure 6.20: Migration of the input data.
Excellent migration of the steepest dip.
Aliasing noise that is usually identified by alternating amplitudes
of the sample on neighbouring traces.
Figure 6.21: Migration of dead-trace interpolation.
Aliasing noise included on the newly inserted traces.
The repeated image on the input FK spectrum.
Removal of unwanted signal on the migrated FK spectrum.
Figure 6.22: Excellent migration with no aliasing noise.
Excellent migration with no aliasing noise.
Amplitude of the steepest event is not visible on the FK spectrum.
Figure 6.23: Migration of the FX interpolation showing every second trace for
comparison to the original migration in Figure 6.15.
Results in Figure 6.21 could be reproduced much faster by migrating data in the
original model directly to output traces with half the original trace interval.
Page 6.28
x
z
Origin
b)
a)
Figure 6.18 Original model with a) in (x, t) space, and b) the FK transform (Kx, f)
in which the origin is centered at the top.
x
z
b)
a)
Figure 6.19 Fx interpolated model in a) and b) its FK transform.
Page 6.29
b)
c)
a)
Figure 6.20 Images of a) the migration of original model, b) a close up of the
center area showing the aliasing noise, and c) the FK transform of (a).
x
z
b)
c)
a)
Figure 6.21 Images of a) migration after dead trace interpolation, b) FK
transform of the dead trace interpolation before migration, and c) after migration.
Page 6.30
x
z
b)
c)
a)
Figure 6.22 Images of a) the migration of Fx interpolated data, b) the FK
transform of the input, and c) the migrated FK transform.
x
z
Figure 6.23 The same migration of Figure 6.22, but only showing every second
trace for comparison with the migration of the original data in Figure 6.15a.
Page 6.31
6.9 Aliasing in time to depth conversions

Time to depth conversion is an integral part of FK migration and has been used
to approximate finite difference depth migration.
If the velocity is assumed to increase with depth, the bottom portion of a section
will be stretched while the upper portion of a section will be contracted.
This is unfortunate as the upper portion of a section contains the higher
frequencies, and when converted to depth, these frequencies will be even
higher, and increase the possibility of aliasing.
Figure 6.24 An increasing velocity function is shown in a) with the time section
in (b). The time section is stretched to c) with the shallow depth increment
equivalent to the time sample interval. In (d) the depth section is converted to
have the same number of samples as in the original time section in (b).
Page 6.32
Choosing the depth increment to be equivalent to the time sampling rate at the
top of a section will prevent aliasing, but may require too many samples.
Reducing the number of samples may cause aliasing at the shallow depths that
usually contain higher frequencies.
To prevent aliasing the depth sampling increment z may be defined from
Vlow
4Fsig
(6.7)
where Vlow is the lowest velocity, and Fsig is the maximum frequency of the
data.
If
Vlow = 2000 m/sec and Fsig = 80 Hz,
then
z = 6.25m,
where z is the largest possible value, and should even be reduced by a factor of
three or four if simple linear interpolation methods are used.
This same principle applies when choosing the depth increment in the Phase
shift or related downward continuation depth migrations.
Page 6.33
6.10 Frequency change due to migration

Figure 6.25a-c are copies of Figures 1.1a-c and show geology in (a), a zero-offset
section in (b), and a time migrated section in (c). FK transforms of (b) and (c) are
shown in (d) and (e). (Time migration allows frequency comparisons.)
The maximum frequency of the horizontal and dipping reflection in (d) is Fm.
The maximum frequency of the migrated dipping event in (e) is Fb.
Migration lowers the vertical frequency component of the dipping event.

After migration, the resolution of a dipping event, identified by the wavelets
in (c), remains identical to the resolution of the horizontal event.
Given similar raypath lengths, the wavelets in (b) are identical.
Wavelets from dipping events are plotted as vertical traces, i.e. the event's
resolution Fm is plotted in (d) as if the raypath was vertical.
The radial frequency content of the dipping event in (e) is Fm, given by
Fm2 = F2 + (K xmV / 2 )
(6.8)
After migration, the width of the wavelet (when measured orthogonal to the
event as in (c)) is independent of dip.
Figures (f) and (g) are equivalent pre- and post migration wiggle trace plots for a
horizontal and dipping event with a = 43.22 and b = 70. The black circles in
each figure are the same size and represent the period of the recorded wavelet or
all wavelets in f).
The period of the wavelet (measured vertically) in the vertical traces of (f) is
the same for both horizontal and dipping events.
The dipping event in (f) has a higher resolution when measured orthogonal to
the event; i.e. the width of the event is indicated by the gray circle and is
smaller than the black circle.
After migration, the vertical period of the dipping event in (g) is increased by
a factor of three or the trace frequency reduced by three, {Fb = Fm cos(b)} as
identified the gray circle. The resolution, when measured orthogonal to the
event with the black circle, remains the same as the horizontal event.
Page 6.34
a)
b)
c)
kxm
kxm kx
kx
Fm
a f
f
fb
Fm
Fm
d)
e)
x
t
a
b
f)
g)
Figure 6.25 Linear reflectors with a) a geological structure, b) a seismic section,

c) a migration of the seismic section, d) the FK transform of (b), and e) the
migrated FK transform of (c). Wiggle trace examples show f) a section before
and g) after migration that illustrate preservation of reflector resolution.
Caution should be used when filtering after migration.
attenuate the energy of steeply dipping events. Why?
What about prestack migration?
A low cut filter may
Page 6.35
6.11 Cascaded migrations

Cascaded migration is a process that runs many passes of migration on the
same data. Each pass only partially migrates the section, by using a fraction of
the velocity. Greater dips can be obtained from migration algorithms with
restricted dips. A cascade of 24 migrations, using the 15-degree algorithm, has
been successful in migrating dip exceeding 70 degrees [381]. Four cascades
with V/2 (Figure 6.26b) will effectively double the dip limit of a migration.
This method also allows a combination of different migration algorithms. Steep
dip FK migration at a constant velocity, may be followed by a less accurate finite
difference method that compensates for variable velocities as indicated in Figure
6.26a.
The final migration interval velocity, at a given time, is the square root of the sum
of the interval velocities squared, i.e.
Vfinal
V12 + V22 + V32 + ...+ Vn2 or
Vmig =
Vfinal
n
Page 6.36
(6.9)
Velocity
Velocity
tim e
tim e
V final
V int
n=4
V m ig
V1
V2 V3 V4
a)
Figure 6.26 Interval velocities, and the sub-interval velocities used in cascade
migrations, with a) different, and b) the same velocities.
This process was developed in papers by Larner and Beasley [85] and [99], and
should not be confused with prestack partial migration (DMO) that partially
migrates prestack variable-offset data to be equivalent to zero-offset data.
Page 6.37
6.12 Surface elevation, datums, and migration

6.12.1 Introduction
A major problem in seismic processing is the relationship between time zero on
the seismic trace and the elevation of the surface [117], [118], and [201]. (A
similar problem also exists with irregular water bottoms [189] and [529]).
Changes in the elevation as illustrated in Figure 6.27 produce:
Relative time shifts in the sub-surface.
Horizontal reflections mirror the shape of the surface.
Diffractions on flat portions of the line have the correct shape and position.
Large elevation changes distort reflections.
Normal processing techniques correct the vertical distortion on the time section
with vertical elevation statics. These statics, or small time shifts, are applied to
the traces to compensate for the differences between a datum and the actual
surface elevation. A replacement velocity may be chosen to minimize error in
the depth to time conversion.
Page 6.38
a)
b)
Figure 6.27 A geological structure (a) with a large elevation change, and (b) the
resulting zero-offset time section. Time migration of this section will create large
errors in the flat reflections.
Page 6.39
6.12.2 Choosing a floating datum

Vertical (field) static shifts that are too large will distort diffraction shapes and
produce inferior imaging.
Ideally, we need a flat datum for our processing (especially migration). When the
above criterion is exceeded, a floating datum is typically used. The floating
datum smoothes the elevations, to allow the low-frequency trend of the datum
to follow the elevation and thus minimize the vertical shift.
But what size of smoother is acceptable? Figure 6.28 illustrates two datums, in
red and green that have been produced by smoothing the elevations with a
different size smoother. The red datum is smoother, but has larger vertical
shifts. The green datum follows the surface more closely, and has a much
smaller vertical shift.
Rule of thumb 1:
Vertical static shifts are usually OK if the height of the vertical shift from
the datum to the surface is less than three to five trace intervals.
The above discussion formed a floating datum by smoothing the elevations.

Some floating datums are formed by smoothing correction times that replace
near surface low velocity layers and their elevation changes with a higher
replacement velocity. This procedure is adequate for sedimentary basins with
minimal elevation changes, but may fail in areas with significant elevation and
structure.
Page 6.40
a)
b)
c)
Figure 6.28 Smoothing the elevation to a) produce two datums, with b) showing
a larger vertical shift from the red datum and c) showing a smaller vertical shift
from the green datum.
Page 6.41
6.12.3 Rate of change of datum over a CMP interval

Another factor that must be considered when choosing the size of the smoother
is the elevation change of the datum over the offset range of a CMP gather. We
require the datum to be as flat as possible over the range of a CMP gather. If
not, the elevation change of the datum will distort the shape of the moveout
curvature away from the desired hyperbolic shape as illustrated in Figure 6.29.
This figure shows CMP raypaths to the red and green floating datums and also
their effect on the on the shape of the moveout curve.
The green datum has significant elevation change over the offset range of the
CMP gather which distorts the moveout from the desired hyperbolic shape.
Consequence:
The elevation of the datum should be smooth across the width of the maximum
source receiver offset (spread length).
Rule of thumb 2:
A floating datum can be formed using a smoother that is much larger than the
spread length. The smoother may be:
a boxcar shape that is three to five spread lengths, or
a boxcar shape that is one spread length, but applied three to five times.
(Applying the same filter a number of times smoothes and broadens the
final filter shape.)
Once the floating datum is chosen, the vertical shift between the datum and
surface elevation is computed. If it falls within the acceptable limit of three to
five trace intervals, then conventional processing should be adequate.
If not, then additional processing should be considered.
Page 6.42
a)
b)
t
c)
d)
Figure 6.29 Illustrations of a) raypaths to the red datum, b) raypaths to the green
datum, c) moveout that tends to be hyperbolic, and d) moveout that is distorted
by the rapid elevation change of the green floating datum
The above processing datum is adequate for velocity analysis, DMO, and for
producing a stacked section. The datum used for CMP processing is not
adequate for migration. Using the above argument, a datum for migration should
be three to five times the migration aperture so that the assumed diffraction
shape remains hyperbolic.
The actual migration aperture is time varying, so the shallower portions of a
section may be adequately migrated, but the deeper parts of the section may
have significant distortions.
Page 6.43
6.12.4 Elevation statics

Elevation differences are typically corrected with a time shift that attempts to
move all the traces to a new surface position or datum. Figure 6.30 and Figure
6.31 illustrate two datums at the maximum and minimum elevations. In both
cases, the horizontal events are positioned correctly, but the diffractions are
miss-positioned.
Figure 6.30 shows the datum at the maximum elevation in (a) and the resultant
time section in (b). Note the large differences in the diffraction shapes. Which
diffraction will migrate correctly?
In Figure 6.31, the datum is placed at the minimum elevation (a) with the time
section in (b). Note again the large differences in the diffraction shapes and the
potential error in migration.
A datum chosen in the center would also correct the horizontal reflectors to
horizontal events in the time section, but the diffraction shapes are still misspositioned.
Miss positioning of the diffractions will create distortion in any migration.
Distortion of a diffraction is smallest when the datum is closest to the surface.
A rule of thumb for the size of elevation statics:

The amount of elevation change that can be tolerated with a simple vertical time
shift should be limited to approximately three or five trace intervals. Elevation
changes more than this may require wave equation datuming techniques.
Page 6.44
a)
b)
Figure 6.30 The maximum elevation datum in (a), and (b) the time section.
a)
b)
Figure 6.31 The minimum elevation datum in (a), and (b) the time section.
Page 6.45
6.12.5 Wave equation modelling datum

When there are a large difference between the surface and the datum, the
individual traces may be moved to a datum without distortion. This is referred to
as either wave equation datum modelling, or wave equation datum migration.
Consider Figure 6.32 in which the lower elevations have been filled in with
material of similar velocity. Data arriving at position "A" on the structure is
propagated as a wave front to the new datum at the maximum elevation.
The time shift is now accompanied by a distribution of energy to the neighboring
traces as illustrated in part (b). All the samples on the original time trace will be
distributed with this same shape. The shape is dependent on the amount of
elevation change.
The shape of the shallow reflection is now corrected to be compatible with the
deeper diffraction as indicated in part c, and the horizontal reflector is also a
horizontal reflection.
This is wave equation datum modelling.
The size of Kirchhoff operator is defined by the vertical shift and velocity at each
spatial position x. This operator will be the same for all times at this spatial
position.
When the datum is closer to the surface the energy dispersion will be smaller
and the processing time will be smaller. The processing time will be larger when
the datum is farther from the surface. Consequently bulk shifts should still be
delayed until after migration.
This discussion has been limited to poststack gathers [6], but a similar process
may be applied to prestack traces that disperse the energy of the receivers and
sources to the datum, [158] and [201]. Note that additional source locations will
be created and increase the data volume. Wave equation datuming may not be
practical for prestack 3-D data.
Page 6.46
a)
b)
x
c)
Figure 6.32 Wave equation datum modelling with (a) the geological structure, (b)
the shape of the dispersion diffraction, and (c) the time response at the new
datum.
Page 6.47
6.12.6 Wave equation migration datum

Removing all the material above the datum elevation as illustrated in Figure 6.33
may create a datum at the lowest elevation.
The results are similar to the previous example, but now the data is migrated
with the operator in part (b), to produce the results in part (c). Energy from the
surface will be gathered from the neighboring traces with varying time shifts as
indicated on the time section. All the samples on the resulting time trace will be
summed with this same shape and energy distribution that is similar to Kirchhoff
migration.
Accurate velocities are required to compute the travel-times, and Snell's law
should be obeyed. (This is in contrast to the modelling method where a constant
velocity may be used).
A combination of modelling and migration datuming would be more efficient,
however the modelling method is simpler as a constant velocity allows straight
raypaths.
This is wave equation datum migration.
The size of Kirchhoff operator is defined by the vertical shift and velocity at each
spatial position x. This operator will be the same for all time at each x location.
It should be noted that Snell's law causes raypaths close to the surface to be
nearly vertical, allowing the original replacement velocity method to achieve
reasonable results in marginal areas.
Page 6.48
b)
x
t
c)
Figure 6.33 Wave equation datum migration with (a) the geological structure, (b)
the shape of the summation diffraction, and (c) the time response at the new
datum.
Wave-equation datumming can be applied to zero-offset data and to shot (or

receiver) gathers where only the receivers (or shots) are downward continued.
In 3-D prestack shot record wave-equation datumming (and migration), energy
will move out of the vertical plane below the receivers into the 3-D volume
Page 6.49
6.12.7 Depth migration from irregular surfaces

Large elevation changes may be incorporated into the migration algorithm. Two
algorithms that can handle irregular surfaces are:
1. downward continuation
2. Kirchhoff.
The following depth migrations from an irregular surface assume that the data
has been processed (stacked) to surface (or to a floating datum) and that time
zero on all traces is at the surface (or floating datum).
Downward continuation depth migration from an irregular surface is illustrated
in Figure 6.34. The migration starts at the maximum elevation of the depth
model but only downward continues the band of traces that are below the
surface. As the depth of the downward level increases, more traces (in the time
section) will be included in the downward continuation band as indicated in (b).
At the lowest surface elevation, all traces will be downward continued.
As the traces in the band are downward continued, the energy in those traces
will propagate toward the surface. Thus, the higher elevation data that is lower
in the time section now moves to a shallower time. At the minimum elevation, all
time shifts due to elevation will have been removed.
If the migration was stopped at this point, the time section would be datum
corrected. However, the process usually continues to complete the depth
migration.
Some algorithms use a velocity of zero to represent the air in the depth model
and to signal the algorithm to ignore the downward continuation.
Kirchhoff depth migration from an irregular surface computes the travel-times
from the surface as illustrated in Figure 6.35 that shows wavefronts from two
surface locations. Travel-time maps generated at each surface location will
enable the times of the diffraction shape to be constructed for every depth
migrated sample.
The diffraction times contain all the distortion effects due to the irregular
surface. The appropriate filtering, weighting, and summing, of the data in the
time section (defined by the diffraction times) completes the migration for each
sample.
Page 6.50
V=0
Downward level
V=0
Downward level
Area on section
to be migrated
z
Area on section
to be migrated
Migrated
portion
Migrated
portion
a)
b)
Figure 6.34 Illustration of depth migrations from irregular surfaces showing a)

starting the downward continuation at maximum elevation, b) a lower depth level
and the corresponding increase in portion of the time section to be migrated.
Figure 6.35 Wave fronts on a depth section that are emitted from the surface for
a Kirchhoff depth migration.
Page 6.51
6.12.8 Time migration from irregular surfaces

Large elevation changes may also be incorporated into time migration (Beasley
[93] and [175]) as illustrated in Figure 6.36. This method is referred to as the
zero velocity layer.
Elevation statics are computed and applied by the normal method from a datum
with zero time at the maximum elevation. The surface is now defined by these
elevation statics on the time section. The velocity model (also modified by the
elevation statics) sets all velocities within the elevation statics to zero, similar to
the gray area as illustrated in (a). This zero velocity indicates to the downward
continuation algorithm to simply copy the previous layer.
The times on the left side have been pushed down and the horizontal events are
now horizontal again on the time section (b).
Downward continuation starts at the top of (b), but only traces on the right side
will be effected (as the velocity on the left is zero). Consequently, the diffraction
on the right side will be modified, and will gradually collapse towards its apex
while the diffraction on the left remains unaltered. When the downward
continuation level reaches the time of the lowest elevation (identified as Tmin), the
right diffraction will have collapsed to the shape of the left diffraction as
illustrated in (c).
At this time, the section has removed the time distortions due to elevation and
could be considered migrated to a datum at the lowest elevation. (The migration
time Tmin would be adjusted to zero).
Below the time of Tmin all the traces contain normal velocities and the migration
continues as normal, collapsing all diffractions to their apex.
Page 6.52
a)
b)
c)
Figure 6.36 Irregular surface time migration with (a) indicating the zero velocity
layer in yellow, (b) the time section with elevation statics, and (c) the time
section after downward continuation to the minimum elevation.
Page 6.53
6.12.9 Alternate view of downward continuation from surface

Margrave (personal communications) suggested that the recorded time section
be projected into the relative depths in the (x, z, t) volume. Migration would
continue in the normal manner by downward continuing data from one depth
level to another. The data projected downward to a new depth level would be
added to the original input data that is present at that level. This method does
require a volume of data from the maximum to the minimum elevation be held in
the (x, z, t) volume. When the depth level of the migration is below the minimum
elevation, only the regular number of layers used by the migration algorithm are
required to be stored in memory.
The projected surface of data from Figure 6.27b is illustrated in Figure 6.37a.
The volume is suitable for a depth migration that would proceed from the
maximum elevation.
Time migration requires vertical elevation statics to shift zero-time from the
surface to the maximum elevation as illustrated in Figure 6.37b that is similar to
the time data in Figure 6.36b. Downward continuation would collapse the
diffractions at the appropriate rate until they are below the minimum elevation.
Below the minimum elevation, diffractions from scatterpoints at the same
elevation, will have the same shape (assuming V(z) velocities).
The phase shift method of downward continuation is ideal for velocities V(z) that
vary only with depth. When the velocities vary laterally V(x, z), extension to the
phase shift method are require such as the phaseshift plus interpolation (PSPI)
method. Margrave [728] presented an alternate method for laterally varying
velocities. This method has also been adapted [729] for rugged topography and
is very efficient when the velocity is constant. The constant velocity allows very
large depth increments to be used, but when the surface to migration depth dx is
less than the depth increment Dx, only the smaller depth increment dx is used for
the migration as illustrated in Figure 6.34a.
Page 6.54
t
x
Dx
dx
a)
t
x
z
Static
b)
Figure 6.37 Migration volumes (x, z, t) containing a projection of the stacked
section onto a depth surface for a) a depth migration, and b) a time migration in
which the data corrected with a vertical static from the surface to the maximum
elevation.
Page 6.55
6.13 Example problem on recording time and aperture
Figure 6.38 Construction for migration aperture example.

The grid is 500 by 500 meters, and the velocity is constant at 3000 m/s.
a)
How far does the line need to be extended to image the dipping line?
b)
How much farther does the line need to be extended if the end of the event
at Z is a discontinuity and is required to be imaged with a migration
algorithm up to 80 degrees?
c)
How much farther again, does the line need to be extended to build the
line up to full fold at the farthest point of interest?
d)
What is the required recording time in seconds for each of the above?
The use of constant velocities give some interesting results. We should be

grateful for Snells law, which would reduce the values computed above.
Page 6.56
Work page.
Page 6.57
Points to note in Chapter 6
Side swipe and oblique reflectors cause trouble for 2-D seismic, but not for 3D seismic.
Fresnel zones only apply to seismic sections before migration.
Migration lowers the frequency of dipping events.
Caution should be used when filtering after migration.
Recording times and aperture length need to be computed for structured

sections.
Seismic projects with large elevation changes require some form of wave
equation datuming, or a special migration from surface.
Migration should be computed with a flat datum as close to the surface as

possible.
Move data to the project datum after migration.
Decon should be performed after migration. Migration removes noise and the
bandwidth of the signal to noise ratio increases. This allows deconvolution
to increase the bandwidth and improve the resolution.
Page 6.58

6 Special Topics

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6

Identify problems with side swipe and oblique reflectors.

Understand Fresnel zones and how they relate to migration.

Know that migration lowers the frequency of dipping events.

Define recording times and aperture length for structured sections.

Know that migration should be computed as close to the surface as possible.

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

6.1 Special topics

Moving window migration ..............................................................................................6.4

Side swipe .................................................................................................................................................6.6

Oblique reflectors .........................................................................................................................6.8

Overlapping reflections ..................................................................................................6.10

Recording times and migration aperture .......................................... 6.12

Lateral resolution and Fresnel zones ...................................................... 6.16

Migration of spatially aliased data ................................................................6.22

Aliasing in time to depth conversions ................................................... 6.32

Frequency changes due to migration ..................................................... 6.34

Cascaded migration ..............................................................................................................6.36

Surface elevation, datums, and migration ...................................... 6.38

Example problem on recording time and aperture ........... 6.56

Chapter 6 Special Topics

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

Moving window migration

The migration of large data sets may be limited by computer memory.

The process is repeated until the original input section is migrated.

Figure 6.1 Moving window migration.

An extreme example of this would be the case of Kirchhoff migration in which

Chapter 6 Special Topics

The following Figure 6.2 is an example to illustrate a potential wrap around

The dip AB is migrated to the null traces on the right.

The dip CD is wrapped completely around to reappear in the section close to

These problems should not be a factor in current processing as memory is very

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

6.3 Side swipe

This problem is eliminated by using 3-D seismic projects.

Chapter 6 Special Topics

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

6.4 Oblique reflector

and should not be confused with dip corrections.

3-D seismic eliminates this problem.

Prestack processing should include DMO to optimally stack oblique reflector

Chapter 6 Special Topics

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

6.5 Overlapping reflections

Chapter 6 Special Topics

Figure 6.5 Overlapping dips on a seismic section.

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

6.6 Recording time and migration aperture

Figure 6.6 Construction for defining recording time requirements.

Chapter 6 Special Topics

and tabulated in table 6.1.

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

Dips of 90 degrees are only possible at the surface.

Chapter 6 Special Topics

spatial aliasing, the straight line from equation (3.23),

the migration aperture given by equation (6.2), and

the maximum recording time given by equation (6.4).

Migration dip limit

Figure 6.8 Limit on migration angle b as a function of depth when considering

An early reference on dip limitations was given by Lynn [692].

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

6.7 Lateral resolution and Fresnel zones

the migration algorithm, and extent of the diffraction or migration aperture,

the frequency content of the data.