New Standard of WLAN

Chapter 2 Overview
Part 1 (2 weeks ago)

Digital Transmission System
Frequencies, Spectrum Allocation
Radio Propagation and Radio Channels
Part 2 (last week)
Modulation, Coding, Error Correction
Part 3 (today)
Interference, noise, capacity limits
Media Access Protocols
Duplexing, Multiple Access
-1-
TZI FB 1 Kommunikationsnetze
Andreas Knsgen Summer Term 2014
Chapter 2 Overview
Part 1 (2 weeks ago)
Digital Transmission System
Frequencies, Spectrum Allocation
Radio Propagation and Radio Channels
Part 2 (last week)
Modulation, Coding, Error Correction
Part 3 (today)
Interference, noise, capacity limits
Media Access Protocols
Duplexing, Multiple Access
-2-
Interference
Signals
Signals by
by other
other senders
senders which
which are
are transmitting
transmitting in
in the
the same
same
frequency
frequency band
band
in
in cellular
cellular networks
networks inherently
inherently existing,
existing, because
because neighboring
neighboring cells
cells
using
using the
the same
same frequency
frequency
The
The strength
strength of
of the
the interference
interference depends
depends on
on pathloss
pathloss between
between
sender
sender and
and receiver
receiver
By
By equal
equal transmitter
transmitter power
power of
of all
all subscribers,
subscribers, the
the interference
interference is
only
only depending
depending on
on the
the geometrical
geometrical constellation
constellation
-3-
Transmission over noisy channels (1)
interference
or noise
channel
source
sink
sender
-4-
Transmission over noisy channels (2)

nT
~ signal power S
TP
p(x)
0
~ noise power N
x
Probability of detecting 0
although 1 was sent
decision threshold
The greater S and the smaller N, the smaller is the

error probability.
-5-
Carrier-to-Interference Ratio (CIR)

(Uplink Situation)
I
Ratio of Carrierto Interference-power
at the receiver
C/I = C / ( I + N)
Typical in GSM:
C/I=15dB (Factor 32)
C/I often also termed S/N

-6-
Channel Capacity (Shannon)

Bandwidth and S/N are reciprocal to each other
Means:
With low bandwidth very high data rate is possible
provided S/N is high enough
Example: higher order modulation schemes
With high noise (low S/N) data communication is

possible if bandwidth is high enough
Example: spread spectrum
Long time capacity as theoretical limit

since turbo coding (1993) practical systems with 0.5 dB
to Shannon channel bandwidth
-7-
Shannon Theorem
The error probability is reverse proportional to the
signal-to-noise ratio S/N.
The transmission rate is proportional to the frequency
bandwidth (b).
The maximum achievable throughput over a noisy channel is:
C = b log2(1+S/N)
[bit/s]
In many cases S/N 1, therefore simplified:
C 1/3 b S/NdB
-8-
Interference-limited systems
Mobile stations are in

the coverage zone
C at the receiver is
sufficient, but too much
interference is received
at the receiver
C/I is too low
-9-
Range-limited systems
Mobile stations are at the

border or beyond the
coverage zone
C at the receiver is too
low, because the path
loss between sender and
receiver is too high
I always exists, at least

due to channel noise
C/I is too low
- 10 -
Capacity-limited systems
Mobile stations are in the

illuminated zone
C at the receiver is
sufficient, I is small
enough
C/I is sufficient
No more resources
(channels) available
- 11 -
Examples
GSM
GSM1992
1992
Range-limited
Range-limitedsystem,
system,because
becauseno
nowide-area
wide-areacoverage
coverageisis
available,
available,few
fewusers,
users,little
littleinterference
interference
GSM
GSM2000
2000(European
(European900
900MHz
MHznetworks)
networks)
Interference-limited
Interference-limitedsystem,
system,because
becausemany
manysubscribers
subscriberscause
cause
interferences.
interferences.Interference-limiting
Interference-limitingcountermeasures
countermeasureslike
likePower
Power
Control
Controlor
orFrequency
FrequencyHopping
Hoppingare
areapplied
applied
GSM
GSM2000
2000(European
(European1800
1800MHz
MHznetworks)
networks)
Capacity-limited
Capacity-limitedsystems,
systems,because
becauseenough
enoughspectrum
spectrumfor
forlarge
large
clusters
clusters(little
(littleinterference)
interference)isisavailable
available
- 12 -
Media Access
Duplexing
Multiplexing/Multiple Access (PHY layer): TDMA,
FDMA, FTDMA, CDMA
Media Access Protocols (MAC layer)
- 13 -
Duplex Schemes
Time Division Duplex (TDD)
Up-/downlink on the same channel, separated by time

time
Frequency Divison Duplex: FDD

up/downlink separated by frequency, permanent transmission
possible
More RF bandwidth needed (worst case: double)
time
- 14 -
Basic Multiplex Schemes

Divide the spectrum into portions in order to
implement different channels
In case of assigning these channels to different
users, also called multiple access schemes
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
- 15 -
Frequency Multiplex/FDMA
Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands

A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time
Advantages:
no dynamic coordination
necessary
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
works also for analog signals
k6
Example: radio stations
Disadvantages:
waste of bandwidth
if the traffic is
distributed unevenly
inflexible
guard spaces
- 16 -
Time Multiplex/TDMA
A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of
time
Advantages:
only one carrier in the
medium at any time
throughput high even
for many users
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
c
f
Disadvantages:
precise
synchronization
necessary
t
- 17 -
Time and Frequency Multiplex

Combination of both methods
A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount of
time
Example: GSM
Advantages:
better protection against
tapping
protection against frequency
selective interference
higher data rates
compared to
code multiplex
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
c
f
t
but: precise
coordination required
- 18 -
Code Multiplex/CDMA
Each channel has a unique code

k1
All channels use the same spectrum

at the same time
Advantages:
bandwidth efficient
no coordination and synchronization
necessary
good protection against interference
and tapping
Disadvantages:
lower user data rates
more complex signal regeneration
Implemented using spread spectrum
technology
- 19 -
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
Space Multiplex/SDMA
Each user can be separated

from other users by means of
directional antennas
All users use the same spectrum
at the same time
Advantages:
bandwidth efficient
no coordination and synchronization
necessary
Disadvantages:
Mutual interference cannot be
fully avoided
lower user data rates
more complex signal regeneration
Example: Beamforming
- 20 -
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
Comparison SDMA/TDMA/FDMA/CDMA
Approach
Idea
SDMA
segment space into
cells/sectors
Terminals
only one terminal can

be active in one
cell/one sector
Signal
separation
cell structure, directed

antennas
TDMA
segment sending
time into disjoint
time-slots, demand
driven or fixed
patterns
all terminals are
active for short
periods of time on
the same frequency
synchronization in
the time domain
FDMA
CDMA
segment the
frequency band into
disjoint sub-bands
spread the spectrum

using orthogonal codes
every terminal has its all terminals can be active

own frequency,
at the same place at the
uninterrupted
same moment,
uninterrupted
filtering in the
code plus special
frequency domain
receivers
Advantages very simple, increases established, fully
simple, established,
robust
inflexible, antennas
Disadvantages typically fixed
inflexible,
frequencies are a
scarce resource
flexible, less frequency

planning needed, soft
handover
complex receivers, needs
more complicated power
control for senders
typically combined
with TDMA
(frequency hopping
patterns) and SDMA
(frequency reuse)
still faces some problems,

higher complexity,
lowered expectations; will
be integrated with
TDMA/FDMA
capacity per km
Comment
only in combination
with TDMA, FDMA or
CDMA useful
digital, flexible
guard space
needed (multipath
propagation),
synchronization
difficult
standard in fixed
networks, together
with FDMA/SDMA
used in many
mobile networks
- 21 -
FDD/FDMA - General Scheme, Example GSM
f
960 MHz
935.2 MHz
124
200 kHz
1
20 MHz
915 MHz
890.2 MHz
124
- 22 -
TDD/TDMA - general scheme, example DECT
417 s
1 2 3
11 12 1 2 3
downlink
uplink
- 23 -
11 12
t
Media Access for Wireless: Motivation
Can media access methods from fixed networks be applied?

Example CSMA/CD
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
Checks if medium is free (CS), if ok, sends data, continues to listen
if collision occurs (CD), if yes stops transmission, sends jam
signal (original method in IEEE 802.3)
Problems in wireless networks
signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the
distance
the sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen at the
receiver
it might be the case that a sender cannot hear the collision, i.e.,
CD does not work
furthermore, CS might not work if, e.g., a terminal is hidden
- 24 -
Hidden and exposed terminals
Hidden terminals
A sends to B, C cannot receive A
C wants to send to B, C senses a free medium (CS fails)
collision at B, A cannot receive the collision (CD fails)
A is hidden for C
A
B
C
Exposed terminals
B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal (not A
or B)
C has to wait, CS signals a medium in use
but A is outside the radio range of C, therefore waiting is
not necessary
C is exposed to B
- 25 -
Near and Far Terminals
Terminals A and B send, C receives

signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the
distance
the signal of terminal B therefore drowns out As signal
C cannot receive A
If C for example was an arbiter for sending rights, terminal B

would drown out terminal A already on the physical layer
Also severe problem for CDMA networks - precise power control
needed!
- 26 -
Wireless Access Protocols

Contention based
Decentralised, random access
Reservation based
Allocate fixed resources (time slots) to mobile stations
Centralised and decentralised possible
In decentralised case, contention based access used for
reservation
Assignment based
Base station polls mobile stations
Polling order decided by base station
- 27 -
Contention based: Aloha/Slotted Aloha
Mechanism
random, distributed (no central arbiter), time multiplex
Slotted Aloha additionally uses time slots, sending must
always start at slot boundaries
Aloha
collision
sender A
sender B
sender C
Slotted Aloha
t
collision
sender A
sender B
sender C
t
- 28 -
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

Use classical ALOHA, but listen to channel before
transmitting
Drastic decrease of collision probability
1-persistent: each station checks continously channel and
starts as soon as free
non persistent: checks channel in stochastic intervals only
and starts transmitting directly after channel detected free
p-persistent: uses slots, if detects slot free, transmits with
probability p, with (1-p) waits for next slot,
then same procedure as for previous slot
CSMA/CA: load dependent waiting time, before listening is
allowed after collision; used e.g. in IEEE 802.11
Tanenbaum, Computernetzwerke
- 29 -
S (throughput per packet time slot)
Transmission Efficiency
partitioned
pure
G (tries per packet time slot)
Tanenbaum, Computernetzwerke
- 30 -
Reservation based schemes
Channel efficiency only 18% for Aloha, 36% for Slotted Aloha
(assuming Poisson distribution for packet arrival and packet
length)
Reservation can increase efficiency to 80%
a sender reserves a future time-slot
sending within this reserved time-slot is possible without
collision
reservation also causes higher delays
typical scheme for satellite links
Examples for reservation algorithms:
Explicit Reservation according to Roberts (ReservationALOHA)
Implicit Reservation (PRMA)
Reservation-TDMA
- 31 -
Explicit Reservation
Explicit Reservation (Reservation Aloha):
two modes:
ALOHA mode for reservation:
competition for small reservation slots, collisions possible
reserved mode for data transmission within successful
reserved slots (no collisions possible)
it is important for all stations to keep the reservation list consistent

at any point in time and, therefore, all stations have to synchronize
from time to time
collision
Aloha
reserved
Aloha
reserved
- 32 -
Aloha
reserved
Aloha
MACA collision avoidance
MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance):

No base station, no hidden station problem, flexibility of
ALOHA and dynamic reservation
MACA uses short signaling packets for collision avoidance
RTS (request to send): a sender request the right to send
from a receiver with a short RTS packet before it sends a
data packet
CTS (clear to send): the receiver grants the right to send
as soon as it is ready to receive
Signaling packets contain
sender address
receiver address
packet size
Variants of this method can be found in IEEE802.11 as
DFWMAC (Distributed Foundation Wireless MAC)
- 33 -
MACA examples
MACA avoids the problem of hidden terminals

A and C want to
send to B
RTS
A sends RTS first
C waits after receiving
CTS
CTS from B
A
CTS
B
MACA avoids the problem of exposed terminals

B wants to send to A, C
to another terminal
now C does not have
RTS
to wait for it cannot
CTS
receive CTS from A
A
- 34 -
RTS
PRMA
Implicit reservation (PRMA - Packet Reservation MA):
a certain number of slots form a frame, frames are repeated
stations compete for empty slots according to the slotted
aloha principle
once a station reserves a slot successfully, this slot is
automatically assigned to this station in all following frames
as long as the station has data to send
competition for this slots starts again as soon as the slot
was empty in the last frame
reservation
ACDABA-F
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
frame1 A C D A B A
time slot
ACDABA-F
frame2 A C
A B A
AC-ABAF-
frame3 A
B A F
A---BAFD
frame4 A
B A F D
ACEEBAFD
frame5 A C E E B A F D
- 35 -
collision at
reservation
attempts
t
Reservation TDMA
Reservation Time Division Multiple Access
every frame consists of N mini slots and x data-slots
every station has its own mini slot and can reserve up
to k data-slots using this mini slot (i.e. x = N k ).
other stations can send data in unused data-slots
according to a round-robin sending scheme (best-effort
traffic)
N mini slots
N k data slots
reservations
for data slots
e.g. N=6, k=2
other stations can use free data-slots

based on a round-robin scheme
- 36 -
End Chapter 2 Mobile

Communications
- 37 -

New Standard of WLAN

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

New Standard of WLAN

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Chapter 2 Overview

Part 1 (2 weeks ago)

Transmission over noisy channels (1)

Transmission over noisy channels (2)

The greater S and the smaller N, the smaller is the

Carrier-to-Interference Ratio (CIR)

C/I often also termed S/N

Channel Capacity (Shannon)

With high noise (low S/N) data communication is

Long time capacity as theoretical limit

In many cases S/N 1, therefore simplified:

Mobile stations are in

C/I is too low

Mobile stations are at the

I always exists, at least

Mobile stations are in the

Time Division Duplex (TDD)

Up-/downlink on the same channel, separated by time

Frequency Divison Duplex: FDD

Basic Multiplex Schemes

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands

Example: radio stations

Time and Frequency Multiplex

Each channel has a unique code

All channels use the same spectrum

Each user can be separated

only one terminal can

cell structure, directed

spread the spectrum

every terminal has its all terminals can be active

Advantages very simple, increases established, fully

flexible, less frequency

still faces some problems,

FDD/FDMA - General Scheme, Example GSM

TDD/TDMA - general scheme, example DECT

Media Access for Wireless: Motivation

Can media access methods from fixed networks be applied?

Hidden and exposed terminals

Near and Far Terminals

Terminals A and B send, C receives

If C for example was an arbiter for sending rights, terminal B

Wireless Access Protocols

Contention based: Aloha/Slotted Aloha

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

S (throughput per packet time slot)

G (tries per packet time slot)

Reservation based schemes

it is important for all stations to keep the reservation list consistent

MACA collision avoidance

MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance):

MACA avoids the problem of hidden terminals

MACA avoids the problem of exposed terminals

e.g. N=6, k=2

other stations can use free data-slots

End Chapter 2 Mobile

Вам также может понравиться