DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS

(DOE)

Reference Materail

STATISTICALLY DESIGNED EXPERIMENTS

A statistically designed experiment permits
simultaneous consideration of all the possible
factors that are suspected to have bearing on the
quality problem under investigation and as such
even if interactions effect exist, a valid evaluation of
the main effect can be made. Scanning a large
number of variables is one of the ready and simpler
objectives that a statistically designed experiment
would fulfill in many problem situations.

Even a limited number of experiments would enable
the experimenter to uncover the vital factors as
which further trials would yield useful results. The
approach has number of merits, it is quick, reliable
and efficient.
Reference Materail

Objectives Of Experimentation

The following are some of the objectives of

experimentation in an industry :
 Improving efficiency or yield
 Finding optimum process settings
 Locating sources of variability
 Correlating process variables with product
characteristics
 Comparing different processes, machines,
materials etc
 Designing new processes and products.

Reference Materail

NEED FOR DESIGNED EXPERIMENT

A design engineer is interested in studying the effect Bronze and

Synthetic material on life of Bush.
Here, the objective is to determine the material that produces the
maximum life (minimum wear) for this particular Bush.
The procedure thought of by the engineer is to make a number of Bush
specimens with each material and to measure the life of the specimens
after running the pump.
The results thus obtained will be averaged and the average life of the
specimens made with each material will be used to determine which
material is best.

Reference Materail

NEED FOR DESIGNED EXPERIMENT

As we think about the experiment, a number of important
questions come to mind:
a) Are these two materials the only materials of potential interest?
b) Are there any other factors that might affect life that should be
investigated or controlled in this experiment?
c) How many specimens of Bush should be tested with each other
material?
d) How should the specimens be made with different materials and in
what order should the data be collected?
e) What method of data analysis should be used?
f) What difference in average observed life between the two materials
will be considered important?
All of these questions and perhaps many others will have to be
satisfactorily answered before the experiment is performed.
Reference Materail

PROOF OF THE NEED FOR EXPERIMENTATION

 After having selected the area for experimentation we
have to ensure that the problem is of Break through
or Improvement nature and not a problem of control
nature. For this purpose past data should be suitably
analyzed and plotted on some process control chart to
check whether the process is within statistical control
or not. If the analysis shows lack of control or
statistical instability, then it is a problem of control
nature and experimentation may not be needed.
 However if the problem is of chronic nature and there
is stability in the process, then it establishes the need
for experimentation. Before deciding to carry out
experimentation the need for experimentation must be
established.
Reference Materail

IF CONTROL ONLY IS YOUR PROBLEM

WE SEEK ANSWERS TO THE FOLLOWING

QUESTIONS
 Which Xs are important ?
 Are they controllable ?
 Do they change
(assignable) ?

Reference Materail

by

chance

or

by

intent

IF CONTROLLABLE AND CHANGE BY CHANCE

E.g: You find that finish (Y) deteriorates with time.

You find that this is because of Tool Wear.
Does the tool wear by chance
Do you have some control over the above - yes,
by changing the tool
In all such cases where X changes by chance
but some control is exercisable

USE CONTROL CHARTS ON YOUR Y

Reference Materail

IF CONTROLLABLE AND CHANGE BY CHANCE

While using control charts

 Clearly document what is to be checked
 When is it to be checked
 If a point goes out of limits what Xs to be
checked for
 As far as possible put all Xs in order of
priority
IN CONTROL PHASE YOU WILL SEE THIS IN
DETAIL
Reference Materail

IF CONTROLLABLE & CHANGE BY INTENT

E.g.: Supplier of sheets for vacuum forming

process is
an important factor for shift of
mean.
The change in material on line is done by intent
and knowingly.
In such cases where you know when a critical X
has changed levels. Find the optimum setting of
the process for each level of the X.

D.O.E. IS THE TOOL FOR IT

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10

IF VARIATION IS OUR PROBLEM

Find at what level each of the X has

to be set on i.e. the optimum process
settings.
D.O.E. is the tool for it

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11

Design of experiments
Design of experiments (DOE) is a valuable tool to
optimize product and process designs, to accelerate
the development cycle, to reduce development costs,
to improve the transition of products from research
and development to manufacturing and to effectively
trouble shoot manufacturing problems. Today,
Design of Experiments is viewed as a quality
technology to achieve product excellence at lowest
possible overall cost.

Reference Materail

12

Traditional approach
One-factor-At-A-Time
This is a traditional method of experimentation which tests, then changes, one factor
at a time to allow for observation and comparison. Note on the example below, all 8
factors are varied one-at-a-time . It is efficient because it takes only 16 runs.
A1 and A2 are evaluated by comparing Result - 1 and Result - 2
B1, B2 and B3 are evaluated by comparing Result-2, Result-3 and Result-4.
C1, C2, and C3 are evaluated by comparing Result-4, Result-5 and Result-6
Etc.
Run No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
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A
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

B
1
1
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

C
1
1
1
1
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

D
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

E
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

F
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
3
3
3
3

G
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
3
3

H
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
3

Re sult
Result 1
Result 2
Result 3
Result 4
Result 5
Result 6
Result 7
Result 8
Result 9
Result 10
Result 11
Result 12
Result 13
Result 14
Result 15
Result 16

13

Traditional approach

Problem: Current Car gas mileage is 20

mpg. Would like to get 30 mpg.
We might try:

Change brand of gas

Change octane rating
Drive Slower
Tune-up Car
Wash and wax car
Buy new tires
Change Tire Pressure

What if it works?
What if it doesnt?
Survey Says These variables greatly effect MPG
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14

One-Factor-At-A-Time
Problem: Fuel economy we want is 30 MPG
Try changing each input variable at two settings believed to be
associated with dramatically changing fuel economy. See what
happens.
Speed
55
60
60
60

Octane
85
85
90
85

Tire Pressure
30
30
30
35

MPG
23
29
23
24

How many more Combinations would you need to figure out the best
combination of variables? (3 Variables at two settings; 2x2x2 = 8 total)
How can you explain the above results? (Combination 2 is the answer)
If there were more variables, how long would it take to get a good solution?
(Multiply by another 2 for each one)
What if theres a specific combination of two or more variables that leads to
the best mileage? (Too hard for me to figure out; What do you think?)

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OFAT Studies and Interactions

Suppose we looked at one factor at a time. We conduct a total of 8
runs
Cube Plot (data means) for Miles per Gallon

30

90

36

37

Octane

23

37

24

35

Tire Pressur
85

23

29

55

30

60
Speed

While we would have made significant improvement, we would

have missed the optimum point!
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Full Factorial Experiment

Problem: Want 30 MPG

Speed
55
60
55
60
55
60
55
60

Octane
85
85
90
90
85
85
90
90

Tire Pressure
30
30
30
30
35
35
35
35

MPG
23
29
37
23
37
24
30
36

OFAT Runs

What conclusion do you make now?

(Murphy is alive and well!)
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TERMINOLOGY USED IN D.O.E.

EXPERIMENT: A planned set of operations which leads to a
corresponding set of observations. The purpose of
experimentation is to ensure that the experimenter obtains
the data relevant to the task of decision making in an
economical way.
OUTCOME (RESPONSE): The numerical result of a trial based
on a given treatment combination is called Outcome or
Response.
The response may be :
Continuous or measurement type and follows a normal
distribution
Continuous or measurement type but does not follow normal
distribution
Discrete or count type and does not follow normal distribution

E.g.: diameter of a shaft, No. of rejected cylinders etc.

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TERMINOLOGY USED IN D.O.E.

FACTOR (X) - The parameters of the process which are
deliberately varied from trial to trial. This could be qualitative
or quantitative. e.g. Speed, feed, coolant rate, operator skill.
LEVELS OF A FACTOR - The alternative values of a factor
considered in the experiment are called its levels.
e.g.: Speed 400 rpm, circular wheel etc.
TREATMENT COMBINATION - The set of levels of all factors
employed in a given trial is called treatment or treatment
combination.
EXPERIMENTAL UNIT : It is a generic term used to denote the
group of material to which a treatment is applied in a single
trial of the experiment.
BALANCED TEST - Where number of samples in each treatment
combination is same.

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19

TERMINOLOGY USED IN D.O.E.

EFFECT OF FACTOR :
MAIN EFFECT: The change in the average response produced by a
change in the level of the factor is called Main Effect of that
factor.
INTERACTION EFFECT : If the effect of one factor is different at
different levels of another factor, the two factors are said to
interact (or) to have interaction.
The interaction between factors A and B, is termed as First Order
Interaction or Two Factor Interaction and is denoted by AxB.
If the interaction between two factors A and B, is different at
different levels of a third factor C, then there is said to be
interaction among three factors. This is referred to as Second
Order Interaction or Three Factor Interaction and is denoted by
AxBxC.
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20

TERMINOLOGY USED IN D.O.E.

Interactions
Y = f (X1, X2). But if X2 = f (X1)
Then changing X1 will give other than predicted Y since X2
also automatically changes.
The same holds true for change of x2
e.g: leakage of dome welded components is a function of
current and electrode thickness but current also depends
on electrode thickness.
Hence there is interaction between electrode and current

Reference Materail

21

TERMINOLOGY USED IN D.O.E.

An example to understand interaction

F
I
N
I
S
H
Speed X

Speed Y

Changing feed from level A to level B betters finish.

But this effect is more predominant speed level Y than speed level X.
Hence there is an interaction between speed & feed
REPLICATION: Replication is a repetition of the whole experiment in order
to estimate experimental error, increase precision (detect smaller changes).
EXPERIMENTAL ERROR: The failure of two identically treated
experimented units to give the same value.
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22

STEPS IN DESIGNING AND ANALYZING

1. Statement of the problem.
2. Formulation of hypothesis.
3. Planning of the experiment.
a) Choosing an appropriate experimental technique.
b) Examination of possible outcomes to make sure that the experiment
provides the required information.
c) Consideration of possible results from the point of view of statistical
analysis.

4. Collection of data, after performing the experiment according

to the plan.
5. Statistical Analysis of the data.
6. Drawing conclusions with appropriate level of significance.
7. Verification or evaluation of results (conclusions).
8. Drawing final conclusions and recommendations.
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PLANNING FOR EXPERIMENTATION

The various steps to be followed in this direction

are listed below :


Selection of area of study : Pareto analysis

Proof of the need for experimentation

Brain storming and Cause & Effect diagram : To list

all the possible factors

Classification of factors

Interactions to be studied

Response and type of model for analysis

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24

Classification of factors
Tools like brainstorming and cause & effect diagrams helps in
identification of factors and preparing a complete list of the
factors involved in any experiment. Factors listed can be
classified into three categories :
1. Experimental Factors
Experimental factors are those which we really experiment with by
varying them at various levels.
2. Control Factors
Control Factors are those which are kept at a constant
(controlled) level throughout experimentation.
3. Error or Noise Factors
Error or Noise factors are those which can neither be changed at
our will nor can be fixed at one particular level. Effect of these
factors causes the error component in the experiment and as
such these factors are termed as error or noise factors.
Note : At the planning stage itself all the factors viz. Experimental, Control and error should
be recognized. This will help to tackle them appropriately during experimentation.
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PLANNING FOR EXPERIMENTATION

State what do you want

What is my response(s)
What are my factors
Choose the level of the factors
Decide on the design
Run the design and collect the data
Analysis the data and obtain results
Run confirming test on settings
Reference Materail

Requisites of DOE
UNBIASEDNESS
PRECISION
INDUCTIVE SCOPE
CLEARLY DEFINED OBJECTIVES

Fulfillment of the requirements

1. RANDOMISATION
2. REPLICATION AND
3. LOCAL CONTROL OR ERROR CONTROL

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Replication

Definition
Replication means repeating all the experimental
conditions (or running a combination) two or more times.
This does not mean measuring an experimental unit twice
It does mean repeating a certain set of conditions and measuring
the new output
Two replicates means that for an 8-run design you will do 16 runs
in one experiment
Minitab will randomize all the runs (including replicates) at the same
time
If for some reason you cannot, or choose not to, do all the runs at the
same time, you need to be concerned about blocking (a topic well
discuss later in this module)

One replicate really means no replication

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28

Why Do Replicates?
To measure pure error: the amount of variability among
runs performed at the same experimental conditions (this
represents common cause variation)
To see more clearly whether or not a factor is
important
is the difference between responses due to a change in
factor conditions (an induced special cause) or is it due
to common cause variability?
To see the effect of changing factor conditions not only
on the average response, but also on response
variability, if desired (two responses can be analyzed: the
mean and the st. dev.)

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29

Repetition v/s Replication:

Repetition: at the same settings a number of
readings are taken. These are repetitions.
Replication: at a setting reading is taken and next
settings done. After some time the first setting is set
again & readings taken. These readings are
replicates.

When to repeat and when to replicate.

Cost low, variability high.
Measuring variability
greater than 10% of
tolerance.
Greater ability to generalize
results over wide range of
conditions.
Reference Materail

Replicate.
Repeat.
Replicate.

30

Why Randomize: Example

Background
Suppose that the plating thickness on printed circuit boards
is the response of interest. Notice that this value tends to
decline over the month.

Plating thickness in microns

Thickness vs. Day of Month

What might explain this decline?

200
190
180
170
160
150
140

10

15

20

25

30

Day of Month
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31

Why Randomize: Example, cont.

Suppose in an experiment to
evaluate the effect of soak
temperature, the company
tested 50C first, then 70C .

Alternatively, what if
both temperatures were
tested randomly
throughout the month?
Thickness vs. Day of Month

Thickness vs. Day of Month

50C

50C

70 C

Plating Thickness in Microns

Plating Thickness in Microns

70 C
200

200
190
180
170
160
150
140

180
170
160
150
140

10

15

20

Day of Month
Reference Materail

190

25

30

10

15

20

25

30

Day of Month
32

Randomization: the Experimenters Insurance

Definition
To assign the order in which the experimental
trials will be run using a random mechanism
It is not the standard order
It is not running trials in an order that is convenient
To create a random order, you can pull numbers from
a hat or have Minitab randomize the sequence of trials
for you

Why?
Averages the effect of any lurking variables over all of
the factors in the experiment
Prevents the effect of a lurking variable from being mistakenly
attributed to another factor

Helps validate statistical conclusions made from the

experiment
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33

Lurking Variables

Definition*
A lurking variable is one that has an important effect and yet
is not included among the factors under consideration
because:
Its existence is unknown
Its influence is thought to be negligible
Data on it are unavailable
Safeguard
Randomize the order of the experimental trials to protect
against the effect of lurking variables
If a lurking variable creates a trend, it can be compensated
for in the numerical analysis
Valid conclusions can still be drawn about the factors in
the experiment in spite of the presence of lurking variables
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34

Local control

By local control is meant blocking, grouping or

balancing the experimental units. Balancing is done
by replicating all the treatment combination, the
same number of times under different conditions.
Local control makes the test more sensitive and
powerful, by reducing the experimental error.

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35

Formulation of experimental problem

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Process Flow chart prepared

Measures Established
Stability of the process verified
Cause & Effect Analysis made involving process experts and Operators
Technical Justification of factors and its level completed.

Factor Unit of Present Investigation Nature of

Factor
Measure Status range
(E/C/N)

Levels
1

Operations
Implications Remarks

* E : Experimental factors, C : Control factors, N : Noise factors

Suspected interactions between Factors:
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36

A WORD OF ADVICE

It is observed that only 2 to 6 variables end up

being vital few.
Try to keep the design simple by utilizing your
experience to decide which are the most likely
factors unless you know nothing of the process.
The above calls for judgement which sometimes
can be wrong.

REMEMBER:
The Experiment is Run to Understand
Reality, Not the Data
Reference Materail

WHY EXPERIMENTS CAN FAIL / ABORTED

You are not clear what you want.

Measurement systems differ at different points in
time.
Inadequate factors are considered.
Lack of understanding of DOE tools / Strategies .
No management support
Need instant results
No resources
Lack of time
Cost of experiment may be high
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38

FACTORIAL
EXPERIMENTS

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39

Full Factorial Experiments

Wear of pin is an important criteria in affecting field

life of a component.
It is believed that hardness of pin is an important
parameter affecting it.
Hence experiments are carried out to check wear on :
Pin of hardness in range of 60 - 62 RC
Pin of hardness in range of 66 - 68 RC

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40

Seek the answers to the following questions

What is your response ?
How many Factors [f] ?
How many Levels [L] ?
The experiment is Lf
How many combinations/runs are possible ?
How many runs do you plan to carry out ?

Reference Materail

41

Seek the answers to the following questions

What is the response ?

Wear

How many Factors [f] ?

How many Levels [L] ?

The experiment is Lf

21

How many combinations/runs are possible ?

How many runs do we plan to carry out ?

HENCE IT IS A 21 FULL FACTORIAL.

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42

22 Full factorial experiments

It is believed that pin wear depends on

Hardness
Oil flow
The levels of hardness are
60 - 62 Rc
66 - 68 Rc
The levels of oil flow is
20 cc / min
120 cc / min
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43

22 Full factorial experiments

Number of Factors :
Number of Levels :
Possible Runs :
Nos. we plan to carry out:

2
2
22
4

Hence it is a 22 full factorial experiment.

Similarly you have 23 and 24 full factorial experiments
for 3 and 4 factors respectively.

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44

Example: 22 Full factorial experiments

Consider a chemical process of Silicate Mfg. It is felt
that Temperature and Concentration are the
contributors to increase residue.
The factors and levels are as below
Factor
-1
+1
Temp.
40C
80C
Conc.
Low
High
-1 signifies one level (normally lower) and +1 signifies
the other level (normally higher)

Reference Materail

Example: 22 Full factorial experiments

It is now believed that residue depends on concentration of Acid and
Temperature of bath.
RUN
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Reference Materail

CONC.
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High

TEMP.
40
40
40
40
80
80
80
80
40
40
40
40
80
80
80
80

RESIDUE
20.4
19.3
17.6
16.3
9.7
16.4
14.8
12.3
17.4
17.7
23.2
20.4
15
24
15.6
15.2
46

WHAT DO WE WANT TO FIND ?

We want to find that
Does concentration and temperature have any
effect on residue.
Of concentration and temperature which is more
important .
What is the ideal and feasible level of the process
settings.
Does any interaction exist between temperature
and concentration.
Is there any problem with data or model adequate ?

How Do We Find This. ?

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47

Example: 22 Full factorial experiments

Temperature.

Club all values of all 4 possible combinations and represent as below

80

40

9.7

15

16.4

24

14.8

15.6

12.3

15.2

20.4

17.4

19.3

17.7

17.6

23.2

16.3

20.4

Low

Reference Materail

High
Concentration
48

Example: 22 Full factorial experiments

Calculate the average and the std.dev of each block as below
Low
High
Temperature

80

40

AVG.

13.3

17.4

(2.93)

(4.37)

18.4

19.7

(1.81)

(2.71)

15.8

18.6

15.4

19

17.2

The value in bkt. is the std.dev. while the other value is the average
S.D. (pooled), SP = {( 2.932 + 4.372 + 1.812 +2.712 ) / 4 } = 3.09
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WHAT DO YOU INTERPRET. ?

Low
80
13.3
Temp.
40

High
4.1

5.1

17.4
2.3

18.4

15.4
3.6

19.7

19

18.6

17.2

1.3
AVG.

Reference Materail

15.8

2.8

50

The above can be graphically represented as

1. MAIN EFFECTS PLOT :
19

17

15
Low

High

Concentration
Reference Materail

40
80
Temperature
51

2. INTERACTION PLOT :
19
18
17
15
13

Low
Reference Materail

Concentration

High
52

23 Full factorial experiments

Consider another setup of surface cleaning. It is felt
that Time, Temp. and Conc. are the contributors.
The factors and levels are as below
Factor
-1
+1
Temp.
Time
Conc.

R.T.
3 mins
Low

90C
10 mins
High

-1 signifies one level (normally lower) and +1 signifies

the other level (normally higher)

Reference Materail

Example: 23 Full factorial experiments

HOW MANY FACTORS?

HOW MANY LEVELS?

HOW MANY RUNS WOULD BE THERE IDEALLY?

HOW MANY YOU PLAN TO RUN?

WHICH EXPERIMENT?
23 FULL FACTORIAL EXPERIMENT

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54

EXAMPLE: THE PROBABLE COMBINATIONS ARE

NO. TEMP.
1
RT
2
90
3
RT
4
90
5
RT
6
90
7
RT
8
90

TIME
3 mins
3 mins
10 mins
10 mins
3 mins
3 mins
10 mins
10 mins

CONC.
Low
Low
Low
Low
High
High
High
High

This is called an array

Since it contains all possible combinations. It is a full factorial array
It is also called orthogonal array
If columns are orthogonal we can estimate the effect of a variable
independent of the other variables

Reference Materail

Designing the Experiment

Minitab Steps for Designing Full Factorial Experiments:
1. GO TO STAT > DOE> Factorial > Create Factorial Design > Type of Design > No of Factors>
Click Designs > Select Full Factorial > Enter no of Replications > OK>Click Factors > Enter Factor
names and Levels>OK > Click Options >Select Randomization as required > OK>OK
Select type of Design
Input number of Factors
Click Design

Select Full Factorial

Select No. of Replicates
Click OK
Reference Materail

Designing the Experiment

Minitab Steps for Designing Full Factorial Experiments:
1. GO TO STAT > DOE> Factorial > Create Factorial Design > Type of Design > No of Factors>
Click Designs > Select Full Factorial > Enter no of Replications > OK>Click Factors > Enter
Factor names and Levels>OK > Click Options >Select Randomization as required > OK>OK

Enter Factor name & Levels

Deactivated if you dont want to randomize it.

Reference Materail

Designing the Experiment

The Design out put along with the data obtained after conducting experiment.
StdOrder RunOrder CenterPt Blocks Tempareture Time Concentration Response
1
1
1
1
RT
3mins
Low
65
11
2
1
1
RT
10 mins
Low
43
13
3
1
1
RT
3mins
High
61
12
4
1
1
90
10 mins
Low
45
5
5
1
1
RT
3mins
High
58
15
6
1
1
RT
10 mins
High
50
3
7
1
1
RT
10 mins
Low
50
7
8
1
1
RT
10 mins
High
52
10
9
1
1
90
3mins
Low
42
8
10
1
1
90
10 mins
High
41
14
11
1
1
90
3mins
High
43
9

12

RT

3mins

Low

65

16

13

90

10 mins

High

45

14

90

3mins

High

45

15

90

10 mins

Low

41

16

90

3mins

Low

44

Note here the second column gives the run order on which the experiment
has to be conducted.

Reference Materail

Detail of Data Analyze

Three phases of data analysis

A: Look for
problems with
the data or the
model
Time plot of
response(s)
Residuals plots

B: Identify large
effects

Pareto chart of
effects
Normal probability
plot of effects

C: View effects
on response

Main effects plot

Interaction plots
Cube plots

p-values of effects

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59

Look for Problems

Background: Before you analyze your own data, we will walk through an
earlier example together, using the data in the file listed above (so we will
all get the same results). You will analyze your own MSD data (from
exercise) when the analysis demonstration is complete.

1.Make a time plot of the response:

Graph > Time Series Plot > (Select Response for Y)

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60

Look for Problems cont.

2. Interpret the plot by looking for:
a.Defects in the data
Missing values; outliers caused by typos or mistakes
If there is no correction or explanation for an outlier, proceed with
analysis (do not throw it out)

b.Trends or cycles that indicate lurking variables associated with

time
This is not a plot of common cause variationit (hopefully) contains
special causes induced by the factor settings of the experiment, so it
probably wont look random
However, this plot helps us see if the results are influenced by variables
not being tested in the experiment (that we did not anticipate or control)
If a trend caused by another variable is identified, see a statistician for
help with the analysis (use time order as a covariate in the model)

Conclusion
No problems; proceed with the analysis.

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61

Residuals

Definition
Residual = (Observed Y) (Average of Ys at that experimental
condition)

A residual is the difference between a response

and what we expect it to be (the expected value
is the average of all replicates for a particular
combination of factor settings).
We hope most variation in the Ys is accounted for by
deliberate changes were making in the factor settings
Whatever variation is left over is residual
The assumption is that this residual variation reflects the
common cause variation in the experiment

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62

Residuals: An Example

Residuals for 22 Design with 3 Replicates

Experimental Conditions
Std. order
A
B

Response or
Observed (Y)
(3reps)

Average

Residuals

9, 11, 7

9.0

0.0, 2.0, 2.0

10, 6, 8

8.0

2.0, 2.0, 0.0

15, 19, 20

18.0

3.0, 1.0, 2.0

15, 18, 12

15.0

0.0, 3.0,

What is the residual

for this observation?
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63

Assumptions of DoE Analysis

The Residuals
Residual = (Observed Y) (Average at each experimental
condition)

We assume the residuals are:

Normal: bell-shaped with a mean of 0
Constant: do not increase as averages
0
of each experimental condition increase
Stable: do not change over time
Not related to the Xs (factors)
Random: represent common causes of variation
Independent

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64

Checking Assumptions About Residuals

Residuals plots must be checked to ensure the
assumptions hold. Otherwise conclusions may be incorrect
or misleading.
Residuals Plot

Good

Bad

Residual
3

1.

Time Plot of
Residuals*
Used to check for
stability over time

Any pattern visible over

time means another
factor, related to time,
influences Y. Try to
discover it.**

-1

-1

-2

-2

-3

-3
0

10

20

30

10

Time Order

2. Residuals vs.
Fitted Value
(average of each
condition)
Used to check for
constancy;
variation does not
increase as
average increases

Residual

Residual

-1

-1

-2

-2

-3

30

-3
60

65

70

75

50

70

90

110 130 150 170

Fitted Value (Average)

Fitted Value (Average)

8 conditions, 2 reps
(2 reps will appear
as a mirror image)

8 conditions, 5 reps

This fan shape means

the variation increases
as the average of each
condition increases (its
not constant). Try a
square root, log, or
inverse transformation
on Y.

Nscore

-1

-1

-2

-2

The residuals are not

normal. Try a
transformation on Y.

-3

-3
-3

-2

-1

Residual

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20

Time Order

Nscore

3. Normal
Probability Plot
of Residuals
Used to check that
residuals are
Normal

Meaning / Actions

Residual

-5

10

15

Residual

65

Checking Assumptions About Residuals

The three plot of residual does
not show any pattern. In the
Normality test of residual, we
get p-value is 0.717. Hence we
conclude that the residual
follows Normal distribution and
the model is adequate.

Reference Materail

Plot of the effects

Normal probability Plot of the effects
shows that the main effect of A, B and
Interaction AB is Significant

Pareto Chart of the effects shows that the

main effect of A, B and Interaction AB is
Significant

Reference Materail

P-value of effects
Fractional Factorial Fit: Response versus Tempareture, Time, ...
Estimated Effects and Coefficients for Response (coded units)
Term
Constant
Temparet
Time
Concentr
Temparet*Time
Temparet*Concentr
Time*Concentr

Effect
-12.250
-7.000
0.000
6.500
0.500
2.250

Coef
49.375
-6.125
-3.500
0.000
3.250
0.250
1.125

Analysis of Variance for Response (coded

Source
DF
Seq SS
Main Effects
3
796.25
2-Way Interactions
3
190.25
Residual Error
9
81.25
Lack of Fit
1
30.25
Pure Error
8
51.00
Total
15
1067.75

Reference Materail

SE Coef
0.7512
0.7512
0.7512
0.7512
0.7512
0.7512
0.7512
units)
Adj SS
796.25
190.25
81.25
30.25
51.00

T
65.73
-8.15
-4.66
0.00
4.33
0.33
1.50

P
0.000
0.000
0.001
1.000
0.002
0.747
0.168

Adj MS
265.417
63.417
9.028
30.250
6.375

F
29.40
7.02

P
0.000
0.010

4.75

0.061

Significant
Effects

Plot of Significant effects

Reference Materail

EXERCISE
An experiment was run to determine the effect of the type of tool, the bevel
angle, and the type of cut on the power consumption for ceramic-tool
cutting. Other variables such as cutting speed and depth of cut were
constant during this experiment. The following data were recorded on
power consumption.

Reference Materail

Continuous
Interrupted

Type of cut

T ool
T ype

A
B e v e l A n g le
150
300
32
31
27
31
35
34
28
39
30
28
24
32
27
29
27
29

B
B e v e l A n g le
150
300
30
32
31
38
30
32
24
30
23
29
24
30
30
28
26
26

70