MAHIGA IRRIGATION SCHEME EARTHFILL EMBANKMENT FAILURE

CAUSED BY DAM BREACH AND ITS MAINTANANCE

INTRODUCTION
The water stored behind a dam represents potential energy which can create a
hazard to lives and property located downstream of it.

To minimize the risk

associated with the storage of water a dam must be properly designed, constructed,
operated, and maintained.
BACKGROUND THEORY
An embankment dam is a massive artificial dam. It is typically created by the
placement and compaction of a complex semi-plastic mound of various compositions
of soil, sand, clay and/or rock. It has a semi-pervious waterproof natural covering for
its surface and a dense, impervious core. This makes such a dam impervious to
surface or seepage erosion. Such a dam is composed of fragmented independent
material particles. The friction and interaction of particles binds the particles
together into a stable mass rather than by the use of a cementing substance.
Embankment dams come in two common types: the earth-filled dam (also called an
earthen dam or terrain dam and Mahiga Irrigation Scheme is of this type) made of
compacted earth, and the rock-filled dam. A cross-section of an embankment dam
shows a shape like a bank, or hill. Most have a central section or core composed of
an impermeable material to stop water from seeping through the dam. The core can
be of clay, concrete, or asphalt concrete. This dam type is a good choice for sites with
wide valleys. They can be built on hard rock or softer soils. For a rock-fill dam, rockfill is blasted using explosives to break the rock. Additionally, the rock pieces may
need to be crushed into smaller grades to get the right range of size for use in an
embankment dam.
SOME CAUSES OF FAILURE OF EARTHFILL DAMS
There is no real single reason which can cause the failure of the earth dam
embankment. Mahiga Irrigation Scheme embankment failure was mainly caused by
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the flooding of the dam which caused overflow which eventually leads to
embankment failure causing the part of the embankment to be completely eroded
lead to out flow of reserved water.
Like most of engineering structures, earth dams may fail due to faulty design,
improper construction and poor maintenance practices, etc.
Failures due to stresses developed within structure.
Arch dams fail instantaneously, whereas the gravity dams take some multiples of 10
minutes.A study of dam failures in the world has revealed the percentage
distribution of dam breaks and its attributes causes of failure (Table)

Table: Causes of failures

Cause of failure

Cause of failure

Foundation problems

40 %

Inadequate spillway

23 %

Poor construction

12 %

a)

Uneven settlement

10 %

b)

High pore pressure

5%

Acts of war

3%

Embankment slips

2%

Defective materials

2%

Incorrect operations

2%

Earthquakes

1%

The

c)

a)

various causes of failure;

Hydraulic failure
Seepage failure
Structural failure

Hydraulic failure:

Hydraulic accounts for over 40% of earth dam failure and may be due to one or more
of

the

following:

i) By overtopping: When free board of dam or capacity of spillway is insufficient, the

flood water will pass over the dam and wash it downstream.
ii). Erosion of downstream toe: The toe of the dam at the downstream side may be
eroded due to i) heavy cross-current from spillway buckets, or ii) tail water. When
the toe of downstream is eroded, it will lead to failure of dam. This can be prevented
by providing a downstream slope pitching or a riprap up to a height above the tail
water depth Also, the side wall of the spillway should have sufficient height and
length to prevent possibility of cross flow towards the earth embankment.
iii) Erosion of upstream surface: During winds, the waves developed near the top
water surface may cut into the soil of upstream dam face which may cause slip of
the upstream surface leading to failure. For preventing against such failure, the
upstream face should be protected with stone pitching or riprap
iv). Erosion of downstream face by gully formation: During heavy rains, the flowing
rain water over the downstream face can erode the surface, creating gullies, which
could lead to failure. To prevent such failures, the dam surface should be properly

maintained; all cuts filled on time and surface well grassed. Berms could be
provided at suitable heights and surface well drained.

Figure; Beginning of downstream failure

b). Seepage failure:

Seepage always occurs in the dams. If the magnitude is within design limits, it may
not harm the stability of the dam. However, if seepage is concentrated or
uncontrolled beyond limits, it will lead to failure of the dam. Following are some of
the various types of seepage failure.
i) Piping through dam body. When seepage starts through poor soils in the body of
the dam, small channels are formed which transport material downstream. As more
materials are transported downstream, the channels glow bigger and bigger which
could lead to wash out of dam

ii) Piping through foundation: When highly permeable cavities or fissures or strata
of gravel or coarse sand are present in the dam foundation, it may lead to heavy
seepage. The concentrated seepage at high rate will erode soil which will cause
increase flow of water and soil. As a result, the dam will settle or sink leading to
failure.

Backward erosion (piping)

For erosion that starts at the exit point, backward erosion develops a continuous
passage when the seepage gradient exceeds the flotation gradient of the soil
(Brown and Bridle, 2008).

Backward erosion

iii) Sloughing of downstream side of dam:

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The process of failure due to sloughing starts when the downstream toe of the dam
becomes saturated and starts getting eroded, causing small slump or slide of the
dam. The small slide leaves a relative steep face, which also becomes saturated due
to seepage and also slumps again and forms more unstable surface. The process of
saturation and slumping continues, leading to failure of dam.

c) Structural Failure:
About 25% of failure is attributed to structural failure, which is mainly due to shear
failure causing slide along the slopes. The failure may be due to:
i) Slide in embankment: When the slopes of the embankments are too steep, the
embankment may slide causing failure. This might happen when there is a sudden
drawdown, which is critical for the upstream side because of the development of
extremely high pore pressures, which decreases the shearing strength of the soil.
The downstream side can also slide especially when dam is full. Upstream
embankment failure is not as serious as downstream failure.
ii) Foundation slide: When the foundation of an earthfill dam is composed of fine
silt, clay, or similar soft soil, the whole dam may slide due to water thrust. If seams
of fissured rocks, such as soft clay, or shale exist below the foundation, the side
thrust of the water pressure may shear the whole dam and cause its failure. In such
failure the top of the dam gets cracked and subsides, the lower slopes moves
outward and forms large mud waves near the dam heel.
iii) Faulty construction and poor maintenance: When during construction, the
compaction of the embankment is not properly done, it may lead to failure.
iv) Earthquake may cause the following types of failure to earthfill dams;
1 Cracks may develop in the core wall, causing leakages and piping failure.
2. Slow waves may set up due to shaking of reservoir bottom, and dam may fail due
to Overtopping
3. Settlement of dam which may reduce freeboard causing failure by overtopping
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4. Sliding of natural hills causing damage to dam and its appurtenant structures
5. Fault movement in the dam site reducing reservoir capacity and causing
overtopping.
6. Shear slide of dam
7. The sand below foundation may liquefy
8. Failure of slope pitching.

Other failures
i.

Animal activity

Problems arise with the management of animals who regularly inhabit earth
embankments and create burrows or tracks that affect the structure. Burrows
within the embankment can cause weakness, increase hydraulic gradients and, in
extreme cases, form holes through the dam. Tracks or scrapes on the surface can
encourage infiltration of rainwater. Animal activity can also result in failure of by
wash channels.

Pattern of animal activity.

ii.

Vegetation

Vegetation growing on the upstream face or on the crest can damage waveprotection
or penetrate waterproof membranes. Trees or other deep-rooted plants grow on the
downstream face of the embankment. The roots can penetrate the core and cause
flow concentration if the crest is overtopped. Falling trees can cause damage; rotting
roots and stumps can leave voids. Other vegetation on the downstream face, if not
maintained, can obscure inspection and promote animal infestation.

Damage caused by vegetation.

iii.

Features on the downstream face

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Features such as sharp changes in geometry, public highways, paths, steps, seats,
sculptures, ponds, walls, hedges, watermains or other services that exist on the
downstream face obscure inspection and cause flow concentration if the crest is
overtopped. Buildings are sometimes constructed on the downstreamface.

Damage caused by vegetation.

iv.

Blockage of spillway

The spillway is blocked by floating debris such as trees or ice, or by screens that can
become blocked. Blockage is sometimes the result of vandalism. Blockage of the
spillway can result in increased flood rise in the reservoir and overtopping of the
dam.

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Spillway blockage

v.

Inadequate energy dissipation

The energy dissipation arrangement at the end of a spillway has insufficient

capacity to reduce the energy in the water to a safe level before it passes into the
receiving watercourse. This can result in scour to the toe of the embankment or the
river downstream. This can be occur because of an undersized or non-existent
stilling basin, or because the tailwater conditions are different from those assumed
in the design. Inadequate energy dissipation is not restricted to the toe of the
spillway, and scour or erosional features can also develop further up the structure.

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Effect of inadequate energy dissipation

vi.

Out-of-channel flow in spillway

Water is not contained in the spillway channel when it overflows from the reservoir.
This can cause erosion of the embankment if the spillway channel is located close to
it. Out-of-channel flow may be caused by the size of the channel, its gradient, steps
or pools, obstructions, super elevation, cross waves or bulking through air
entrainment.

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Out-of-channel flow in spillway

vi. Overflow capacity exceeded
The overflow or spillway at the dam has insufficient hydraulic capacity to pass the
design flood and maintain adequate freeboard. This can result in overtopping of the
crest and damage to the dam.

vii.

Deterioration of core

Puddle clay, asphaltic or concrete cores in embankment dams can deteriorate

because of differential settlement, uneven loading, chemical or other attack. This
can lead to cracking and the development of seepage paths.

13

Core deterioration

viii. Chemical attack on fill or rockfill

Fill or rockfill may deteriorate and breakdown as a result of:
Attack by sulphates in soils, sulphate-bearing waters, very soft pure water, acidic
water and seawater;
Aggressive agents of industrial origin;
By the action of frost in freezing and thawing;
Cracking because of thermal movements, as well as shrinkage and moisture
movement.

ix.

Blocked drains and relief wells

Blockage of drains or relief wells so they no longer carry out their design function to
control uplift pressure. This can affect the stability of concrete and embankment
dams.

x.

Blocked screens

Screens on the upstream end of draw-off or scour pipes become blocked,

whichreduces flow capacity.

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Effect of blocked screens

xi.

Other damage to ancillary structures

Damage to or deterioration of ancillary structures, accidental or deliberate, that

results in them not being able to carry out their intended function.
Examples:
Draw-off towers can be displaced by unbalanced forces from embankment
movement, which cause cracking that can be transmitted to pipework;
Tunnels and pipes can be cracked by foundation settlement;
Spillway gates can be damaged by floating logs;
Corrosion of bolts, valves and bearings;
Graphitisation of cast-iron pipes;
Closure of spillway gates not possible because of a reduced gap between piers
(caused by concrete expansion that arises from ASR);
Cracking of tunnels caused by differential settlement and potential collapse.

15

Damage to the ancillary structure

xii.

Failure of controls, valves or gates

The control system or valves fail to operate as required. This can result in no
flow or uncontrolled flow. Failure of a control gate to open or close as required to
control water level.
Examples:
Failure of a spillway crest gate to open during storm conditions that result in
flood-water levels higher than designed.
Failure of an off-stream storage reservoir control gate to close during inflow
conditions that result in stored water levels higher than designed.
Obstruction to gate operation that results in failure of the control gate.

xiii. Local run-off on mitre that results in erosion

Run-off from natural ground concentrated at the mitre of the dam, on the upstream
or downstream side. This can cause local erosion.
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Local run-off on mitre that results in erosion

xiv. Failure of bywash channels

Bywash channels often have a bund of natural ground or fill that separates them
from the reservoir and embankment dam. This bund may be narrow and susceptible
to instability, deterioration and damage by animals, trees and erosion. The bywash
itself may be susceptible to blockage by vegetation debris or sediments. Loss of
bywash may result in additional loading on the spillway.

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Failure of bywash channels

xv.

Wave attack on upstream face

Wind-generated waves on the reservoir cause loading on the dam or wave wall.
Waves can vary with location on the dam and can be concentrated by structures in
the reservoir or trees that grow on the crest or upstream face. Waves can cause
erosion damage of the slope protection and structural damage to wave walls.

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Wave attack on upstream face

xvi. Wave carry-over and wave slop (wave overtopping)

The water from the crest of waves that flows or is blown over the top of the dam
insufficient quantity to cause problems on the crest or the downstream face.
Source: Institution of Civil Engineers (1996)

Wave carry-over and wave slop

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xvi. Wave-wall inadequacy

Insufficient height or extent to protect against waves during the design storm
with concurrent wind speed.
Inadequate strength to withstand the loading from waves.

Inadequacy of wave wall

xvii. Crest fissuring or rutting

Deterioration of the crest through either drying out of the fill material, which
results in cracking, and/or rutting caused by traffic. The effect of wetting in the
winter and drying in the summer can exacerbate.

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Crest fissuring or rutting

xviii. Controlled holding of water at a lower level

Controlled holding of water at a lower level

To control or maintain the water in the reservoir at a low level for an extended
period for operational or hydrological reasons can lead to drying, shrinkage and
cracking of a homogeneous clay embankment or clay core, which results in leakage
paths when it is refilled.

xix. Exceeding intended design loads in use of dam or ancillary

structures
Deliberate or accidental act by a person that affects the ability of

components of a

dam to perform satisfactorily. Examples:

Exceed crest-load restriction and so cause failure of a wave wall;
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 Removal of riprap, which causes concentrated wave erosion;

R-eplacement of a life-expired valve with one of unsuitable design;
Modification of a spillway that results in undesirable flow conditions.

Design loads of dam or ancillary structures exceeded.

xx.

Earthquake loading

Earthquake loading on dams caused by seismic events, usually defined by a peak

ground acceleration. Seismic events cause a ground motion with shaking to which
structures respond in different ways:
The overall stability of the dam may be reduced;
The shaking may cause settlement of embankment dams with reduced
freeboard;
Ancillary structures may be damaged;
Foundation settlement may take place because of volume reduction or
liquefaction.
MODE OF FAILURES

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i.Catastrophic overtopping.
Uncontrolled flow over the dam crest.

Catastrophic overtopping
ii. Dam breach
Uncontrolled flow of water though the dams main structure, which includes its
foundation.

Dam breach
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iii. Foundation failure of concrete dam

Ultimate failure of concrete dam foundation or abutments because design loads or
exceeded or through loss of foundation strength.

Foundation failure of concrete dam (Durham University).

iv. Foundation failure of embankment dam
Ultimate failure of embankment dam foundations because design loads are
exceeded or through loss of foundation strength.

Foundation failure of embankment dam

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iv. Instability of concrete dam

Concrete dam slides or topples because design loads are exceeded.

Instability of concrete dam (Natural Resources Canada).

v. Instability of embankment dam
One or more slips occur within the embankment because design loads are
exceeded or through a reduction in shear strength of embankment-fill materials
over time.

25

26

Instability

of

embankment

dam

Instability of downstream shoulder of dam (North Carolina

Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 2009).
vi. Overflow failure
Overflow or spillway is unable to contain flow during flooding and uncontrolled flow
results. Structural failure may occur.

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Flood event of June 2005 that resulted spillway damage at Boltby

Reservoir

vii. Structural failure of embankment dam (load exceeded)

Ultimate failure of embankment dam structure because design loads are exceeded
and/or through deterioration of embankment-fill materials over time.

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Structural failure of embankment dam (load exceeded).

vii. Uncontrolled flow because of appurtenant works failure
Structural failure of one or more appurtenant works occurs because of a change in
load conditions or deterioration of works over time that results in the uncontrolled
release of water.
viii. Uncontrolled seepage
Uncontrolled passage of water through, underneath or around a dam.
Monitoring and measuring techniques for
different indicators
The techniques that can be used to check for the indicator these
are categorised in terms of:
Deformations
Pore-water pressures
Earth pressure in core
Seepage and leakage
Structural integrity

Methods to monitor and measure embankment

Dams.
Commonly used methods
Methods identified in responses to the questionnaire as being worthwhile are:
Regular surveillance
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 Seepage-flow monitoring
Visual, crest levelling
Telemetry
Piezometers
Inclinometers
Water line rainfall monitoring.
Other.

Crest levelling
For most dams, measurements of surface displacements are limited to settlement of
the crest using precise levelling and surveying techniques. Routine monitoring of
embankment deformations is important to assess long-term behaviour, evaluate
safety and quantify potential hazards. Accuracies of 12 mm can be achieved using
levelling.
When total station instruments are used, accuracies can increase significantly.
This is a low-cost exercise compared with measuring movements in plan. The
problem with crest levelling is to establish reference benchmarks that do not move.

Precise surveying whole embankment

Deformation of embankments is an important indicator of field performance.
Settlement or heave of dam crests is the most common parameter monitored or
measured.
Horizontal displacements near the toe of an embankment are particularly useful
where the slope stability is of concern. Horizontal displacements are not measured
frequently at the crest or on the slopes.
A reasonably wide choice of instrumentation, measurement systems and surveying
techniques is available (theodolites, optical levels, photogrammetry and electronic
distance measurement).
Modern survey equipment can be linked to computers either directly or remotely,
which provides rapid and reliable measurements. Accuracies are usually within a
few millimetres, but are dependent on a variety of factors such as type of
instrument, repeatability of instrument positions, long-term stability of reference
points, competence of survey staff and meteorological conditions during the
measurements.
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Survey equipment can also be set up as permanent geodetic networks, such as at

Queen Mother Reservoir where a network was set up to measure surface movement.

Remote sensing satellite, LiDAR, aerial photos

Modern satellite monitoring technologies with application for deformation
monitoring include global positioning systems (GPS) and permanent scatterer
synthetic aperture radar interferometry (PS InSAR).
The use of GPS in day-to-day life has increased rapidly; accuracies have also
improved. GPS can facilitate automatic monitoring of embankments by establishing
permanent stations. Accuracies to a millimetre or less can be achieved. The degree
ofprecision, however, is dependent on dam location, as satellite links are affected by
topography and vegetation. GPS is relatively expensive, with high costs associated
with both the receivers and data processing. Automated, robotic total-station
measurements controlled by established telemetry systems, such as Geomos, may be
a less expensive option (www.leica-geosystems.com).
The latest PS InSAR satellite monitoring equipment is capable of detecting the
movement of embankments very accurately; however, it depends on detecting
scatterers in the radar scene, which tend to be hard features, such as concrete
edges, rather than soft features, such as grass-covered earth. It is also used to
detect vertical rather than horizontal movements, and so does not necessarily
provide all the information required. The resolution of the SAR data is critical.
Infoterra carried out some preliminary testing on data from the TerraSAR-X
satellite. This year there were developments with acquiring cost-effective higher (1
mm) resolution SAR data from airborne platforms (see www.metasensing.com).
Currently, in the UK PS InSAR is only used on one reservoir (Crichton, 2007).
LiDAR can be used to capture rapidly the geometry of complex hydraulic structures
in a high-quality, digital format using terrestrial laser scanning data-acquisition
techniques.
There is evidence for the use of high-resolution LiDAR to monitor groundmovement, stability of river banks and embankments, and for coastal monitoring,
where different geometric surfaces are generated from the data over a period of
time. Applications to monitor reservoir embankments appear to be limited; this is
likely to be an area for further R&D.
Sighting rods

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Sighting rods have long-standing application in engineering as a method to

determine straight lines, reference points and establish the correct geometry for
engineering structures. Nowadays, they are more likely to be used in conjunction
with modern survey equipment, such as levels and theodolites, to determine
deformations in a structure such as a dam.

Other
Additional monitoring techniques include laser scanners combined with digital
cameras, which are being developed and refined. According to Boavida et al. (2008),
the use of such combined terrestrial imaging systems provides accurate and very
dense threedimensional numerical models, as well as spatially continuous, highresolution redgreen- blue (RGB) information of objects such as embankments. These
techniques provide a huge amount of geometric and radiometric well-structured
data in a short period of time. As yet, there is no evidence of real-life application of
such techniques for dam and embankment monitoring, although there is much
potential. The shape of the earth embankment at Cheshunt North Reservoir has
been monitored since 2002 using total-station observations, so research to compare
total station and laser scanning techniques at this site may be useful.
Boavida et al. (2008) found that, with regards to earth or embankment dam
monitoring, sub-centimetre positional accuracy was achieved. However, it is
expected that the accuracy will improve with advances in laser technology.
Crack meters and joint meters can be used to measure deformations. They include
displacement transducers to measure one-dimensional displacement between two
points that are experiencing separation, or sometimes closure. The devices were
found to be robust, reliable, accurate and easy to install and read. They are typically
electrically operated and can facilitate continuous, remote monitoring in real time.
This can be useful for relating movement to environmental factors. Three-axis
versions of the equipment are available and capable of taking orthogonal movement
measurements.

Electro-levels
Electro-levels are a type of transducer within electronic tilt-meters that measure the
degree of tilt monitored by the sensors in the tilt-meter. The use of electro-levels in
existing dams is limited, but they were used to monitor movement during conducted
and first filling at dams in the UK and overseas. Specialist contractors are required
to installation and monitoring. They could be linked to an alarm system, as in other
32

civil engineering structures. Although based on an electrical system their long-term

reliability can be good, with reliable measurements for over 10 years. They can be
used to measure movement remotely, but there is a low level of knowledge and
guidance is probably required.

Inclinometers
Inclinometers comprise tubes, which are installed in boreholes, and reading devices,
which are either lowered into the tubes to take readings or integrated within the
tubing. They are installed at a limited number of existing dams where there are
concerns about continuing movements. The data provide confidence that the dam is
behaving satisfactorily. Inclinometers are potentially useful for monitoring, but
there are concerns over repeatability and precision and they could pose more
questions than answers. Furthermore, inclinometers may be expensive to install
and monitor.

Magnet settlement gauges

Magnet settlement gauges, also known as magnet extensometers, are installed in
vertical boreholes to measure settlement at different depths. With the appropriate
equipment accuracies of 1 mm can be achieved. The long-term reliability is good.
Where surface settlement is measured or observed they are used to determine the
location of the settlement. This proved very valuable in a study of the effect of
drawdown settlements at an apparent sinkhole (Tedd et al. 2002). The system is
essentially mechanical and, with care, measurement of better than 1 mm accuracy
can be achieved. The longevity of the system is good, with observations taken at
some sites for over 10 years.
Extensometers are considered useful during construction, but not particularly
helpful for routine monitoring.

Slip indicators
Slip indicators are simple installations used to estimate the level at which a
(suspected) discrete lateral displacement, such as a shear surface, occurs. As the
name suggests, they provide an idea of the upper and lower bounds of lateral
displacements and are not considered highly accurate. As a result, slip indicators
are useful to determine the existence of a problem where it is suspected, but they
are not used extensively for routine monitoring.
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Safety of the dam

The building of a dam and the filling of the reservoir behind it places a new weight
on the floor and sides of a valley. The stress of the water increases linearly with its
depth. Water also pushes against the upstream face of the dam, a non-rigid
structure that under stress behaves semi-plastically, and causes greater need for
adjustment (flexibility) near the base of the dam than at shallower water levels.
Thus the stress level of the dam must be calculated in advance of building to ensure
that its break level threshold is not exceeded.
Overtopping or overflow of an embankment dam beyond its spillway capacity will
cause its eventual failure. The erosion of the dam's material by overtopping runoff
will remove masses of material whose weight holds the dam in place and against the
hydraulic forces acting to move the dam. Even a small sustained overtopping flow
can remove thousands of tons of overburden soil from the mass of the dam within
hours. The removal of this mass unbalances the forces that stabilize the dam
against its reservoir as the mass of water still impounded behind the dam presses
against the lightened mass of the embankment, made lighter by surface erosion. As
the mass of the dam erodes, the force exerted by the reservoir begins to move the
entire structure. The embankment, having almost no elastic strength, would begin
to break into separate pieces, allowing the impounded reservoir water to flow
between them, eroding and removing even more material as it passes through. In
the final stages of failure the remaining pieces of the embankment would offer
almost no resistance to the flow of the water and continue to fracture into smaller
and smaller sections of earth and/or rock until these would disintegrates into a
thick mud soup of earth, rocks and water.
Therefore, safety requirements for the spillway are high, and require it to be capable
of containing a maximum flood stage. It is common for its specifications to be
written such that it can contain a five hundred year flood. Recently a number of
embankment dam overtopping protection systems have been developed. These
techniques include the concrete overtopping protection systems, timber cribs, sheetpiles, riprap and gabions, reinforced earth, minimum energy loss weirs,
embankment overflow stepped spillways and the precast concrete block protection
systems.
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MAINTANANCE OF EARTHFILL EMBANKMENT CAUSED BY DAM BREACH

Dam Breaching,The spontaneous release of water from a barrier built to hold back
the flow of water.

Embankment
The embankment is the primary part of the dam. It is the section which impounds
the lake and holds the water for its intended purpose.
Earthfill embankments fall into two main classifications: homogeneous and zoned.
A homogeneous embankment is composed essentially of the same material
throughout while a zoned embankment is divided into zones of materials having
different strength-deformation and hydraulic characteristics.
Most embankment dams exhibit zoning to some degree with a compacted clayey
material forming a relatively impermeable zone for minimizing seepage through the
embankment.

To control the seepage through the embankment that occurs,

chimney drains, drainage blankets, toe drains, rock toes, or relief wells are included
in the design.

All of the seepage control systems provide for discharging or

controlling the seepage water in a safe manner while preventing the loss of
embankment material.
The dimensions of the dam depend on the purpose and the hazard potential
classification of the structure.

The steepness of the slopes is a function of the

material used in construction but is also affected by foundation conditions, type of

maintenance and access capability. The top of the dam must be at an elevation
sufficient to safely pass the design storm with adequate freeboard.
The slopes of the embankment must be vegetated to protect them from the erosive
effects of rain. The upstream slope must also have protection against wave action.
This protection is usually accomplished by using a rock blanket (riprap), soil
stabilization, or by the construction of a berm (flattened slope at normal pool).

Condition to fill
35

i.
ii.

Soil has to be of the same as that of the embankment to fit the

compaction.
Terraces/stairs should be made since it prevents sliding of soil during and
after soil compaction. Stairs assist the fitness of the compacted soil and

iii.

the existing soil on an embankment.

Soil should not have organic matters e.g. humus thus preventing soil
shrinkage or easy cracking of the earthfill embankment.

EARTHFILL MAINTANANCE PROCEDURES CAUSED BY DAM BREACH

i.
ii.

Observe the eroded embankment part.

Demarcate the area to be rehabilitated by measuring the required

iii.
iv.

terraces/stairs.
Dig up and remove unnecessary soil on the eroded embankment.
Extend the gap of embankment from down upward by considering the

v.

dimension and type of soil to be filled.

Fill the soil from the base of the gape of embankment and compact the soil

vi.

by using special machine or any compressors.

Keep on filling the soil while compacting until the soil is filled up to the
original level of embankment. Both side slopes (external and internal

vii.

slopes) of the embankment should be resembled (the slope ratio).

Then refill the layer of the internal slope by thick gravel/graded filler

viii.

followed by the layer of thick stone pitching.

Finally plant grass on the external slope of the earthfill embankment to
prevent soil erosion especially during rainfall season.

CONCLUTION
Irrigation scheme is very important not only to Mahiga Villege farmers but also
to different other regions in our country especially to the irrigation potential
regions and those regions with less rainfall season, dam may be used during dry
season and also even in rainfall season especially when it found the rainfall to
become scarcity during wet season. The knowledge of prevention of dam failure
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before the full embankment failure is needed among the professional especially
engineers to reduce or complete solving of the problem, government should pay
attention on this. Dam failure should also be maintained immediately so that the
dam breach should not much expand which will result to complex maintenance
and increase rehabilitation cost.
In Tanzania, the government should have to train much engineers and the
knowledge should also fall much on the use of modern equipment (scientific
equipment) which will lead to proper detection of fault hence solving of the dam
failure caused by embankment destruction.

REFERENCES:
1. Handout; Mwanza Irrigation Zone.
2. Allsop W (2007). Failure mechanisms for flood defence assets, FLOOD site
report T04-06-01, Edition 1, www.floodsite.net.
3. Arah R M (1975). Investigations, problems and remedial works at Withens
Clough, Inspection, Operation and Improvement of Existing Dams.
4. Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Vol. 3, pp 10091012, Oxford and
IBH Publishing Co, Delhi.
5. Online;www.env.gov.bc.ca/wsd/public_safety/dam.../inspection.pdf
on Nov. 21th, 2015)
6. Online; www.gbra.org/documents (visited on Nov 21th, 2015)

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(accessed